International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 45 (2002) 18071814

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhmt

Second law analysis of a waste heat recovery steam generator

B.V. Reddy
b

a,*

, G. Ramkiran a, K. Ashok Kumar a, P.K. Nag

a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Engineering College, Vellore 632 014, India
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 721 302, India

Received 21 November 2000; received in revised form 11 September 2001

Abstract
In recent years a great deal of attention is focussed on the ecient utilization of energy resources with minimum heat
loss. There is a growing interest on second law analysis to minimize the entropy generation in various thermal units and
thereby to improve and optimize the design and performance. In the present work, a waste heat recovery steam generator is considered, which consists of an economizer, an evaporator and a super heater. The unit produces superheated
steam by absorbing heat from the hot ue gases. A general equation for the entropy generation has been proposed,
which incorporates all the irreversibilities associated with the process. By using suitable non-dimensional operating
parameters, an equation for entropy generation number is derived. The eect of various non-dimensional operating
parameters, on the entropy generation number are investigated. The role of gas specic heat, non-dimensional inlet gas
temperature dierence ratio s, heat exchanger unit sizes (NTUB, NTUS, NTUE) on entropy generation number are
also reported. The results will help to understand the inuence of dierent non-dimensional operating parameters on
entropy generation number, which in turn will be useful to optimize the performance of the unit. 2002 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The persistent need to conserve the fast depleting
energy resources, and to use them in a more ecient
manner has renewed the interest in devices that can
utilize heat from waste ue gases from various industries. The ue gases on the virtue of being at a higher
temperature relative to the surroundings and having a
higher mass ow rate, posses considerable amount of
available energy, which if not utilized properly will lead
to huge undesirable energy loss. During the last two
decades there has been considerable attention, on to
utilize heat from ue gases for various applications and
to optimize the units which are used to absorb heat from
waste ue gases.
Bejan [1] gave a comprehensive review of second law
analysis of heat and mass transfer processes and devices,

Corresponding author. Present address: 2130 Scotl, Apt. 29,

Saint Laurent, Montreal, QC, Canada, H4M IT2.
E-mail address: bv_reddy@hotmail.com (B.V. Reddy).

the overall objective being to determine the optimum

conditions under a variety of situations in which the
system destroys the least amount of energy, while performing the fundamental engineering function. London
and Shaw [2] discussed the costs of irreversibilities associated with both uid ow and heat transfer in heat
exchanger design. A second law analysis of the optimum
design and operation of thermal energy storage system
was given by Krane [3].
It has been shown by Bejan [4] that irreversibility can
be reduced by bringing the inlet temperature of the
stream closer to the temperature of the liquid bath and
by keeping the exhaust gas temperature as low as possible. This can be done by a series of storage units.
Second law optimization of a sensible heat thermal energy storage system has been studied in greater details by
Taylor et al. [5].
Nag and Mukherjee [6] made a thermodynamic optimization of convective heat transfer in an isothermal
duct. Nag and Naresh Kumar [7] studied the same for a
duct with constant heat ux. Entropy generation in
thermal radiation was discussed by Arpaci [8]. San et al.
[9] evaluated entropy generation, so as to minimize

0017-9310/02/$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 1 7 - 9 3 1 0 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 2 9 3 - 9

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B.V. Reddy et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 45 (2002) 18071814

Nomenclature
AO
AOB
c1
c2
cpg
f
ho
hSat
hSup
hWO
hfg , L
lS
lB
lE
LMTDB
MW
mg
NTUE
NTUB
NTUS
NS
Po
PB
PE
PS

surface area for heat transfer (m2 )

surface area for heat transfer of the
evaporator (m2 )
specic heat of water (kJ kg1 K1 )
specic heat of steam (kJ kg1 K1 )
specic heat of hot ue gas (kJ kg1 K1 )
friction factor
external convection heat transfer
coecient (W m2 K1 )
enthalpy of saturated steam (kJ kg1 )
enthalpy of superheated steam (kJ kg1 )
enthalpy of water at the entry of
economizer (kJ kg1 )
latent heat of vaporization (kJ kg1 )
length of superheater heat exchanger (m)
length of evaporator (boiler) heat exchanger (m)
length of economizer heat exchanger (m)
logarithmic mean temperature dierence
for the evaporator
mass ow rate of water (kg s1 )
mass ow rate of ue gas (kg s1 )
number of transfer units of economizer
number of transfer units of boiler
(evaporator)
number of transfer units of superheater
entropy generation number
ambient pressure (kPa)
perimeter of evaporator or boiler heat
exchanger (m)
perimeter of economizer heat exchanger
(m)
perimeter of superheater heat exchanger
(m)

irreversibility as a combined heat and mass transfer

process.
Nag and Mazumder [10] reported the thermodynamic optimization of a waste heat recovery boiler
with an economizer and evaporator and producing saturated steam. They have reported the eect of dierent
operating parameters on entropy generation for the
waste heat recovery boiler. Rosen [11] discussed second
law analysis, the approaches and implications. He has
presented a comparison of the main approaches to second law analysis reported in the literature. Garimella
and Garimella [12] investigated the utilization of waste
heat from commercial process steam boiler for air conditioning using absorption cooling systems. An ammonia-water generator absorber heat exchanger system was
developed and modeled to use waste heat from the boiler
ue gases and to deliver chilled water.

r
St
Sgen
Tg
TO
TO
Ta
TOut
TX
TY
TSat
TSup
TW
UOB
UO

V
V
DPg
s
ss
sh

radius of gas tube (m)

Stanton number
rate of entropy generation (kW K1 )
temperature of ue gas at the considered
location (K)
ambient temperature (K)
temperature of water at the inlet of
economizer (K)
ue gas temperature at the inlet of
superheater (K)
ue gas temperature at the outlet of
economizer (K)
ue gas temperature at the exit of
superheater (K)
ue gas temperature at the exit of
evaporator (K)
saturation temperature of water/steam
(K)
temperature of superheated steam
(K)
temperature of water at the considered
location (K)
overall heat transfer coecient for the
evaporator (W m2 K1 )
overall heat transfer coecient of
combined the economizer, evaporator and
superheater (W m2 K1 )
ue gas velocity (m s1 )
non-dimensional gas velocity
pressure drop (kPa)
non-dimensional hot ue gas inlet
temperature dierence ratio
non-dimensional water saturation
temperature dierence ratio
non-dimensional superheated steam
temperature dierence ratio

Zubair and Al-Naglah [13] presented an analytical

model for the second law based thermo-economic
analysis and optimization of a sensible heat storage
system, in which the storage element is both heated and
cooled by owing streams of gases. They have also
studied the inuence of important unit cost parameters
on NTUs; opt and hS; opt . Saboya and da Costa [14] applied from second law of thermodynamics, the concepts
of irreversibility, entropy generation, and availability to
counter ow, parallel ow and cross ow heat exchangers. In the case of cross ow conguration they
have considered four types of heat exchangers: (1) both
uids unmixed, (2) both uids mixed, (3) uid of maximum heat capacity rate mixed and the other unmixed,
(4) uid of minimum heat capacity rate mixed and the
other unmixed. The counter ow heat exchanger is
compared with the other ve types of heat exchangers,

B.V. Reddy et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 45 (2002) 18071814

1809

to know the one with minimum irreversibility. Juan and

Bejan [15] reported on the entropy minimization in
parallel-plates counterow heat exchangers.
Juan and Bejan [15] have presented the conditions for
minimum irreversibilty and for minimum entropy generation. Entropy generated and the exergy destroyed in
lithium bromide thermal compressors driven by the exhaust gases of an engine was discussed by Izquierdo et al.
[16].
In many situations hot ue gases are used to produce
superheated steam. The steam thus produced can be
used for electric power generation or for process heat
purpose. In the literature not much is reported on the
second law analysis of a such unit. Reddy et al. [17]
reported some preliminary results on the eect of various operating parameters on entropy generation for a
waste heat recovery boiler producing superheated steam.
In the present work, a waste heat recovery boiler with an
economizer, an evaporator and a superheater is considered. The unit absorbs heat from hot ue gases and
produces super heated steam. For this unit general
equations for entropy generation and entropy
generation number are proposed. The eect of dierent
non-dimensional operating parameters on entropy
generation number are investigated.

2.1. Analysis

2. Formulation of the problem

The energy balance for the waste heat recovery unit

gives

The unit with an economizer, an evaporator and a

superheater as shown in Fig. 1 is considered for the
analysis and the same is presented on T  S diagram
(Fig. 2). The direction of hot ue gas and water/steam in
the waste heat recovery steam generator is shown in Fig.
1. The counter ow arrangement is considered for the
analysis. The temperature proles and pressure conditions at the entry and exit of the economizer, evaporator
and superheater are shown in Fig. 2.
The following assumptions are made in the formulation:
The system is in steady state.
The pressure drop in the water steam line is
neglected.
There is no extraneous heat loss

Fig. 2. T  S diagram of waste heat recovery boiler.

The actual specic heat of the ue gas and the ue

gas composition are taken into account in the analysis.
The pressure drop in the ue gas line is considered.

mg cpg Ta  TOut MW hSat hWO hfg

hSup  hSat :

The latent heat of vaporization hfg is denoted as L, in the

analysis.
In terms of specic heat, Eq. (1) can be written as
mg cpg Ta  TOut MW c1 TSat  TO L
c2 TSup  TSat ;

where c1 is specic heat of water and c2 is the specic

heat of steam (approximated).
There are six kinds of irreversibilities associated with
heat transfer in the unit. These are quantied by the
entropy generation terms as given below:
TO
PO DPg
mg R ln
PO
Ta
TOut  TO
TSat MW L
mg cpg
MW c1 ln

TO
TO
TSat
TSup
MW c2 ln
;
TSat

Sgen mg cpg ln

Fig. 1. Thermodynamic model of a waste heat recovery steam

generator.

where the rst two terms represent the rate of entropy

change experienced by the hot ue gas stream from
waste heat boiler inlet to exit. The third term accounts
for the entropy generation due to heat transfer from
the gas leaving the economizer to the environment at

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B.V. Reddy et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 45 (2002) 18071814

temperature TO . The other terms account for the entropy

change for water and steam from inlet to outlet due to
sensible heating of water in the economizer, boiling of
water in the evaporator and superheating of steam in the
superheater.
Dividing Eq. (3) with mg cpg
Sgen
NS
mg cpg
TO
R
PO DPg TOut  TO
ln
ln

Ta cpg
PO
TO
MW c1 TSat MW L

ln

mg cpg
TO mg cpg TSat
MW c2 TSup

ln
:
mg cpg
TSat

Ta  TO
:
TO

TSat  TO
:
TO

TSup  TO
:
TO

MW c1
:
mg cpg

MW c2
:
mg cpg

Sgen
:
mg cpg

13

TX TO 1 s  X2 sh  ss :

14

By considering a small elemental length dx for the superheater and by making energy balance for the element
and integrating between the limits TX and Ta and by
further simplication, the temperature of the ue gas at
the exit of superheater, TX can be expressed, in terms of
other operating parameters as
TX TO X2 s  sh expNTUS1  X2 
TO X2 1 sh  TO 1 s=X2  1:

15

2.3. Evaporator
The energy balance across the evaporator can be
written as
MW L mg cpg TX  TY :

16

TY can be expressed as
TY TX 

MW L
:
mg cpg

17

From Eq. (14)

TX TO 1 s  X2 sh  ss :

18

TY can be expressed as

The non-dimensional entropy generation number is

dened as
NS

MW c2 TSup  TSat mg cpg Ta  TX :

Let the ratio of heat capacities of steam and gas

stream be dened as
X2

12

TX can be simplied as

Let the ratio of heat capacities of water and gas

stream be dened as
X1

2.2. Superheater

or

The non-dimensional superheated steam temperature

dierence ratio sh , between superheated temperature
of steam and the water entry temperature to the economizer as
sh

11

MW hSup  hSat mg cpg Ta  TX

The non-dimensional water saturation temperature difference ratio ss , between water saturation temperature
and water inlet temperature to the economizer as
sS


MW

c1 TSat  TO L c2 TSup  TSat :
mg cpg

The energy balance across the superheater can be

written as

The following non-dimensional parameters are dened.

The non-dimensional hot ue gas inlet temperature
dierence ratio s, between the inlet and ambient temperatures of the hot ue gas is dened as
s

TOut Ta 

10

From Eq. (1), the temperature of the ue gas leaving

the economizer TOut can be written as

TY TO 1 s  X2 sh  ss  

LX1
:
c1

19

By making an energy balance for an elemental length dx

of the evaporator and by integrating between the limits
TY and TX and by further simplication, TY can be
written in terms of other operating parameters as
TY

TO X2 s  sh
expNTUS1  X2 expNTUB
X2  1
expNTUB

TO X2 1 sh  TO 1 s
X2  1
20
TSat 1  expNTUB:

B.V. Reddy et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 45 (2002) 18071814

The latent heat of vaporization L, can be expressed as

L

UOB AOB LMTDB

:
MW

21

L is simplied as
L

c1 TO 1  expNTUB
X2 s  sh
X1 X2  1
22

2.4. Economizer
Energy balance for the entire waste heat recovery
unit can be written as
mg cpg Ta  TOut MW c1 TSat  TO L
c2 TSup  TSat :

23

The temperature of the ue gas at the exit of economizer TOut can be written as
TOut TO 1 s  X1 TO ss 

X1 L
 X2 TO sh  ss :
c1

24

By making the energy balance for an elemental length dx

for the economizer and by further simplication TOut is
obtained in terms of s, sh ; ss ; X1 ; X2 , NTUE, NTUB,
NTUS.
By utilizing the above derived relations, the equation
for entropy generation number NS in terms of
s; sh ; ss ; X1 ; X2 , NTUE, NTUB, NTUS can be expressed
as
R lnPO DPg
NS  ln1 s
cpg
PO

1  expNTUE1 X1 X1 1
X1

X2 1 sh  1 s expNTUB
" X
#
1
expNTUE1 X1 X1 X111
X1 1

X2  1
1 ss 1  expNTUB


X1
1

exp  NTUE1 X1 X1
X1 1
X1 1
1  expNTUB
X2  11 ss
1 sh
:
1 ss

V 2

V2
;
2St UO PO cpg =fhO qR

26

27

where UO is the average overall heat transfer coecient

for the economizer, evaporator and superheater together. For low gas velocity V, DPg
PO and therefore


R
DPg
ln 1
cpg
PO
RDPg

cpg PO
R f NTUE NTUB NTUSqV 2 hO

cpg
2St PO UO
NTUE NTUB NTUSV 2 :

28

Finally, the entropy generation number for the waste

heat recovery steam generator, NS in terms of non-dimensional gas velocity and other non-dimensional operating parameters can be expressed as
NS  ln1 s NTUE NTUB NTUSV 2
1  expNTUE1 X1 X1 1

X1
X2 s  sh expNTUS1  X2  expNTUB
" X
#
1
expNTUE1 X1  X111
X1 1

X2  1

1 ss 1  expNTUB


X1
1

exp  NTUE1 X1 X1
X1 1
X1 1
1  expNTUB
 1 X1 ln1 ss
X2  11 ss
X2 s  sh expNTUS1  X2  X2 1 sh
1 sh
; 29
 1 s  1 ss X2  1 X2 ln
1 ss
NS f s; ss ; sh ; NTUE; NTUB; NTUS:

X2 s  sh expNTUS1  X2  X2 1 sh
 1 s  1 ss X2  1 X2 ln

DPg f lE lB lS qV 2

PO
PO r
f NTUE NTUB NTUSqV 2 hO
:

2St PO UO

X2 1 sh  1 s expNTUB
" X
#
1
expNTUE1 X1 X1 X111
X1 1

X2  1

X2 s  sh expNTUS1  X2  expNTUB
" X
#
1
expNTUE1 X1  X111
X1 1

X2  1

 1 X1 ln1 ss

The pressure drop of the gas, may be expressed by the

relation

Let the non-dimensional gas velocity be dened as

exp NTUS1  X2 X2 1 sh  1 s
 1 ss X2  1:

1811

25

30

Eqs. (25) and (29) represent the dependence of entropy

generation number, NS on various other non-dimensional operating parameters. The equations will help to
estimate NS for given hot ue gas and water/steam ow

1812

B.V. Reddy et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 45 (2002) 18071814

conditions. The equations will also be useful to nd the

optimum conditions and heat exchanger sizes at which
the entropy generation is minimum for the given gas
ow rate and water/steam conditions.

3. Results and discussion

The NS equation will give an idea on the role of
various operating parameters on the entropy generation
rate. In the present work an attempt is made to present
the eect of certain non-dimensional operating parameters on the entropy generation number. The results may
give an idea on the role of non-dimensional operating
parameters on NS for the waste heat recovery steam
generator. Optimum values of the design parameters like
NTUE, NTUB, NTUS for a given s; ss ; sh can be estimated by utilizing Eqs. (25) and (29) for the given gas
ow rate and water/steam conditions. These could also
be obtained by plotting NS against the relevant operating
parameters. The eect of certain non-dimensional operating parameters on the NS are demonstrated in
Figs. 38, respectively. The present results are basic
results, which will give an idea on the role of various
parameters on entropy generation number. The dierent
set of parameter values are chosen to investigate their
eect on NS . The main aim of the present work is to investigate the NS variation trend with dierent operating
parameters. This will give an idea on the role of operating
parameters on NS and their optimization trend.
The NS variation with NTUB for two dierent nondimensional hot ue gas inlet temperature dierence
ratios s is presented in Fig. 3. For a particular s value,
as the NTUB increases, the NS decreases for other xed
set of non-dimensional parameters. This is due to more
heat absorption from the ue gas, which may result in
reduced irreversibility and heat loss to the ambient. The
trend is same for two dierent non-dimensional hot ue
gas inlet temperature dierence ratios. However, for

Fig. 4. Variation of NS with NTUB, s 1:55, ss 0:6, sh

1:056, X1 0:556, X2 0:669, NTUE 0.6, NTUS 0.4.

Fig. 5. Variation of NS with NTUB, s 1:55, ss 0:6, sh

1:056, X1 0:556, X2 0:669, V  0:4.

Fig. 6. Variation of NS with NTUB, s 1:55, ss 0:6, sh

1:056, X1 0:556, X2 0:669, V  0:5.

Fig. 3. NS variation with NTUB for dierent values of s,

ss 0:25, sh 0:35, X1 0:35, X2 0:15, NTUE 0.7,
NTUS 0.4, DP =PO 0:1.

lower value of s, the decrease in NS with NTUB is faster

than that for the higher value. This could be probably
due to the reason that, for a designed NTUB value, the
temperature dierence between ue gas and water/steam
DT may be low. This results in reduced irreversibility
and entropy generation. Also the heat loss to the
ambient may be less, resulting in reduced external

B.V. Reddy et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 45 (2002) 18071814

Fig. 7. Eect of NTUS on NS for dierent NTUB values,

s 1:6, ss 0:25, sh 0:4, X1 0:35, X2 0:15, NTUE 0.7,
cpg 1:005.

Fig. 8. NS variation with s for ideal and actual gas specic heat
cpg values, ss 0:25, sh 0:4, X1 0:35, X2 0:17, NTUE
0.7, NTUS 0.4, NTUB 2.0.

irreversibility. This clearly shows that temperature difference between stream-to-stream DT has a dominating eect on entropy generation rate than frictional
pressure drop DP . However, if the ue gas inlet temperature dierence ratio is high, then the heat loss and
the irreversibility will be high. Also, for higher hot ue
gas inlet temperature dierence ratio, s, the temperature
of the gas at the exit of evaporator is high, which ultimately results in the gas leaving at higher temperature at
the economizer exit. This results in increased irreversibility and entropy generation. So, for a set NTUB value, if the ue gas inlet temperature dierence ratio,s,
increases, it results in higher NS values. For minimum NS
values s should be on the lower side. However, this is
decided based on the hot ue gas conditions and steam
conditions that are required. However for given hot gas
conditions and water/steam conditions, the optimum
unit size can be selected where the NS is minimum.
The variation of NS with NTUB for two dierent
non-dimensional gas velocities, for a given set of other
non-dimensional operating parameters is shown in Figs.
46, respectively. In all the cases, it is clearly shown that,
for a set of parameters, the NS tends to approach clearly

1813

a minimum value at a particular NTUB value and again

shows increasing trend. This possibly suggests that for a
particular gas ow and water/steam conditions, at a
particular NTUB the temperature proles DT , pressure drops DP in the unit are such that, the total irreversibility is low. This results in low entropy
generation. However, it can be thought that the above
mentioned reasons are the possible ones, which might
result in this type of variation of NS with NTUB. The
entropy generation number increases for higher nondimensional gas velocities V  . The observations in
Figs. 36 suggest that for the specic chosen parameters,
the optimum value of NTUB for minimum NS is different for all the cases. The reason for selecting dierent
set of operating parameters in Figs. 36 is to investigate
whether optimum NTUB changes or not in each case.
The optimum NTUB at minimum NS value is dierent in
each case as observed in Figs. 36.
Fig. 7 demonstrates the variation ofNS with NTUS for
a particular non-dimensional hot ue gas inlet temperature dierence ratio s. Here, the interest is to study, how
the NS varies, if the NTUS is changed. The results clearly
presents that, for a given NTUB, if NTUS is increased NS
decreases. This may be due to the reason that, higher the
NTUS, more heat is absorbed from the ue gas, which
results in low temperature of the ue gas at the exit of
economizer. This results in two things. Low temperature
of the gas means low irreversibility and also the external
irreversibility gets reduced. The overall eect of them
results in lower NS values. However, the temperature of
the ue gas at the exit of economizer cannot be lower
than, TO . This is because for heat transfer to take place
between ue gas and water, the temperature at the exit of
economizer has to be greater than TO; otherwise, heat
transfer from hot ue gas to water is not possible.
The inuence of gas specic heat cpg on entropy
generation number, NS is presented in Fig. 8. The main
aim of this part is to study how much is the deviation
inNS value, if one takes the actual specic heat value of
ue gas taking the gas composition and temperature in
to account and an ideal gas specic heat value. The two
cases are compared here. In one case, actual value of the
ue gas specic heat, taking into gas composition is
used. In another case, an ideal specic heat value for the
gas is used. The actual gas specic heat taking in to gas
composition into account is estimated from the relations
available in the thermodynamic literature. The ideal gas
specic heat is taken for that of air which is available in
standard thermodynamics books. The calculated entropy generation numbers are indicated in Fig. 8. The
results clearly presents that, the role of gas specic heat
cpg on entropy generation number is not that signicant at lower s values. However, for higher s values,
there is a slight decrease in NS predicted value with actual gas specic heat, than that with an ideal gas specic
heat value.

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B.V. Reddy et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 45 (2002) 18071814

4. Conclusion
A general equation for entropy generation number
NS for a waste heat recovery steam generator producing superheated steam is proposed.
An attempt has been made to present some basic
results on the eect of certain combination of non-dimensional operating parameters on entropy generation
number. It has been observed that for a particular nondimensional inlet gas temperature dierence ratio s
and for other xed parameters, NS is minimum at a
particular NTUB suggesting a possible optimum value
for the design, where the total irreversibility is low and
the performance will be better for the waste heat recovery steam generator.
The entropy generation number increases with increase in non-dimensional hot ue gas inlet temperature
dierence ratio s due to higher temperature dierence
DT between stream-to-stream (ue gas and water/
steam) which increases total irreversibility.
The specic sources that are responsible for entropy
generation are the temperature dierence between
stream-to-stream DT , heat loss to the surroundings,
ambient temperature and frictional pressure drop in the
unit DP . The temperature dierence between streamto-stream DT (hot gas to water/steam) has dominating
eect on the entropy generation rate.
The deviation in predicted NS value, with actual
specic heat of the gas taking into gas composition into
account cpg and with ideal specic heat cpg of the gas
is not signicant at low hot ue gas inlet temperature
dierence ratios s. However, for higher s values, there
is a slight reduction in Ns value with actual gas specic
heat values.

Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the encouragement and
help from Dr. V.N. Vedamurthy, ex-Principal of Vellore
Engineering College, Vellore, India.

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