PRESSURE VESSELS

Any cylinder with a fluid inside it subjected to the fluid pressure is called a
Pressure Vessel.

Introduction

There are basically three groups of pressure vessels: -

1. Fired Steam Boiler

In which steam is generated by the application of heat resulting from the combustion of
fuel (solid, liquid or gaseous).

2. Unfired Steam Boiler

In which heat is generated without the application of heat resulting from the combustion
of fuel.

3. Unfired Pressure Vessel

Used for containing, storing, distributing, transferring, distilling, processing or handling

fluids under pressure.

Code for Pressure Vessels

Basic code is American Society of Mechanical Engineers (A.S.M.E.) code for evaluating the
safety and reliability of pressure vessels.

The code is divided into nine sections:

1. Section I Power Boilers
2. Section II Material Specifications
3. Section III Nuclear Vessels
4. Section IV Low Pressure Heating Boilers
5. Section V Non-Destructive Examination
6. Section VI Recommended Rules for care of Heating Boilers
7. Section VII Recommended Rules for care of Power Boilers
8. Section VIII Pressure Vessels
9. Section IX Welding & Brazing Qualifications

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Code Defines
Code defines the material used in the construction of the vessels, construction method,
strength and safe pressure calculations.

Code Limitations

Code only gives the vessel and its appurtenances but no details of the connections provided
for attachment to piping external to vessel.

Criteria for Pressure Vessels

Criterion for pressure vessels is given as follows:
1. Thin-walled

t ≤(1 10 ) Rin

2. Thick-walled

t >(1 10 ) Rin

Pressure Testing
Pressure vessels are tested as a part of the certification requirements. Normally Pressure
vessels are filled with liquids such as water, and then are tested for pressure and for leakage.
The recommended testing pressure for a vessel is given by the following formula:
Max . stress for the material at test temp .
Test Pr essure =1.5 ×Max . allowable working pressure
Max . stress for the material at room temp .

Example:

Maximum stress for SA.30 flange steel at 8000F = 8350 psi

Maximum stress for SA.30 flange steel at room Temp. = 13,750 psi
Working Pressure of this vessel at 8000F = 300 psi

Test Pressure = 1.5 x 8,350 x 300 = 742 psi

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 13,750
.
Applications of Pressure Vessel in Nuclear Power Plants

The majority of vessels in nuclear power plants are classified as Unfired Pressure Vessels.
The main steam generators in the primary heat transport system in the nuclear power plants
are examples of unfired steam boilers. This particular vessel is one of the main steam
generators at Douglas Point Heavy Water at approximately 5000F and 1000 psig is circulated
through the U-tubes, giving off heat to the light water in the shell thus generating steam
which collects in the drum.

Selection of the Type of the Vessel

Usually the first step in the design of the pressure vessel is the selection of the type best
suited for the particular service in question. The primary factors influencing this choice are :

1. function and location of the vessel;

2. the nature of the fluid;

3. the operating temperature and pressure;

4. and the necessary volume for storage and capacity for processing.

Vessels may be classified according to the functional service, temperature and pressure
service, materials of construction and geometry of the vessels.

The most common types of the vessels may be classified according to their geometry as:

1. open tanks: mostly used as surge tanks between operations, as vats for batch
operations where materials may be mixed and blended, as settling tanks,
decanters, chemical reactors, reservoirs, etc. Cheaper than covered and closed
vessels of same capacity and construction.

2. Closed vessels: for combustible fluids or fluids emitting toxic or obnoxious fumes.

3. Cylindrical vessels with flat bottoms and conical or domed roofs: this is the most
economical design for a closed vessel operating at atmospheric pressure. Tanks
with conical roofs are limited to atmospheric pressure only while domed roofs
may be used for a pressure of 2.5 to 15 lb/sq.inch gage.
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4. Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Ends: closed cylindrical vessels with formed
ends on both ends are mainly used where the vapor pressure of the stored liquid is
really a stronger design criterion. A variety of formed heads are used for closing
the ends of the vessel. These may be hemispherical, torispherical, elliptical-
dished, conical etc.

5. Spherical and modified spherical Vessels: used for large-volume, low-pressure

storage operation mainly when a given mass of a gas is to be stored under
pressure.

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A Typical Pressure Vessel

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Shell Design of a Pressure Vessel
The majority of tanks and vessels are cylindrical because a cylinder has great structural
strength and is easy to fabricate. Several types of stresses may occur in a cylindrical shell.
These may be recognized as:

1. longitudinal stress resulting from pressure within the vessel,

2. circumferential stress resulting from pressure within the vessel,

3. residual weld stresses resulting from localized heating,

4. stresses resulting from superimposed loadings such as wind, snow, and ice, auxiliary
equipment, and impact loads,

5. stresses resulting from thermal differences,

6. others, as may be encountered in practice.

Stresses in Thin Shells Based on Membrane Theory

Minimum wall thickness of a thin-walled cylindrical vessel with internal pressure can be
determined using membrane theory.
Consider a thin-walled cylindrical vessel in which a uniform stress, σ , may be assumed to occur
in the wall as a result of the internal pressure.
Longitudinal Stress: if we consider pressure stresses only, i.e. longitudinal force F, resulting
from an internal pressure, P, acting on a thin cylinder of thickness, t, length, l, and diameter, d,
is:
F = force tending to rupture the vessel longitudinally
Pπd 2
F= and
4
a = area of metal resisting the longitudinal rupture = t πd
therefore
F P πd 2 4 P d
σl =stress = = = lbs/sq.inch
a t πd 4t

Pd
t= inch
4 σl

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Circumferential Stress or Hoop Stress: if we consider circumferential stress due to internal
pressure, then the following analysis may be developed:
F = force tending to rupture the vessel circumferentially
F =P d l and
a = area of metal resisting force = 2 t l
therefore
F P dl Pd
σc =stress = = = lbs/sq.inch
a 2t l 2t

Pd
t= inch
2 σc

Introducing a joint efficiency ‘E’ and a corrosion allowance ‘C’

Pd
t= + C inch or
4 σl E

Pd
t= + C inch
2 σc E

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Design of Pressure Vessels to Code Specification
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII is used.
Subsections are:

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Short checklist to complete a design calculation according to the ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII-1.
Paragraph from ASME
1.Drawing + Calculation
ASME Code Edition and Addenda
Design - operational data
Maximum Design Metal Temperarure UG-20 (b)
Materials UG-4 thru UG-15
Dimensions (ID, T, OD etc) UG-16
Loads: (a) Internal pressure UG-22 (a) bis (i)
(b) External pressure
(c) Vessel weight full, empty and at hydro test
(d) Weight of attached equipment and piping
(e) Attachment of internals
(f) Attachment of vessel supports
(g) Cyclic or dynamic reactions
(h) Wind
(i) Snow
(j) Seismic
(k) Fluid impact shock reactions
(l) Temperature gradients
(m) Differential thermal expansion
(n) Abnormal pressures

2.Test Pressure (Minimum)

Hydrostatic Test UG-99
Pneumatic Test UG-100
RT Examination UW-11 table UW-12
NDE (Corner Joint, Joggle Joint) UG-93 (d), UW-13 (e)
3.Corrosion Allowance UG-25, or as otherwise
agreed
4.Inspection Openings UG-46
5.Check whether design calculations have been made for all
pressure bearing parts:
6.Minimum wall thickness UG-16 (b) (1)-(5)
Shell UG-16 (b) (1)-(5)
Dished head UG-16 (b) (1)-(5)
Nozzle UG-16 (d) UG-40
Remaining wall thickness underneath tapped holes UG-43 (d)
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7.Minimum weld dimensions
Flange attachment to the nozzle Fig. 2-4 App. 2
Nozzle attachment to the shell or head UW-16
Attachment of flat heads + covers UW-13, UG-34

Design of Cylindrical Shells under Internal Pressure

The equations for determining the thickness of cylindrical shells under internal pressure are
based upon a modified membrane theory. Also known as ASME Modified Membrane Equation
The equations may be written as follows:
P ri Pr o
t= +C = +C
σ E −0.6 P σ E −0.4 P
Where

t =min imum required thickness of the shell , inch

P = design pressure , lb / in 2

E =weld − jo int Efficiency

σ = max imum allowable stress , lb / in 2
ri = inside radius of the shell , inch
ro = outside radius of the shell , inch

According to ASME UG-27(c),

Shell thickness from interior pressure may be calculated as follows:
ta = thickness based on longitudinal weld efficiency = P Ri (σ ×El −0.6 P )
ta = thickness based on longitudinal weld efficiency = P Ri (2 σ ×E c +0.4 P )
Acceptable thickness = tmin = Max ( ta, tb)
Thickness of the hemispherical heads
P di
th = +C
4 σ E c − 0.4 P

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