7.

Acids, Bases and Salts

Acids
According to the Bronsted-Lowry theory, an acid is a proton donor. (A proton is a hydrogen
cation, H+).
Classifying Acids
Strength
Strong Acids: A strong acid dissociates to a large extent in a solution. Almost all the acid
molecules of a strong acid dissociate to form H+ ions. Examples: Hydrochloric acid,
sulphuric acid and nitric acid
Weak Acid: A weak acid dissociates only to a small extent, and, therefore, can provide
only a low concentration of hydrogen ions. Examples: Carbonic acid, acetic acid and
oxalic acid are weak acids.
Basicity
Basicity of an acid: The basicity of an acid is the number of hydrogen ions produced when one
molecule of acid ionizes in water.
Mono-basic acids:
Acids which on ionization produces on hydronium ion in water are termed mono-basic acids.
Example: HCl
Di-basic acids:
Acids which on ionization produces two hydronium ions are called di-basic acids. Example:
H2SO4, H2CO3.etc
Tri-basic acids:
Acids which on ionization produces three hydronium ions are called tri-basic acids. Example:
H3PO4, H3PO3.etc
Origin
Organic acids: Contains the COOH functional group. Example ethanoic acid CH3CH2COOH, acetic acid (vinegar) CH3COOH
Inorganic acid: Does not contain the COOH functional group. Examples HCl, H2SO4

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7. Acids, Bases and Salts

Bases
According to the Bronsted-Lowry theory, an acid is a proton acceptor.
Classifying Bases
Strength
Strong base: A strong base dissociates almost completely in a solution. Example: NaOH,
KOH
Weak base: A weak base is not able to dissociate completely, giving a low concentration
of hydroxyl ions in a solution. Example: NH4OH, NH3
Acidity
Acidity of bases: It is the number of hydroxyl groups present in one molecule of a base.
Mono acidic bases: Bases which produces only one hydroxide (OH-) ion in aqueous
solutions are called mono acidic bases. Example: NaOH, KOH
Di acidic bases: Bases which produces two hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions are called
di acidic bases. Example: Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2
Tri acid bases: Bases which produces three hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions are called
tri acidic bases. Example: Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3

ACID/BASE PROPERTIES OF OXIDES

An oxide is a compound formed between oxygen and another element. Oxides show acid/base
properties. Oxides can be divided into four groups:

(1) Acidic Oxides:- These are oxides of non-metals which react with water to form
acids. Examples of acidic oxides are Carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2),
sulphur trioxide (SO3). Acidic oxides are also called acid anhydrides (substances which
react with water to form acids)
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2 CO3(aq)
Carbonic acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2 SO3(aq)
Sulphurous acid
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2 SO4(aq)

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7. Acids, Bases and Salts

(2) Basic oxides:- These are oxides of metals which react with acids to form a salt and
water only. Examples of basic oxides are magnesium oxide (MgO), calcium oxide
(CaO), iron(II) oxide(FeO)
MgO (s) + H2SO4(aq) Mg SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
CaO (s) + 2HCl(aq) Ca Cl2(aq) + H2O(l)
FeO (s) + HNO3(aq) Fe(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O(l)

(3) Neutral Oxides:- These are oxides of non-metals which react with neither acids or
bases . Examples of acidic oxides are Carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen monoxide (NO),
N2O.

Amphoteric Oxides:- These are oxides of some metals which react with both acids and
bases.
Examples of amphoteric oxides are aluminium oxide (Al2O3), lead(II) oxide (PbO), zinc
oxide(ZnO)
PbO (s) + HNO3(aq) Pb( NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
PbO (s) + NaOH(aq) Na2PbO2(aq) + H2O(l)
Sodium plumbate

ZnO (s) + 2HCl(aq)

ZnO (s) + NaOH(aq)

ZnCl2 (aq)

+ H2O(l)

Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2O(l)
Sodium zincate

Al2O3 (s) + H2SO4(aq)

Al2(SO4)3 (aq)

+ H2O(l)

Al2O3 (s) (s) + NaOH(aq) NaAlO2(aq)

+ H2O(l)
Sodium aluminate

Note: The oxides of non-metals are NOT bases only the oxides of metals are bases.

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7. Acids, Bases and Salts

Recognizing Acids and Alkalis
We can identify acids and alkalis by the use of indicators. An indicator is a substance
(usually a dye) which has one colour in acidic solutions and another colour in alkaline
solutions.
Indicator

Colour in acidic solutions

Litmus
Methyl Orange
Phenolphthalein
Screened methyl orange
Bromothymol Blue

Red
Pink/red
Colourless
Red
Yellow

Colour in alkaline
solutions.
Blue
Yellow
Pink
Green
Blue

Note: In most instances Litmus comes in two forms, Red litmus paper and Blue litmus
paper
Acids turn blue litmus paper red
Alkalis turn red litmus paper blue

There are two other chemical tests which can be used to identify a substance as an acid:

(1) Add a reactive metal (such as magnesium) and test the gas given off with a lit splint.
If the flame pop then this means that Hydrogen gas is given off and the
solution is an acid. (Reason: - acids react with most reactive metals to give off
hydrogen gas)
(2) Add a carbonate (such as calcium carbonate) and bubble the gas given off through
lime water.
If a white precipitate forms in the lime water then the gas given off is carbon
dioxide and the solution is an acid. (Reason: - acids react with carbonates to
give off carbon dioxide)

Determining the strength of acids and alkalis

We can determine the strength of an acid or alkali by measuring its pH.

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7. Acids, Bases and Salts

The pH of a substance is a measure of how acidic or how alkaline a solution is. pH is
measured using the pH scale.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A range of 0-6 is acidic, a range of 7 is neutral and a
range of 8-14 is basic.

The pH scale is used along with Universal Indicator to determine the pH of a solution.
Universal indicator is a mixtures of dyes which gives a particular colour for a specific
pH range.

Reactions of Acids
1. Reaction with Bases
Acids react with bases to form a salt and water only. E.g.
H2SO4 (aq) + KOH (aq) K2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

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7. Acids, Bases and Salts

2. Reaction with Metals
Acids react with metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas. E.g.
2HCl (aq) + Zn(s) ZnCl2 (s) + H2 (g)
3. Reaction with Carbonates
Acids react with carbonates to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water. E.g.
2H3PO4 (aq) + 3Na2CO3 (aq) 2Na3PO4 (aq) + 3CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l)
HCl (aq) + NaHCO3 (aq) NaCl (aq) + CO2 (aq) + H2O (l)

Reactions of Bases
1. Reaction with Acids
Bases with acids to form a salt and water only. E.g.
H2SO4 (aq) + KOH (aq) K2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
2. Reaction with Ammonium Salts
Bases react with ammonium salts to form a salt, ammonia and water.
NaOH (aq) + NH4Cl (aq) NaCl (aq) + NH3 (g) + H2O (l)

Salts
Salts are formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by metal or ammonium ions.
Salts can be classified as:
1.

Normal salts or acid salts

2.

Hydrated salts or anhydrous salts

Normal Salts
These are formed when all of the hydrogen ions in the acid have been replaced by metal or
ammonium ions. The acid used to form the normal salt may be monobasic, dibasic or tribasic.
Examples of these types of salts are sodium chloride, NaCl; lead carbonate, PbCO3 and
ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4.
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7. Acids, Bases and Salts

Acid Salts
These are formed when some of the hydrogen ions in the acid have been replaced by metal or
ammonium ions. The acids used to form these salts must have more than one replaceable
hydrogen ions. These acids are dibasic and tribasic. Examples of these types of salts are
potassium hydrogensulphate, KHSO4; sodium hydrogencarbonate, NaHCO3 and potassium
dihydrogen phosphate, KH2PO4.

Acid salts react similarly to acids because of the presence of replaceable hydrogen ions in them.
As a result of this they can be distinguished from normal salts.

Chemical tests to identify acid salts:

(i)

React the acid salt with a reactive metal. Hydrogen gas and a salt are formed.

(ii)

React with a carbonate. Carbon dioxide, a salt and water are formed.

Hydrated salts
Hydrated salts contain a fixed amount of water in their crystal lattice. Examples include:
CuSO4.5H2O, Na2CO3.10H2O and FeSO4.7H20.

Anhydrous salts
Anhydrous salts contain no water of crystallization. Hydrated salts can be made anhydrous by
gently heating them to drive off the water.
Preparation of salts
The method used to prepare a salt depends on whether it is soluble or insoluble.

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7. Acids, Bases and Salts

The solubility of salts

All nitrates are soluble.

All sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble.

All chlorides are soluble except silver chloride. Lead chloride is only soluble in hot
water.

All sulphates are soluble except for barium sulphate and lead sulphate. Calcium sulphate
and silver sulphate are slightly soluble.

All carbonates and phosphates are insoluble except sodium, potassium and ammonium
carbonates and phosphates.

All ethanoates are soluble except silver ethanoate which is sparingly soluble.

Note: Solubility of other substances.

All metal oxides are insoluble except sodium oxide and potassium oxide. Calcium oxide
is slightly soluble.

All hydroxide are insoluble except sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide and
ammonium hydroxide. Calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble.

Preparation of Insoluble Salts

These are prepared by Ionic precipitation or Double Decomposition. Two soluble salts are
reacted together to form the insoluble salt. One of the soluble salts furnishes the cation and the
other soluble salt furnishes the anion. In addition to the insoluble salt a soluble salt is also
formed.
e.g.

To prepare the insoluble salt barium sulphate:

BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Ionic equation: Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)

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7. Acids, Bases and Salts

Method
1. In a beaker add barium chloride to sodium sulphate
2. Filter the mixture using a filter funnel and filter paper.
3. Collect the residue (which is the insoluble salt) and wash it with distilled water to remove
any impurities.
4. Allow the salt to dry.

Preparation of Soluble Salts

Preparation of Binary Anhydrous Salts
These salts are prepared by Direct Combination.
For example anhydrous iron (II) chloride is prepared by burning iron in chlorine gas. The
reaction is given by:
Fe(s) + Cl2 (g) FeCl2 (s)

Soluble salts can also be prepared by the reaction of an acid with a reactive metal, an insoluble
base or an insoluble carbonate. These reactions are outlined in the table below.

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7. Acids, Bases and Salts

Preparation
Metals + acid

Insoluble
carbonate +
acid

Salts
prepared
Soluble salts
of the reactive
metals, Mg,
Al, Zn, Fe.

Soluble salts
except sodium,
potassium and
ammonium
salts.

Starting
materials
Appropriate
metal to provide
cations and
appropriate acid
to provide
anions.

Method

Examples

Zinc
chloride

Appropriate
carbonate to
provide cations
and appropriate
acid to provide
anions.

Add metal to fixed volume of

acid until effervescence stops and
metal present in excess.
Filter to remove excess metal,
collect filtrate.
Evaporate some water.
Leave to crystallize.
Rinse and dry crystals.
Add insoluble carbonate to fixed
volume of acid until
effervescence stops and carbonate
present in excess. Heat if
necessary.
Filter to remove excess
carbonate, collect filtrate.
Evaporate some water.
Leave to crystallize.
Rinse and dry crystals.

Calcium
nitrate

CaCO3(s) + HNO3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) +

CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Add insoluble base to fixed

volume of acid until base present
in excess. Stir and heat if
necessary.
Filter to remove excess base,
collect filtrate.
Evaporate some water.
Leave to crystallize.
Rinse and dry crystals.

Copper
sulphate

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq)+

H2O(l)

Insoluble
base + acid

Soluble salts
except sodium,
potassium and
ammonium
salts.

Insoluble base to
provide cations
and acid to
provide anions.

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Starting materials and equations for

examples
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq)