GENETICS

Genetics
The study of heredity.
heredity
Gregor Mendel (1860s) discovered the
fundamental principles of genetics by breeding
garden peas.
peas

Genetics
Alleles
1. Alternative forms of genes.
2. Units that determine heritable traits.
3. Dominant alleles (TT - tall pea plants)
plants
a. homozygous dominant
4. Recessive alleles (tt - dwarf pea plants)
plants
a. homozygous recessive
5. Heterozygous (Tt - tall pea plants)
plants

Phenotype
Outward appearance
Physical characteristics
Examples:
1.
2.

tall pea plant

dwarf pea plant

Genotype
Arrangement of genes that produces the
phenotype
Example:
1. tall pea plant
TT = tall (homozygous dominant)
2. dwarf pea plant
tt = dwarf (homozygous recessive)
3. tall pea plant
Tt = tall (heterozygous)

Punnett square
A Punnett square is used to show the
possible combinations of gametes.
gametes

Breed the P generation

tall (TT) vs. dwarf (tt) pea plants
T

t
t

tall (TT) vs. dwarf (tt) pea plants

Tt

Tt

produces the
F1 generation

Tt

Tt

All Tt = tall
(heterozygous tall)

Breed the F1 generation

tall (Tt) vs. tall (Tt) pea plants
T

T
t

tall (Tt) vs. tall (Tt) pea plants

T

T
t

TT
Tt

t
Tt

tt

produces the
F2 generation
1/4 (25%) = TT
1/2 (50%) = Tt
1/4 (25%) = tt
1:2:1 genotype
3:1 phenotype

Monohybrid Cross
A breeding experiment that tracks the inheritance
of a single trait.
Mendels principle of segregation
a. pairs of genes separate during gamete
formation (meiosis).
b. the fusion of gametes at fertilization pairs
genes once again.

Homologous Chromosomes
eye color locus
B = brown eyes

eye color locus

b = blue eyes

This person would

have brown eyes (Bb)

Paternal Maternal

Meiosis - eye color

B
sperm

Bb
haploid (n)

b
diploid (2n)

b
b

meiosis I

meiosis II

Monohybrid Cross
Example:
Example

Cross between two heterozygotes

for brown eyes (Bb)

BB = brown eyes
Bb = brown eyes
bb = blue eyes

B
Bb x Bb
b

female gametes

male
gametes

Monohybrid Cross
B

BB

Bb

Bb

bb

Bb x Bb

1/4 = BB - brown eyed

1/2 = Bb - brown eyed
1/4 = bb - blue eyed
1:2:1 genotype
3:1 phenotype

Dihybrid Cross
A breeding experiment that tracks the inheritance
of two traits.
Mendels principle of independent assortment

a. each pair of alleles segregates independently

during gamete formation (metaphase I)
b. formula: 2n (n = # of heterozygotes)

Independent Assortment
Question: How many gametes will be produced
for the following allele arrangements?

Remember:

2n (n = # of heterozygotes)

1.

RrYy

2.

AaBbCCDd

3.

MmNnOoPPQQRrssTtQq

Answer:
1. RrYy: 2n = 22 = 4 gametes
RY Ry rY ry
2. AaBbCCDd: 2n = 23 = 8 gametes
ABCD ABCd AbCD AbCd
aBCD aBCd abCD abCD
3. MmNnOoPPQQRrssTtQq: 2n = 26 = 64 gametes

Dihybrid Cross
Example:

R
r
Y
y

= round
= wrinkled
= yellow
= green

cross between round and yellow

heterozygous pea seeds.
RrYy x RrYy

RY Ry rY ry x RY Ry rY ry
possible gametes produced

Dihybrid Cross
RY
RY
Ry
rY
ry

Ry

rY

ry

Dihybrid Cross
RY

Ry

RY RRYY RRYy
Ry RRYy

RRyy

rY
RrYY
RrYy

ry
RrYy

Round/Yellow:

Round/green:

Rryy
wrinkled/Yellow: 3

rY RrYY

RrYy

rrYY

rrYy

ry

Rryy

rrYy

rryy

RrYy

wrinkled/green:

9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio

Test Cross
A mating between an individual of unknown genotype
and a homozygous recessive individual.
Example: bbC__ x bbcc
BB = brown eyes
Bb = brown eyes
bb = blue eyes
CC = curly hair
Cc = curly hair
cc = straight hair

bC
bc

b___

Test Cross
Possible results:

bc

bC

b___
C

bbCc

bbCc

or

bc

bC

b___
c

bbCc

bbcc

Incomplete Dominance
F1 hybrids have an appearance somewhat in
between the phenotypes of the two parental
varieties.
Example: snapdragons (flower)
red (RR) x white (rr)
R

RR = red flower
rr = white flower

r
r

Incomplete Dominance

Rr

Rr

produces the
F1 generation

Rr

Rr

All Rr = pink
(heterozygous pink)

Codominance
Two alleles are expressed (multiple alleles)
alleles
in heterozygous individuals.
individuals
Example: blood
1.
2.
3.
4.

type A
type B
type AB
type O

=
=
=
=

IAIA or IAi
IBIB or IBi
IAIB
ii

Codominance
homozygous male B (IBIB)
x
heterozygous female A (IAi)

Example:

IB

IB

IA

I AI B

I AI B

I Bi

IBi

1/2 = IAIB
1/2 = IBi

Codominance
Example: male O (ii) x female AB (IAIB)
IA

IB

I Ai

IBi

I Ai

IBi

1/2 = IAi
1/2 = IBi

Codominance
Question:
Question

If a boy has a blood type O and

his sister has blood type AB,
what are the genotypes and
phenotypes of their parents.

boy - type O (ii) X girl - type AB (IAIB)

Codominance
Answer:
IA

I B I AI B
i

ii

Parents:
genotypes = IAi and IBi
phenotypes = A and B

Sex-linked Traits
Traits (genes) located on the sex
chromosomes

Example:

fruit flies

(red-eyed
male) X (white-eyed
female)
red
white

Sex-linked Traits
Sex Chromosomes
fruit fly
eye color

XX chromosome - female

Xy chromosome - male

Sex-linked Traits
Example:
fruit flies
(red-eyed male) X (white-eyed female)
Remember: the Y chromosome in males
does not carry traits.
RR = red eyed
Rr = red eyed
rr = white eyed
Xy = male
XX = female

XR
Xr
Xr

Sex-linked Traits

Xr

XR

XR Xr

Xr y
1/2 red eyed and female
1/2 white eyed and male

Xr

XR Xr

Xr y

Population Genetics
The study of genetic changes in populations.
populations
The science of microevolutionary changes in
populations.
populations
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:
the principle that shuffling of genes that occurs
during sexual reproduction, by itself, cannot
change the overall genetic makeup of a population.
Hardy-Wienberg equation:

1 = p2 + 2pq + q2

Question:
How do we get this equation?
Answer:

Square 1 = p + q

12 = (p + q)2

1 = p2 + 2pq + q2

Hardy-Wienberg equation
Five conditions are required for Hardy-Wienberg
equilibrium.
1. large population
2. isolated population
3. no net mutations
4. random mating
5. no natural selection

Important
Need to remember the following:
p2 = homozygous dominant
2pq = heterozygous
q2 = homozygous recessive

Question:
Iguanas with webbed feet (recessive trait) make
up 4% of the population. What in the population
is heterozygous and homozygous dominant.
dominant

Answer:
1. q2 = 4% or .04

q2 = .04

2. then use 1 = p + q
1 = p + .2

q = .2

1 - .2 = p

.8 = p

3. for heterozygous use 2pq

2(.8)(.2) = .32 or 32%
4. For homozygous dominant use p2
.82 = .64 or 64%

Hardy-Wienberg equation
1 = p2 + 2pq + q2

64% = p2
32% = 2pq
04% = q2
100%

= homozygous dominant
= heterozygous
= homozygous recessive