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Steel pin
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Top view
P (Towing load from trailer)
Square tubular
steel hitch
receptacle
V
P
Ball
Page 101
shear stress and average shear strain.) (b) If the shear modulus of elasticity of the rubber is Gr 0.6 MPa, what is the
average shear strain, g, related to the average shear stress t
computed in Part (a)? (c) Based on the average shear strain
determined in Part (b), what is the relative displacement, d,
between the rectangular bar and the C-shaped bracket when
the load P 250 N is applied?
x
A
Solid steel hitch bar
120 mm
Side view
End view
P2.7-10
150 mm
SHEAR STRAIN
P2.7-12
Prob. 2.7-11. A rectangular plate (dashed lines show original configuration) is uniformly deformed into the shape of a
parallelogram (shaded figure) as shown in Fig. P2.7-11. (a)
Determine the average shear strain, call it gxy(A), between
lines in the directions x and y shown in the figure. (b)
Determine the average shear strain, call it gxy (B), between
lines in the directions of x and y shown in the figure. (Hint:
Dont forget that shear strain is a signed quantity, that is, it
can be either positive or negative.)
y
w
P
x
0.10 in.
0.10 in.
8 in.
D
y A
10 in.
P2.7-11
Prob. 2.7-12. Shear stress produces a shear strain gxy (between lines in the x direction and lines in the y direction) of
gxy 1200 (i.e., g 0.0012 m
m ). (a) Determine the horizontal displacement A of point A. (b) Determine the shear
strain gxy between the lines in the x direction and the y
direction, as shown on Fig. P2.7-12.
Prob. 2.7-13. Two identical symmetrically placed rubber
pads transmit load from a rectangular bar to a C-shaped
bracket, as shown in Fig. P2.7-13. (a) Determine the average
shear stress, t, in the rubber pads on planes parallel to the
top and bottom surfaces of the pads if P 250 N and the dimensions of the rubber pads are: b 50 mm, w 80 mm,
and h 25 mm. (Although the load is transmitted predominately by shearing deformation, the pads are not undergoing pure shear. However, you can still calculate the average
101
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Steel tube
r
Page 102
40 mm
120 mm
PA
A
Steel
post
B
Rubber
a
d
Instrument
PA
A
d
Vibration
isolator
View a a
P2.8-3
D
(a)
(b)
P2.7-15
Prob. 2.8-4. The brass eye-bar in Fig. P2.8-4a has a diameter dr 0.500 in. and is attached to a support bracket by a
brass pin of diameter dp 0.375 in. If the allowable shear
stress in the pin is 12 ksi and the allowable tensile stress in
the bar is 18 ksi, what is the allowable tensile load Pallow.?
P
(a)
Prob. 2.8-1. A bolted lap joint is used to connect a rectangular bar to a hanger bracket, as shown in Fig. P2.8-1. If the
allowable shear stress in the bolt is 15 ksi, and the allowable
tensile load on the rectangular bar is to be Pallow. 2 kips, what
is the required minimum diameter of the bolt shank in inches?
(b)
dr
A
dp
P2.8-4
D
Prob. 2.8-2. A bolted lap joint is used to connect a rectangular bar to a hanger bracket, as shown in Fig. P2.8-2. If the
allowable shear stress in the bolt is 80 MPa, and the diameter of the bolt shank 15 mm, what is the allowable tensile
load on the rectangular bar, Pallow., in kN?
D
Prob. 2.8-3. The pin that holds the two halves of a pair of
pliers together at B has a diameter d 6.35 mm and is made
of steel for which tallow. 75 MPa. What is the allowable
force (PC )allow. (not shown) that can be exerted on the round
rod at C by each jaw, assuming that the corresponding force
PA is applied to the handles at each of the two places marked
A in Fig. P2.8-3?
102
U-bracket
dp
Tee-bracket
Boat deck
P2.8-5
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Page 103
a high-strength steel pin. Assume that the pin at B is adequate to sustain the loading applied to it, and that the designcritical components are the bar BD and the pin at C. The
factor of safety against failure of BD by yielding is FSs 3.0,
and the factor of safety against ultimate shear failure of the
pin at C is FSt 3.3. (a) Determine the required thickness,
t, of the rectangular bar BD, whose width is b. (b) Determine
the required diameter, d, of the pin at C.
P 2400 lb, L 6 ft, h 4 ft
Pin C: tU 60 ksi
D
t = thickness
D
L1
(1)
(2)
L2
L/2
P
A
C
a
P2.8-6
Prob. 2.8-7. An angle bracket ABC is restrained by a highstrength steel wire CD, and it supports a load P at A, as
shown in Fig. P2.8-7. The strength properties of the wire and
the shear pin at B are y 350 MPa (wire), and tU 300
MPa (pin at B). If the wire and pin are to be sized to provide
a factor of safety against yielding of the wire of FSs 3.3
and a factor of safety against ultimate shear failure of the pin
of FSt 3.5, what are the required diameters of the wire (to
the nearest mm) and the pin (to the nearest mm)?
dw
a
B
L 3 m, h 2 m
90 mm
D
dp
L
15
P = 1 kN
View a-a
L/2
(a)
a
C
Rigid
100 mm
View a-a of B
P2.8-7
B
b/2
Prob. 2.8-8. Boom AC in Fig. P2.8-8 is supported by a rectangular steel bar BD, and it is attached to a bracket at C by
b/2
103
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Page 104
and by a tie-rod AB. Both the tie rod and the pin are to be
sized with a factor of safety of FS 3.0, the tie-rod with respect to tensile yielding and the pin with respect to shear
failure. The strength properties of the rod and pin are: Y
340 MPa and tU 340 MPa; the respective lengths are: L1
1.5 m and L2 L3 2.0 m. (a) If the loading platform is to
be able to handle loads W up to W 8 kN, what is the required diameter, dr, of the tie-rod (to the nearest millimeter)? (b) What is the required diameter, dp, of the shear pin
at C (to the nearest millimeter)?
D
Prob. 2.8-15. A three-bar, pin-jointed, planar truss
supports a single horizontal load P at joint B. Joint C is free to
move horizontally. The allowable stress in tension is (sT)allow.
140 MPa, and the allowable stress in compression is (C)allow.
85 MPa. If the truss is to support a maximum load
Pallow. 50 kN, what are the required cross-sectional areas,
Ai, of the three truss members?
450 mm
dr
dr
600 mm
dp
P
(3)
(2)
C
(1)
P2.8-12
1200 mm
D
P2.8-15
dp
View a-a of C
dr
L1
a
A
C
L2
L3
104
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1m
(1)
B
2m
P
yB
(2)
C
(a) A two-bar planar truss.
25
W (N)
20
15
10
Page 105
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00
yB (m)
y
1m
P = 50 kN
P2.8-16
1m
L3
B
PB = 2 kips
C
L2 = 24 in.
PC = 3 kips
P2.8-17
xC
P2.8-18
L1 = 30 in.
P
N
P2.9-1
105
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Page 106
Prob. 2.9-6. A brass bar with a square cross section of dimension b is subjected to a compressive load P 10 kips, as
shown in Fig. P2.9-6. If the allowable compressive stress for
the brass is allow. 12 ksi, and the allowable shear stress is
allow. 7 ksi, what is the minimum value of the dimension b,
to the nearest 161 in.?
P
b
P2.9-6
Prob. 2.9-7. A 6-in.-diameter concrete test cylinder is subjected to a compressive load P 110 kips, as shown in Fig.
P2.9-7. The cylinder fails along a plane that makes an angle
of 62 to the horizontal. (a) Determine the (compressive)
axial stress in the cylinder when it reaches the failure load.
(b) Determine the normal stress, , and shear stress, , on the
failure plane at failure.
P = 110 kips
62
P2.9-7
P2.9-4
Prob. 2.9-5. A bar with rectangular cross section is subjected
to an axial tensile load P, as shown in Fig. P2.9-5. (a) Determine
the angle, call it na, of the plane NN on which nt 2n, that
is, the plane on which the magnitude of the shear stress is
twice the magnitude of the normal stress. (b) Determine the
angle, call it nb, of the plane on which n 2nt. (Hint: You
can get approximate answers from Fig. 2.34.)
b 150 mm, a 55
P
P
N
P2.9-5
106
P2.9-8
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Page 107
O
y
b/2 b/2
Fx
yR
(a)
Pf
yR
2O
Pf
(b)
P2.12-1
Prob. 2.12-2 The normal stress on the rectangular cross section ABCD in Fig. P2.12-2 varies linearly with respect to the
y coordinate. That is, x has the form x a by, varying linearly from xb at the bottom edge of the cross section to xt
at the top edge of the cross section. (a) Show that My 0 for
this symmetrical normal-stress distribution. (b) Determine
an expression for the axial force Fx in terms of the stresses
xb and xt and the dimensions of the cross section, width b
and height h. (c) Determine an expression for the corresponding value of the bending moment Mz.
(a)
Pd
Pd
30
(b)
P2.9-9
Prob. 2.9-10. At room temperature (70F) and with no axial
load (P 0) the extensional strain of the prismatic bar (Fig.
P2.9-10) in the axial direction is zero, that is, x 0.
Subsequently, the bar is heated to 120F and a tensile load
P is applied. The material properties for the bar are: E
10 103 ksi and 13 106/F, and the cross-sectional
area of the bar is 1.8 in2. For the latter load-temperature condition, the extensional strain is found to be x 900 106 in.
in. .
(a) Determine the value of the axial tensile load P. (b) Determine the normal stress and the shear stress on the oblique
plane NN. (Note: The total strain is the sum of strain associated with normal stress x (Eq. 2.14) and the strain due to
change of temperature T (Eq. 2.8).)
My
b
2
xt
b
2
C
B
h
2
z
z
Mz
Fx
h
2
A
xb
(a)
(b)
P2.12-2
P
N
25
Gage measures
extensional
strain x
y
x
C
B
P2.9-10
My
STRESS RESULTANTS
Prob. 2.12-1. The normal stress, x, over the top half of the
cross section of the rectangular bar in Fig. P2.12-1 is 0, while
the normal stress acting on the bottom half of the cross section is 20. (a) Determine the value of the resultant axial
force, Fx. (b) Locate the point R in the cross section through
which the resultant axial force, Fx, acts.
xC = 12 ksi
xB = 8 ksi
2 in. 2 in.
C
B
dA
4 in.
z
Mz
Fx
A
4 in.
A
xA = 12 ksi
(a)
(b)
P2.12-3
107
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position (y, z) in the cross section. That is, x has the form
x a by cz. The values of x at corners A, B, and C are:
xA 12 ksi, xB 8 ksi, and xC 12 ksi. (a) Determine the
value of xD, the normal stress at corner D. (b) Determine
the axial force, Fx. (c) Determine the bending moment My.
Prob. 2.12-4. The stress distribution on the cross section
shown in Fig. P2.12-4a is given by
Page 108
y
Vy
20 mm 20 mm
50 mm
h
sx a by ; txy c c a b y2 d
2
; txz 0
max = xy (y = 0)
h/2
xy
x
xz
(a)
(b)
P2.12-5
Prob. 2.12-6. On the cross section of a circular rod, the shear
stress at a point acts in the circumferential direction at that
point, as illustrated in Fig. P2.12-6. The shear stress magnitude varies linearly with distance from the center of the cross
tmaxr
section, that is, t
. Using the ring-shaped area in Fig.
r
P2.12-6b, determine the formula that relates max and the
resultant torque, T.
50 mm
h/2
x
()
d
d/2
d/2
dA = 2d
Vy
(a)
My
(b)
P2.12-6
F
Mz
T
Vz
P2.12-4
Prob. 2.12-5. On a particular cross section of the rectangular bar shown in Fig. 2.12-5 there is shear stress whose distribution has the form
txy tmax c 1 a
y 2
b d
50
108
ri
P2.12-7
ro
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1.2 Y
Y
r/2
Page 109
so that it is elongated by an amount . Determine an expression for the (uniform) extensional strain n of the diagonal
AC. Express your answer in terms of , L, and the angle .
Assume that d V L and see Appendix A.2 for relevant
approximations.
Prob. 2.12-11. A rectangular plate ABCD with base b and
height h is uniformly stretched an amount x in the x direction
and y in the y direction to become the enlarged rectangle
AB*C*D* shown in Fig. P2.12-11. Determine an expression
for the (uniform) extensional strain n of the diagonal AC.
Express your answer in terms of x, y, L, and , where
L 2b2 h2 and tan h/b. Base your calculations on the
small-displacement assumptions, that is, assume that dx V L
and dy V L. (See Appendix A.2 for relevant approximations.)
y
B*
P2.12-8
STRAIN-DEFORMATION EQUATIONS
C
L
D*
D
b
P2.12-11
Prob. 2.12-12. A thin, square plate ABCD undergoes deformation in which no point in the plate moves in the y direction. Every horizontal line (except the bottom edge) is
uniformly stretched as edge CD remains straight and rotates
clockwise about D. Using the definition of extensional strain in
Eq. 2.35, determine an expression for the extensional strain
in the x direction, x(x, y).
dx
L
(a) Before deformation.
dx(1 + x)
C*
0.1a
C*
P2.12-9
P*
n
B*
C*
L
A
a
(a) Undeformed plate.
A*
D*
A*
D*
(b) Deformed plate.
P2.12-10
109
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Prob. 2.12-14. A thin, square plate ABCD undergoes deformation such that a typical point P with coordinates (x, y)
moves horizontally an amount
y 2
1
u(x, y) PP*
(a x) a b
100
a
The undeformed and deformed plates are shown in Figs.
P2.12-14a and P2.12-14b, respectively. Using the definition
extensional strain in Eq. 2.35, determine an expression for
x(x, y), the extensional strain in the x direction.
y
B
x
B*
C
R
P
Page 110
E
(x vy),
1 n2
sy
E
(y vx)
1 n2
u
C*
P P*
a
x
y
z
A
A*
D*
a
(a) Before deformation.
P2.13-1
z
x
0u
0x
P2.13-2
u(x + x, y)
v(x + x, y)
v(x, y)
Q*
P*
u(x, y)
sy 20 MPa,
sz 30 MPa
P2.12-16
110
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0.5 in. 1.0 in. Within the test section a strain gage oriented
in the axial direction measures x 0.002 in.
in., while a strain gage
mounted in the transverse direction measures y 0.0008 in.
in.,
when the load on the specimen is P 300 lb. (a) Determine
the values of the modulus of elasticity, E, and Poissons ratio,
n. (b) Determine the value of the dilatation, V, within the
test section.
P2.13-6
y
P
1 in.
(1)
(1) x gage
(2) y gage
y
P
(2)
Electrical
leads
0.5
P2.13-4
0
b
x
a
P2.13-7
c*
Prob. 2.13-8. A thin, rectangular plate is subjected to a uniform biaxial state of stress (x, y). All other components of
stress are zero.The initial dimensions of the plate are Lx 4 in.
and Ly 2 in., but after the loading is applied, the dimensions are L*x 4.00176 in., and L*y 2.00344 in. If it is
known that x 10 ksi and E 10 103 ksi, (a) what is the
value of Poissons ratio? (b) What is the value of y?
b*
x
a*
6 ksi
14 ksi
y = ?
x = 10 ksi
P2.13-5
Ly*
Prob. 2.13-6. An aluminum-alloy plate is subjected to a biaxial state of stress, as illustrated in Fig. P2.13-6 (z xz
yz xy 0). For the aluminum alloy, E 72 GPa and
n 0.33. Determine the stresses x and y if x 200, and
y 140. (Note: Start with Eqs. 2.38, not with Eqs. 2.40.)
Lx*
P2.13-8
111
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P2.13-9
*Prob. 2.13-10. A block of linearly elastic material (E, n) is
placed under hydrostatic pressure: x y z p;
xy xz yz 0, as shown in Fig. P2.13-10. (a) Determine
an expression for the extensional strain x ( y z). (b)
Determine an expression for the dilatation, V. (c) The bulk
z
x
(Stresses on hidden faces not shown.)
P2.13-10
112
modulus, kb, of a material is defined as the ratio of the hydrostatic pressure, p, to the magnitude of the volume change
per unit volume, V, that is,
kb
p
V
z
y
Page 112
Prob. 2.14-1. You are to evaluate a new concept for an environmentally friendly building product, a laminated composite
floor panel. This composite panel will use a new material consisting of a recycled polymer filled with recycled wood particles. This recycled material has an elastic modulus of 6 GPa
and is produced in sheets 2 mm thick. These are laminated
with thin, 0.5-mm-thick sheets of aluminum, EA1 70 GPa.
The two different materials are firmly bonded by a strong adhesive to create the laminated composite panel.The final laminated composite panel contains 10 sheets of aluminum and
11 sheets of the recycled material in alternating layers.
Use the techniques discussed in Section 2.14 to calculate
approximate values of elastic modulus in the plane of the laminated panel and through the thickness of the laminated panel.
Before you begin your calculations, be sure to draw a simple
schematic of the laminated composite structure, and use this to
help you determine the volume fractions of each material.
Prob. 2.14-2. Consider a polymer matrix having Em 2.8 GPa,
which is reinforced with Vf 0.2 volume fraction of randomly oriented, short glass fibers having Ef 72 GPa.
(a) Calculate an approximate elastic modulus, Ec, for this
composite material. (b) Would you expect the actual elastic
modulus to be higher, or lower, than your approximation?
c02StressAndStrainIntroductionToDesign.qxd
C H A P T E R
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Page 113
R E V I E W S T R E S S A N D S T R A I N;
I N T R O D U C T I O N T O
D E S I G N
Suggested
Review
Problems
Section
2.1
2.2
Section 2.1 points out the need for definitions of stress and strain in order to explain
how force is distributed throughout a deformable body under load and how the
body deforms point by point.
Section 2.2 defines stress as Force divided
by Area. Normal stress is normal i.e., perpendicular to the plane on which it acts,
and it is denoted by the Greek symbol
sigma (). Figure 2.2 and Eqs. 2.1 and 2.2
define:
Normal Stress
s(x, y, z) lim a
F
b
A
AS0
F
A
savg
(2.1)
(2.2)
y
zR
R
F(x)
yR
Axial Stress
si
Fi
Ai
(2.5)
2.2-3
2.2-9
2.2-15
Fi
F(x) = Fi
2.3
A
B
D
F
L
(a) The undeformed bar.
L
L
(2.7)
L*
L
A*
B*
C*
E*
D*
2.3-7
2.3-11
F*
113
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Suggested
Review
Problems
Section
Section 2.3 also defines thermal strain,
the strain that is produced by a change
in temperature.
aT
where is the coefficient of thermal expansion and
T is the change in temperature from the reference
temperature.
2.3-15
L0
2.4
P
L*
(b) Deformed specimen.
Ft
Gt
True stress
true strain
F
U
(YP)u
F
C D
(YP)l
PL
A stress-strain diagram is a graph of the results of a tension test (or compression test):
stress ( P/A versus strain ( (L)/L.
Elastic
region
Yielding
Elastic
behavior
A
Strain
hardening
Necking
Plastic behavior
(a)
2.4-3
(ksi)
U = 63
60
50
F = 47
(YP)u = 38
(YP)l = 36
PL = 35
40
30
20
10
0.10
0.001
0.20
0.002
0.30
0.003
0.40
0.004
(in./in.)
(b)
114
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Page 115
Suggested
Review
Problems
Section
The principal design properties of materials
are the following:
Strength
Stiffness, and
Ductility.
Define each of these design-related properties; discuss how each is determined from stress-strain diagrams; and discuss how each design property
differs from the others.
Define the following terms and indicate how each
is determined:
2.5
Section 2.5 discusses the differences between elastic behavior and plastic behavior
of materials.
(2.14)
2.6
Section 2.6 discusses linearly elastic behavior. The discussion is restricted to the case
of uniaxial stress applied to homogeneous,
isotropic materials.
y z nx
(2.15)
2.6-1
2.6-7
Original specimen
x
z
y
x
115
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Page 116
Suggested
Review
Problems
Section
Shear Stress
t lim a
AS0
V
b
A
(2.17)
2.7
V
As
(2.19)
V
V
p
u*
2
(2.21)
2.7
You should be able to prove that the shear
stresses on perpendicular faces must be
equal to each other, as shown in Fig. 2.31b.
Ls
2.7-11
*
A*
t Gg
(2.23)
116
2.7-13
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Page 117
Suggested
Review
Problems
Section
2.8
Factor of Safety
Allowable Stress
FS
sallow.
Failure Load
Allowable Load
(2.26)
sY
tY
, or tallow.
FS
FS
(2.28)
2.8-1
2.8-7
2.8-13
Transformation of Stresses
sn (sx/2)(1 cos 2u)
f
tnt (sx/2) sin 2u
2.9
(2.30)
Derive
Eqs. 2.30.
n
P
2.9-1
2.9-7
P
(a)
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
E
2(1 n)
(2.24)
Derive
Eq. 2.24.
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AXIAL DEFORMATION
3.1
INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 2 the topic of uniform axial deformation was used to introduce the concepts
of normal stress and extensional strain and to describe the experiments required to determine the stress-strain behavior of materials. In this chapter we will pursue the topic
of axial deformation in greater detail. We begin with a definition of axial deformation.
A structural member having a straight longitudinal axis is said to undergo axial
deformation if, when loads are applied to the member or it is subjected to temperature
change: (1) the axis of the member remains straight, and (2) cross sections of the member remain plane, remain perpendicular to the axis, and do not rotate about the axis as
the member deforms.
3.2
Let us now develop the theory of axial deformation by applying the three types of
equations that are fundamental to all of deformable-body mechanics: equilibrium,
geometry of deformation, and material behavior. We begin by considering the geometry of deformation.
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119
Basic Theory of Axial
Deformation
Axial deformation, as defined in Section 3.1, is characterized by two fundamental kinematic assumptions:
1. The axis of the member remains straight.
2. Cross sections, which are plane and are perpendicular to the axis before deformation, remain plane and remain perpendicular to the axis after deformation.
And, the cross sections do not rotate about the axis.
These assumptions are illustrated in Fig. 3.2, where A and B designate cross sections
at x and (x x) prior to deformation, and where A* and B* designate these same
cross sections after deformation.
The distance that a cross section moves in the axial direction is called its axial
displacement. The displacement of cross section A is labeled u(x), while the neighboring section B displaces an amount u(x x). The displacement u(x) is taken to
be positive in the x direction. We can derive a strain-displacement expression that
relates the axial strain to this axial displacement u by considering the fundamental definition of extensional strain:
L
(a) Before Deformation
B
x
u(x + x)
u(x)
(b) After Deformation
A*
B*
x*
FIGURE 3.2
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Page 120
The axial strain of any fiber1 of infinitesimal length x that is parallel to the x axis
and extends from section A to section B of the undeformed member may be determined from the fundamental definition of extensional strain at a point. By letting the
initial length of a typical fiber be x, and then letting x approach zero, we can write
the following expression for the axial strain (Eq. 2.35):
120
Axial Deformation
x (x) lim a
xS0
u(x x) u(x)
x* x
du
b lim c
d
x
xS0
x
dx
Therefore, the axial strain at section x is the derivative (with respect to x) of the
axial displacement, or
(x)
y
z
x
x
StrainDisplacement
Equation
du(x)
dx
(x)
(3.1)
This equation relating axial strain to axial displacement is called the straindisplacement equation for axial deformation. The two fundamental kinematic assumptions stated above imply that the axial strain may be a function of x, but that
it is not a function of position in the cross section, that is, of y or z. To emphasize this
point, a plot of the strain distribution at an arbitrary cross section at x is shown in
Fig. 3.3 superimposed on a sketch of a portion of the member. To reiterate, axial
deformation is characterized by extensional strain that is not a function of position
in the cross section.
As indicated in Fig. 3.4, the total elongation of the member is the difference
between the displacements of its two ends, that is,
e u(L) u(0)
(3.2)
By summing up the changes in length of increments dx over the entire length of the
member, we get the following equation for the elongation of an axial-deformation
member of initial length L:
e
Elongation
Formula
(x)dx
L
C
Before Deformation
u(0)
u(x)
A*
u(L)
B*
C*
After Deformation
(L + e)
e = u(L) u(0)
FIGURE 3.4
(3.3)