PHYSICS

HISTORY OF PHYSICS
Physics (from the Ancient Greek physis meaning "nature") is the fundamental branch
of science that developed out of the study of nature and philosophy known, until around the end of
the 19th century, as "natural philosophy". Today, physics is ultimately defined as the study
of matter, energy and the relationships between them. Physics is, in some senses, the oldest and
most basic pure science; its discoveries find applications throughout the natural sciences, since
matter and energy are the basic constituents of the natural world. The other sciences are generally
more limited in their scope and may be considered branches that have split off from physics to
become sciences in their own right. Physics today may be divided loosely into classical
physics and modern physics.

Ancient history
Elements of what became physics were drawn primarily from the fields of astronomy, optics,
and mechanics, which were methodologically united through the study of geometry. These
mathematical disciplines began in antiquity with the Babylonians and with Hellenistic writers such
as Archimedes and Ptolemy. Ancient philosophy, meanwhile including what was called "physics"
focused on explaining nature through ideas such as Aristotle's four types of "cause".

MAJOR FIELDS
Branches of physics
Physics deals with the combination of matter and energy. It also deals with a wide variety of
systems, about which theories have been developed that are used by physicists. In general, theories
are experimentally tested numerous times before they are accepted as correct as a description of
Nature (within a certain domain of validity). For instance, the theory of classical
mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger
than atoms and moving at much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of
active research: for instance, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as chaos was
discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics
by Isaac Newton (16421727). These "central theories" are important tools for research in more
specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of his or her specialization, is expected to be literate
in them.

Classical mechanics
Classical mechanics is a model of the physics of forces acting upon bodies. It is often
referred to as "Newtonian mechanics" after Isaac Newton and his laws of motion. It also includes
classical approach as given by Hamiltonian and Lagrange methods.

Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics

The first chapter of The Feynman Lectures on Physics is about the existence of atoms,
which Feynman considered to be the most compact statement of physics, from which science could
easily result even if all other knowledge was lost. By modeling matter as collections of hard spheres,
it is possible to describe the kinetic theory of gases, upon which classical thermodynamics is based.
Thermodynamics
and volume on physical

studies

the

systems on

the

effects

of

changes

macroscopic scale,

and

in temperature, pressure,
the

transfer

of

energy

as heat. Historically, thermodynamics developed out of the desire to increase the efficiency of
early steam engines.
The starting point for most thermodynamic considerations is the laws of thermodynamics,
which postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work. They also
postulate the existence of a quantity named entropy, which can be defined for any system. In
thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized.
Central to this are the concepts of system and surroundings. A system is composed of particles,
whose average motions define its properties, which in turn are related to one another
through equations

of

state.

energy and thermodynamic

Properties

potentials,

which

can

be

are

useful

combined
for

to

determining

express internal
conditions

for

equilibrium and spontaneous processes.

Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is a branch of physics which involves the study of the electromagnetic
force, a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles. The
electromagnetic force usually shows electromagnetic fields, such as electric fields, magnetic fields,
and light. The electromagnetic force is one of the four fundamental interactions in nature. The other
three fundamental interactions are the strong interaction, the weak interaction, and gravitation.
The word electromagnetism is a compound form of two Greek terms, ,lektron,
"amber", and magntis lithos, which means "magnesian stone", a type of iron ore.
The science of electromagnetic phenomena is defined in terms of the electromagnetic force,

sometimes called the Lorentz force, which includes both electricity and magnetism as elements of
one phenomenon.
The electromagnetic force plays a major role in determining the internal properties of most
objects encountered in daily life. Ordinary matter takes its form as a result of intermolecular
forces between individual molecules in matter. Electrons are bound by electromagnetic wave
mechanics into orbitals around atomic nuclei to form atoms, which are the building blocks of
molecules. This governs the processes involved in chemistry, which arise from interactions between
the electrons of neighboring atoms, which are in turn determined by the interaction between
electromagnetic force and the momentum of the electrons.
There are numerous mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field. In classical
electrodynamics, electric fields are described as electric potential and electric current in Ohm's
law, magnetic fields are associated with electromagnetic induction and magnetism, and Maxwell's
equations describe how electric and magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other and by
charges and currents.
The theoretical implications of electromagnetism, in particular the establishment of the speed
of light based on properties of the "medium" of propagation (permeability and permittivity), led to the
development of special relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905.
Although electromagnetism is considered one of the four fundamental forces, at high energy
the weak force and electromagnetism are unified. In the history of the universe, during the quark
epoch, the electroweak force split into the electromagnetic and weak forces.

Relativity
The special theory of relativity enjoys a relationship with electromagnetism and mechanics;
that is, the principle of relativity and the principle of stationary action in mechanics can be used to
derive Maxwell's equations, and vice versa.
The theory of special relativity was proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in his article "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". The title of the article refers to the fact that special relativity
resolves an inconsistency between Maxwell's equations and classical mechanics. The theory is
based on two postulates: (1) that the mathematical forms of the laws of physics are invariant in
all inertial systems; and (2) that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and independent of the
source or observer. Reconciling the two postulates requires a unification of space and time into the
frame-dependent concept of spacetime.
General relativity is the geometrical theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in
1915/16. It unifies special relativity, Newton's law of universal gravitation, and the insight that

gravitation can be described by the curvature of space and time. In general relativity, the curvature of
spacetime is produced by the energy of matter and radiation.

Quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics treating atomic and subatomic systems and
their interaction with radiation. It is based on the observation that all forms of energy are released in
discrete units or bundles called "quanta". Remarkably, quantum theory typically permits
only probable or statistical calculation of the observed features of subatomic particles, understood in
terms of wave functions. The Schrdinger equation plays the role in quantum mechanics that
Newton's laws and conservation of energy serve in classical mechanicsi.e., it predicts the future
behavior of a dynamic systemand is a wave equation that is used to solve for wave functions.
For example, the light, or electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by an atom has only
certain frequencies (or wavelengths), as can be seen from the line spectrum associated with the
chemical element represented by that atom. The quantum theory shows that those frequencies
correspond to definite energies of the light quanta, or photons, and result from the fact that
the electrons of the atom can have only certain allowed energy values, or levels; when an electron
changes from one allowed level to another, a quantum of energy is emitted or absorbed whose
frequency is directly proportional to the energy difference between the two levels. The photoelectric
effect further confirmed the quantization of light.
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that not only do light waves sometimes exhibit particlelike properties, but particles may also exhibit wave-like properties. Two different formulations of
quantum mechanics were presented following de Broglie's suggestion. The wave mechanics of
Erwin Schrdinger (1926) involves the use of a mathematical entity, the wave function, which is
related to the probability of finding a particle at a given point in space. The matrix
mechanics of Werner Heisenberg (1925) makes no mention of wave functions or similar concepts
but was shown to be mathematically equivalent to Schrdinger's theory. A particularly important
discovery of the quantum theory is the uncertainty principle, enunciated by Heisenberg in 1927,
which places an absolute theoretical limit on the accuracy of certain measurements; as a result, the
assumption by earlier scientists that the physical state of a system could be measured exactly and
used to predict future states had to be abandoned. Quantum mechanics was combined with the
theory of relativity in the formulation of Paul Dirac. Other developments include quantum statistics,
quantum

electrodynamics,

concerned

with

interactions

between

electromagnetic fields; and its generalization, quantum field theory.

charged

particles

and

Interdisciplinary fields
To the interdisciplinary fields, which define partially sciences of their own, belong e.g. the

astrophysics, the physics in the universe, including the properties and interactions of
celestial bodies in astronomy.

biophysics, studying the physical interactions of biological processes.

chemical physics, the science of physical relations in chemistry.

econophysics, dealing with physical processes and their relations in the science of economy.

geophysics, the sciences of physical relations on our planet.

medical physics, the application of physics to prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

physical chemistry, dealing with physical processes and their relations in the science of physical
chemistry.

Summary
The table below lists the core theories along with many of the concepts they employ.
Theory

Major subtopics

Concepts
Density, dimension, gravity, space
, time, motion, length,
position, velocity,acceleration, Gal
ilean

Newton's laws of motion, Lagrangian

Classical
mechanics

mechanics,Hamiltonian
mechanics,kinematics, statics,dynamics, ch
aos theory, acoustics,fluid
dynamics,continuum mechanics

invariance, mass, momentum, imp

ulse, force, energy,angular
velocity, angular
momentum, moment of
inertia, torque, conservation
law, harmonic
oscillator, wave, work, power, Lagr
angian, Hamiltonian, TaitBryan
angles, Euler
angles, pneumatic, hydraulic

Electromagneti

Electrostatics,electrodynamics,electricity,m

Capacitance, electric

charge, current, electrical

conductivity, electric field,electric
permittivity, electric
potential, electrical
sm

agnetism,magnetostatics,Maxwell's
equations,optics

resistance, electromagnetic
field, electromagnetic
induction, electromagnetic
radiation, Gaussian
surface,magnetic field, magnetic
flux, magnetic
monopole, magnetic permeability
Boltzmann's constant, conjugate
variables, enthalpy, entropy, equat
ion of state, equipartition
theorem, thermodynamic free
energy, heat, ideal gas
law,internal energy, laws of
thermodynamics, Maxwell
relations, irreversible
process, Ising model, mechanical

Thermodynamics
and statistical

Heat engine, kinetic theory

mechanics

action, partition
function, pressure, reversible
process, spontaneous
process, state function, statistical
ensemble,temperature, thermodyn
amic equilibrium, thermodynamic
potential,thermodynamic
processes, thermodynamic
state, thermodynamic
system,viscosity, volume, work, gr
anular material

Quantum

Path integral formulation,scattering

Adiabatic approximation, black-

mechanics

theory,Schrdinger equation, quantum field

body radiation, correspondence

theory, quantum statistical mechanics

principle, free
particle, Hamiltonian, Hilbert

space, identical particles, matrix

mechanics,Planck's
constant, observer
effect, operators, quanta, quantiza
tion, quantum
entanglement, quantum harmonic
oscillator, quantum
number, quantum
tunneling, Schrdinger's cat, Dirac
equation, spin, wave
function, wave mechanics, wave
particle duality, zero-point
energy, Pauli exclusion
principle,Heisenberg uncertainty
principle
Relativity

Special relativity,general relativity,Einstein

Covariance, Einstein

field equations

manifold, equivalence
principle, four-momentum, fourvector, general principle of
relativity, geodesic
motion, gravity,gravitoelectromagn
etism, inertial frame of
reference, invariance, length
contraction, Lorentzian
manifold, Lorentz
transformation, massenergy
equivalence, metric, Minkowski
diagram, Minkowski
space, principle of
relativity, proper length, proper
time, reference frame, rest
energy, rest mass,relativity of
simultaneity, spacetime, special
principle of relativity, speed of
light,stressenergy tensor, time

dilation, twin paradox, world line

PHYSICISTS
1544-1603
English

hypothesized that the Earth is a giant magnet

Galileo Galilei

1564-1642
Italian

performed fundamental observations, experiments, and

mathematical analyses in astronomy and physics; discovered
mountains and craters on the moon, the phases of Venus, and
the four largest satellites of Jupiter: Io, Europa, Callisto, and
Ganymede

Willebrod Snell

1580-1626
Dutch

discovered law of refraction (Snell's law)

Blaise Pascal

1623-1662
French

Christiaan Huygens

1629-1695
Dutch

William Gilbert

Robert Hooke
Sir Isaac Newton
Daniel Bernoulli
Benjamin Franklin

1635-1703
English
1643-1727
English
1700-1782
Swiss
1706-1790
American

Leonard Euler

1707-1783
Swiss

Henry Cavendish

1731-1810
British

Charles Augustin de
Coulomb

1736-1806
French

discovered that pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is

transmitted undiminished to every part of the fluid and to the
walls of its container (Pascal's principle)
proposed a simple geometrical wave theory of light, now known
as ``Huygen's principle''; pioneered use of the pendulum in
clocks
discovered Hooke's law of elasticity
developed theories of gravitation and mechanics, and invented
differential calculus
developed the fundamental relationship of fluid flow now known
as Bernoulli's principle
the first American physicist; characterized two kinds of electric
charge, which he named ``positive'' and ``negative''
made fundamental contributions to fluid dynamics, lunar orbit
theory (tides), and mechanics; also contributed prolifically to all
areas of classical mathematics
discovered and studied hydrogen; first to measure Newton's
gravitational constant; calculated mass and mean density of
Earth
experiments on elasticity, electricity, and magnetism;
established experimentally nature of the force between two
charges

1736-1813
developed new methods of analytical mechanics
French
1736-1819
invented the modern condensing steam engine and a
James Watt
Scottish
centrifugal governor
1745-1827
Count Alessandro Volta
pioneer in study of electricity; invented the first electric battery
Italian
established the differential equation governing heat diffusion
1768-1830
Joseph Fourier
and solved it by devising an infinite series of sines and cosines
French
capable of approximating a wide variety of functions

Joseph-Louis Lagrange

Thomas Young

1773-1829
British

Jean-Babtiste Biot

1774-1862
French

Andr Marie Ampre

Amadeo Avogadro

1775-1836
French
1776-1856
Italian

Johann Carl Friedrich

Gauss

1777-1855
German

Hans Christian Oersted

1777-1851
Danish

Sir David Brewster

1781-1868
English

studied light and color; known for his double-slit experiment that
demonstrated the wave nature of light
studied polarization of light; co-discovered that intensity of
magnetic field set up by a current flowing through a wire varies
inversely with the distance from the wire
father of electrodynamics
developed hypothesis that all gases at same volume, pressure,
and temperature contain same number of atoms
formulated separate electrostatic and electrodynamical laws,
including ``Gauss' law''; contributed to development of number
theory, differential geometry, potential theory, theory of
terrestrial magnetism, and methods of calculating planetary
orbits
discovered that a current in a wire can produce magnetic
effects
deduced ``Brewster's law'' giving the angle of incidence that
produces reflected light which is completely polarized; invented
the kaleidoscope and the stereoscope, and improved the
spectroscope

1788-1827
studied transverse nature of light waves
French
1789-1854
discovered that current flow is proportional to potential
Georg Ohm
German
difference and inversely proportional to resistance (Ohm's law)
1791-1867 discovered electromagnetic induction and devised first electrical
Michael Faraday
English
transformer
co-discovered that intensity of magnetic field set up by a current
1791-1841
Felix Savart
flowing through a wire varies inversely with the distance from
French
the wire
1796-1832
Sadi Carnot
founded the science of thermodynamics
French
1797-1878
performed extensive fundamental studies of electromagnetic
Joseph Henry
American
phenomena; devised first practical electric motor
experimented with sound waves; derived an expression for the
1803-1853
Christian Doppler
apparent change in wavelength of a wave due to relative motion
Austrian
between the source and observer
1804-1891
developed sensitive magnetometers; worked in
Wilhelm E. Weber
German
electrodynamics and the electrical structure of matter
1805-1865 developed the principle of least action and the Hamiltonian form
Sir William Hamilton
Irish
of classical mechanics
1818-1889
James Prescott Joule
discovered mechanical equivalent of heat
British
made the first terrestrial measurement of the speed of light;
invented one of the first interferometers; took the first pictures of
Armand-Hippolyte1819-1896
the Sun on daguerreotypes; argued that the Doppler effect with
Louis Fizeau
French
respect to sound should also apply to any wave motion,
particularly that of light
Jean-Bernard-Lon
1819-1868
accurately measured speed of light; invented the gyroscope;
Foucault
French
demonstrated the Earth's rotation
Sir George Gabriel
1819-1903
described the motion of viscous fluids by independently
Stokes
British
discovering the Navier-Stokes equations of fluid mechanics (or
hydrodynamics); developed Stokes theorem by which certain
Augustin-Jean Fresnel

Hermann von
Helmholtz
Rudolf Clausius
Lord Kelvin
(born William
Thomson)
Gustav Kirchhoff
Johann Balmer
Sir Joseph Wilson
Swan
James Clerk Maxwell
Josef Stefan

Ernst Mach

Josiah Gibbs
James Dewar

Osborne Reynolds

Ludwig Boltzmann
Roland Etvs
Oliver Heaviside
George Francis
FitzGerald
John Henry Poynting
Henri Poincar

1821-1894
German
1822-1888
German

surface integrals may be reduced to line integrals; discovered

fluorescence
developed first law of thermodynamics, a statement of
conservation of energy
developed second law of thermodynamics, a statement that the
entropy of the Universe always increases

1824-1907
British

proposed absolute temperature scale, of essence to

development of thermodynamics

1824-1887
German
1825-1898
Swiss
1828-1914
British
1831-1879
Scottish
1835-1893
Austrian

developed three laws of spectral analysis and three rules of

electric circuit analysis; also contributed to optics

1838-1916
Austrian
1839-1903
American
1842-1923
British
1842-1912
British
1844-1906
Austrian
1848-1919
Hungarian

developed empirical formula to describe hydrogen spectrum

developed a carbon-filament incandescent light; patented the
carbon process for printing photographs in permanent pigment
propounded the theory of electromagnetism; developed the
kinetic theory of gases
studied blackbody radiation
studied conditions that occur when an object moves through a
fluid at high speed (the ``Mach number'' gives the ratio of the
speed of the object to the speed of sound in the fluid); proposed
``Mach's principle,'' which states that the inertia of an object is
due to the interaction between the object and the rest of the
universe
developed chemical thermodynamics; introduced concepts of
free energy and chemical potential
liquified nitrogen and invented the Dewar flask, which is critical
for low-temperature work
contributed to the fields of hydraulics and hydrodynamics;
developed mathematical framework for turbulence and
introduced the ``Reynolds number,'' which provides a criterion
for dynamic similarity and correct modeling in many fluid-flow
experiments
developed statistical mechanics and applied it to kinetic theory
of gases
demonstrated equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass

contributed to the development of electromagnetism; introduced

operational calculus and invented the modern notation for
vector calculus; predicted existence of the Heaviside layer (a
layer of the Earth's ionosphere)
hypothesized foreshortening of moving bodies (Lorentz1851-1901
FitzGerald contraction) to explain the result of the MichelsonIrish
Morley experiment
demonstrated that the energy flow of electromagnetic waves
1852-1914
could be calculated by an equation (now called Poynting's
British
vector)
1854-1912
founded qualitative dynamics (the mathematical theory of
French
dynamical systems); created topology; contributed to solution of
the three-body problem; first described many properties of
deterministic chaos; contributed to the development of special
1850-1925
English

Janne Rydberg

1854-1919
Swedish

Edwin H. Hall

1855-1938
American

Heinrich Hertz
Nikola Tesla

1857-1894
German
1857-1943
Serbian-born
American

relativity
analyzed the spectra of many elements; discovered many line
series were described by a formula that depended on a
universal constant (the Rydberg constant)
discovered the ``Hall effect,'' which occurs when charge carriers
moving through a material are deflected because of an applied
magnetic field - the deflection results in a potential difference
across the side of the material that is transverse to both the
magnetic field and the current direction
worked on electromagnetic phenomena; discovered radio
waves and the photoelectric effect
created alternating current

DEFINITION OF PHYSICS
physics
fiziks/
noun
the branch of science concerned with the nature and properties of matter and energy. The
subject matter of physics, distinguished from that of chemistry and biology, includes
mechanics, heat, light and other radiation, sound, electricity, magnetism, and the structure of
atoms.

SCIENTIFIC SKILLS IN ALL SCIENCES

Basic Science Process Skills
Observing - using the senses to gather information about an object or event. Example: Describing a
pencil as yellow.
Inferring - making an "educated guess" about an object or event based on previously gathered data
or information. Example: Saying that the person who used a pencil made a lot of mistakes because
the eraser was well worn.
Measuring - using both standard and nonstandard measures or estimates to describe the
dimensions of an object or event. Example: Using a meter stick to measure the length of a table in
centimeters.

Communicating - using words or graphic symbols to describe an action, object or event. Example:
Describing the change in height of a plant over time in writing or through a graph.
Classifying - grouping or ordering objects or events into categories based on properties or criteria.
Example: Placing all rocks having certain grain size or hardness into one group.
Predicting - stating the outcome of a future event based on a pattern of evidence. Example:
Predicting the height of a plant in two weeks time based on a graph of its growth during the previous
four weeks.

Integrated Science Process Skills

Controlling variables - being able to identify variables that can affect an experimental outcome,
keeping most constant while manipulating only the independent variable. Example: Realizing
through past experiences that amount of light and water need to be controlled when testing to see
how the addition of organic matter affects the growth of beans.
Defining operationally - stating how to measure a variable in an experiment. Example: Stating that
bean growth will be measured in centimeters per week.
Formulating hypotheses - stating the expected outcome of an experiment. Example: The greater
the amount of organic matter added to the soil, the greater the bean growth.
Interpreting data - organizing data and drawing conclusions from it. Example: Recording data from
the experiment on bean growth in a data table and forming a conclusion which relates trends in the
data to variables.
Experimenting - being able to conduct an experiment, including asking an appropriate question,
stating a hypothesis, identifying and controlling variables, operationally defining those variables,
designing a "fair" experiment, conducting the experiment, and interpreting the results of the
experiment. Example: The entire process of conducting the experiment on the affect of organic
matter on the growth of bean plants.
Formulating models - creating a mental or physical model of a process or event. Examples: The
model of how the processes of evaporation and condensation interrelate in the water cycle.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new
knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method
of inquiry is commonly based onempirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of
reasoning. The Oxford English Dictionary defines the scientific method as "a method or procedure
that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation,
measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses."

Process
The overall process involves making conjectures (hypotheses), deriving predictions from
them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments based on those predictions to
determine whether the original conjecture was correct. There are difficulties in a formulaic statement
of method, however. Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps,
they are better considered as general principles. Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry
(or to the same degree), and are not always in the same order. As noted by William Whewell (1794
1866), "invention, sagacity, [and] genius" are required at every step.

Formulation of a question
The question can refer to the explanation of a specific observation, as in "Why is the sky
blue?", but can also be open-ended, as in "How can I design a drug to cure this particular disease?"
This stage frequently involves looking up and evaluating evidence from previous experiments,
personal scientific observations or assertions, and/or the work of other scientists. If the answer is
already known, a different question that builds on the previous evidence can be posed. When
applying the scientific method to scientific research, determining a good question can be very difficult
and affects the final outcome of the investigation.

Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question,
that may explain the observed behavior of a part of our universe. The hypothesis might be very
specific, e.g., Einstein's equivalence principle or Francis Crick's "DNA makes RNA makes protein", or
it might be broad, e.g., unknown species of life dwell in the unexplored depths of the oceans.
A statistical hypothesis is a conjecture about some population. For example, the population might be
people with a particular disease. The conjecture might be that a new drug will cure the disease in
some of those people. Terms commonly associated with statistical hypotheses are null
hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. A null hypothesis is the conjecture that the statistical
hypothesis is false, e.g., that the new drug does nothing and that any cures are due to chance
effects. Researchers normally want to show that the null hypothesis is false. The alternative
hypothesis is the desired outcome, e.g., that the drug does better than chance. A final point: a
scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, meaning that one can identify a possible outcome of an
experiment that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, it cannot be
meaningfully tested.

Prediction
This step involves determining the logical consequences of the hypothesis. One or more
predictions are then selected for further testing. The more unlikely that a prediction would be correct
simply by coincidence, then the more convincing it would be if the prediction were fulfilled; evidence
is also stronger if the answer to the prediction is not already known, due to the effects of hindsight
bias (see also postdiction). Ideally, the prediction must also distinguish the hypothesis from likely
alternatives; if two hypotheses make the same prediction, observing the prediction to be correct is
not evidence for either one over the other. (These statements about the relative strength of evidence
can be mathematically derived using Bayes' Theorem).

Testing
This is an investigation of whether the real world behaves as predicted by the hypothesis.
Scientists (and other people) test hypotheses by conducting experiments. The purpose of an
experiment is to determine whether observations of the real world agree with or conflict with the
predictions derived from a hypothesis. If they agree, confidence in the hypothesis increases;
otherwise, it decreases. Agreement does not assure that the hypothesis is true; future experiments
may reveal problems. Karl Popper advised scientists to try to falsify hypotheses, i.e., to search for
and test those experiments that seem most doubtful. Large numbers of successful confirmations are
not convincing if they arise from experiments that avoid risk. Experiments should be designed to
minimize possible errors, especially through the use of appropriate scientific controls. For example,
tests of medical treatments are commonly run as double-blind tests. Test personnel, who might
unwittingly reveal to test subjects which samples are the desired test drugs and which are placebos,
are kept ignorant of which are which. Such hints can bias the responses of the test subjects.
Furthermore, failure of an experiment does not necessarily mean the hypothesis is false.
Experiments always depend on several hypotheses, e.g., that the test equipment is working
properly, and a failure may be a failure of one of the auxiliary hypotheses. (See the Duhem-Quine
thesis.) Experiments can be conducted in a college lab, on a kitchen table, at CERN's Large Hadron
Collider, at the bottom of an ocean, on Mars (using one of the working rovers), and so on.
Astronomers do experiments, searching for planets around distant stars. Finally, most individual
experiments address highly specific topics for reasons of practicality. As a result, evidence about
broader topics is usually accumulated gradually.

Analysis
This involves determining what the results of the experiment show and deciding on the next
actions to take. The predictions of the hypothesis are compared to those of the null hypothesis, to
determine which is better able to explain the data. In cases where an experiment is repeated many
times, a statistical analysis such as a chi-squared test may be required. If the evidence has falsified
the hypothesis, a new hypothesis is required; if the experiment supports the hypothesis but the
evidence is not strong enough for high confidence, other predictions from the hypothesis must be
tested. Once a hypothesis is strongly supported by evidence, a new question can be asked to
provide further insight on the same topic. Evidence from other scientists and experience are
frequently incorporated at any stage in the process. Depending on the complexity of the experiment,
many iterations may be required to gather sufficient evidence to answer a question with confidence,
or to build up many answers to highly specific questions in order to answer a single broader
question.

DNA example
The basic elements of the scientific method are illustrated by the following example from the
discovery of the structure of DNA:

Question: Previous investigation of DNA had determined its chemical composition (the
four nucleotides), the structure of each individual nucleotide, and other properties. It had
been identified as the carrier of genetic information by the AveryMacLeodMcCarty
experiment in 1944, but the mechanism of how genetic information was stored in DNA was
unclear.

Hypothesis: Linus Pauling, Francis Crick and James D. Watson hypothesized that DNA
had a helical structure.

Prediction: If DNA had a helical structure, its X-ray diffraction pattern would be Xshaped. This prediction was determined using the mathematics of the helix transform,
which had been derived by Cochran, Crick and Vand (and independently by Stokes). This
prediction was a mathematical construct, completely independent from the biological
problem at hand.

Experiment: Rosalind Franklin crystallized pure DNA and performed X-ray diffraction to
produce photo 51. The results showed an X-shape.

Analysis: When Watson saw the detailed diffraction pattern, he immediately recognized it
as a helix. He and Crick then produced their model, using this information along with the
previously known information about DNA's composition and about molecular interactions
such as hydrogen bonds.

The discovery became the starting point for many further studies involving the genetic
material, such as the field of molecular genetics, and it was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962. Each
step of the example is examined in more detail later in the article.

Other components
The scientific method also includes other components required even when all the iterations of the
steps above have been completed:
Replication
If an experiment cannot be repeated to produce the same results, this implies that the
original results might have been in error. As a result, it is common for a single experiment to be
performed multiple times, especially when there are uncontrolled variables or other indications
of experimental error. For significant or surprising results, other scientists may also attempt to
replicate the results for themselves, especially if those results would be important to their own work.

External review
The process of peer review involves evaluation of the experiment by experts, who typically
give their opinions anonymously. Some journals request that the experimenter provide lists of
possible peer reviewers, especially if the field is highly specialized. Peer review does not certify
correctness of the results, only that, in the opinion of the reviewer, the experiments themselves were
sound (based on the description supplied by the experimenter). If the work passes peer review,
which occasionally may require new experiments requested by the reviewers, it will be published in a
peer-reviewed scientific journal. The specific journal that publishes the results indicates the
perceived quality of the work.

Data recording and sharing

Scientists typically are careful in recording their data, a requirement promoted by Ludwik
Fleck (18961961) and others. Though not typically required, they might be requested to supply this
data to other scientists who wish to replicate their original results (or parts of their original results),
extending to the sharing of any experimental samples that may be difficult to obtain.