Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 12981310

www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Eects of thermal barrier coating on gas emissions and

performance of a LHR engine with dierent injection
timings and valve adjustments
Ekrem Buyukkaya *, Tahsin Engin, Muhammet Cerit
Sakarya University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Esentepe Campus, Sakarya 54187, Turkey
Received 28 May 2004; received in revised form 30 December 2004; accepted 29 June 2005
Available online 15 August 2005

Abstract
Tests were performed on a six cylinder, direct injection, turbocharged Diesel engine whose pistons were
coated with a 350 lm thickness of MgZrO3 over a 150 lm thickness of NiCrAl bond coat. CaZrO3 was
employed as the coating material for the cylinder head and valves. The working conditions for the standard
engine (uncovered) and low heat rejection (LHR) engine were kept exactly the same to ensure a realistic
comparison between the two congurations of the engine. Comparisons between the standard engine
and its LHR version were made based on engine performance, exhaust gas emissions, injection timing
and valve adjustment. The results showed that 18% reduction in brake specic fuel consumption could
be achieved by the combined eect of the thermal barrier coating (TBC) and injection timing. On the other
hand, NOx emissions were obtained below those of the base engine by 11% for 18 BTDC injection timing.
2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Low heat rejection; LHR engine; Thermal barrier coating; Diesel engine; Performance; Exhaust gas emissions; Injection timing

Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 264 346 03 53; fax: +90 264 346 03 51.
E-mail address: ebkaya@sakarya.edu.tr (E. Buyukkaya).

0196-8904/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2005.06.021

E. Buyukkaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 12981310

1299

1. Introduction
Insulating the combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine theoretically results in improved thermal eciency according to the second law of thermodynamics. However, this may not
be the case practically due to the complex nature of the internal combustion and the mechanical
and thermal limitations of the insulation material and lubricants. Several investigators have reported, based on their own test results, that the overall thermal eciency of a low heat rejection
(LHR) Diesel engine could be lower or higher than the uninsulated one depending upon the engine conguration, test conditions, and methods used [15]. Dickey [6], for example, investigated
the eect of LHR on engine performance, emissions and combustion characteristics and concluded that the LHR engine had lower thermal eciency with higher smoke, particulates and full
load CO emissions compared to the standard cooled engine. He attributed the lower eciency to
the degraded combustion and lower compression ratio. Undoubtedly, injection characteristics
may also play an important role. Kamo et al. [5] aimed at experimental determination whether
a thin layer thermal barrier coated engine could improve its performance when a high pressure
injector unit was used and found that the current trend toward high pressure fuel injection system
was apropos, while they underlined that a thermal barrier coating (TBC) oered higher eciency
by 56% compared to the standard engine. They also reported signicant improvement in fuel
economy by insulating the Diesel combustion chamber. TBCs for Diesel engines have generally
been accepted to improve engine thermal eciency and reduce emissions as well as specic fuel
consumption because of their ability to provide thermal insulation to the engine components.
The generally known principle that increased operation temperatures in energy conversion systems lead to an increase in eciency, fuel savings and reduced emissions as particles, carbon monoxides (CO), hydrocarbons (HC) and limited reductions of NOx have, over many decades,
promoted R&D activities in the eld of TBCs development [7].
Mechanical properties of ceramics and ceramic design technology have improved to the point
that we can use ceramics as structural parts of engines. Ceramics have a higher thermal durability
than conventional metals, making it unnecessary to cool them as much. Low thermal conductivity
ceramics can be used to control temperature distribution and heat ow in a structure. Other
ceramics have both low thermal capacity and low thermal conductivity. When these other ceramics are used as the inner surface material of a cylinder (where the temperature and density of the
working uid changes cyclically and rapidly), they can change the heat transfer between the working uid and the cylinder walls [8].
A lot of works have been done to utilize these ceramic properties to improve thermal cycle eciency by reducing heat losses and to improve engine eciency by eliminating cooling systems.
When cylinder cooling losses are reduced, more of the heat is delivered to the exhaust system.
Thus, ecient recovery of energy of the exhaust improves the thermal eciency of a low heat
rejection engine. However, installing heat recovery systems needs considerable eort. A lot of
changes are necessary in the engine conguration. Even without heat recovery systems, some of
the heat is converted to piston work and increases thermal eciency. Therefore, LHR engines
without exhaust heat recovery systems are worth studying [9].
Application of thick plasma sprayed coatings has a number of disadvantages, namely adhesion
of coatings thicker than 500 lm is poor, temperatures of combustion chamber walls raised to
excessive values reduces the volumetric eciency and creates additional problems with adequate

1300

E. Buyukkaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 12981310

lubrication at the higher end of the piston stroke. Typically, carbon deposits on the combustion
chamber surface possess thermal properties comparable with ceramics. Exhaust emissions and
specic fuel consumption decrease due to higher combustion chamber temperatures, but nitric
oxides increase [10]. There are a lot of potential techniques for its reduction from Diesel engines,
such as exhaust gas recirculation, water injection, slower burn rate, reduced intake air temperature and particularly retarding injection timing [1113]. A detailed literature review would reveal
that the major considerations associated with insulated Diesel engines are: (i) engine performance,
(ii) low exhaust gas emissions, (iii) injection timing and (iv) compression ratio. However, there is
no notable study dealing with the eect of valve adjustment for LHR engines. Despite the fact that
the eects of TBCs on a Diesel engine have been studied for many years, and the necessity for the
reliable data is ever increasing, an exact procedure or method to predict these eects does not currently exist. Therefore, the test data taken from various working conditions of dierent coating
properties and numerical simulations must be relied upon to aid in the developments of new predictive models.
In the present study, experiments have been conducted to study the eects of the TBC on exhaust gas emissions and performance of a turbocharged Diesel engine. The performance characteristics, valve adjustment, emission properties and injection timing were considered as the key
parameters for the LHR and standard cases over the experimentation. The results showed that
18% reduction in brake specic fuel consumption could be achieved by the combined eect of
the TBC and injection timing. On the other hand, NOx emissions were obtained below those of
the standard engine by 11% for 18 BTDC injection timing.

2. Test engine, experimental procedure and instrumentation

A six cylinder, direct injection, turbocharged Diesel engine was used throughout the investigation. The experimental setup is shown schematically in Fig. 1. It consists of a hydraulic brake
dynamometer, control panel, intercooler unit, inclined manometer, emissions measuring device
and a temperature sensor with a resolution of 1 C. Fig. 2 is the photo of the engine tested.
The measured parameters and corresponding locations shown in Fig. 1 are summarized in Table
1. The specications of the test engine are also given in Table 2. Prior to application of the insulation, the standard pistons were machined to remove material equal to the desired coating thickness. Then, the pistons, valves and cylinder head of the engine were coated with ceramic materials.
Atmospheric plasma spray was used as the coating method. The cylinder head and valves were
coated with a 350 lm thickness of CaZrO3 over a 150 lm thickness of NiCrAl (Metco 443) bond
coat. MgZrO3 (Metco 210) was used as piston coating material. With the spray coating applied,
the original dimensions of the coated parts of the engine were restored. Tests for the standard and
the LHR engine versions were run at two dierent load conditions and various speeds. First, the
engine was tested, as equipped with a water cooled intercooler, without coating, and then, the
coated engine tests were conducted at the same working conditions.
In order to measure the engine performance and exhaust gas emissions during operation, the
engine was installed on a test stand and connected to a hydraulic dynamometer providing a maximum engine power of 900 kW. Brake specic fuel consumption (BSFC) was measured by a graduated cylinder that had a total volume of 250 cm3. The exhaust gas temperatures were measured

E. Buyukkaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 12981310

1301

11
Flue outlet

7
10

Turbine

Air
flow
meter

Intercooleer
6

Air
intake

Compressor

9
1
3
ENGINE
4 5 2

Oil cooler

Clean oil

12

Bremse
Waste oil

Fuel tank
Water cooling
exchanger
Water
tank

Control cabin

Waste oil
tank

Clean oil
tank

Water
cooling
tower

Fig. 1. Experimental setup and instrumentation.

Fig. 2. The photo of the engine tested.

by a digital thermocouple (PT100) which can measure up to 1000 C. Particulate emissions were
measured by RTT 100/110 type emission measurement device. This device provides an emission
analysis with an accuracy better than 1 mg/m3 of full scale. The emission values were measured
from the exhaust manifold at one meter distance. The engine speed was measured by a digital
tachometer with a resolution of 1 rpm up to 10000 rpm. NOx emissions were measured by
employing MRU 95/3 CD type gas analyser with an accuracy of 300 ppm 5% of full scale.

1302

E. Buyukkaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 12981310

Table 1
Measured parameters and their locations
Label

Measured parameters and locations

Unit

Measurement range
and accuracy

Device type

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Engine speed
Oil inlet temperature
Oil outlet temperature
Water inlet temperature
Water outlet temperature
Intercooler inlet
Intercooler outlet
Manifold pressure
Turbine inlet temperature
Turbine outlet temperature
Emission measurement

12

Fuel consumption

rpm
C
C
C
C
C
C
mbar
C
C
ppm
mg/m3
cm3

010000 1
0150 1
0150 1
0150 1
0150 1
0150 1
0150 1
07 0.1
01000 1
01000 1
04000 5
01966 1
0250 5

Digital tachometer
PT-100
PT-100
PT-100
PT-100
PT-100
PT-100
ST2100G2
PT-100
PT-100
NOx (MRU 95/3 CD)
Particulate (RTT 100/110)
Graduated cylinder

Table 2
Engine specications
Engine type

Ford 6.0 lt. T/C, intercooling,

direct injection

Number of strokes
Number of cylinders
Cylinder diameter (mm)
Stroke (mm)
Compression ratio
Maximum power (kW)
Maximum speed (rpm)
Displacement (cm3)
Firing order
Injection timing (BTDC)

4
6
104.77
114.9
16.5/1
136 (at 2400 rpm)
2780
5947
153624
20

Before the insulating process, a 500 lm thickness was removed from the surfaces of the pistons,
valves and cylinder head parts of the standard engine. These parts were, then, coated with ceramic
materials of the same thickness and installed in the engine. As a result, each of the ceramic coated
pistons resulted in the same compression ratio (16.5/1).
The experimental work consisted of three stages. For the rst stage, the standard engine was
run at dierent speeds, changing from 1000 to 2400 rpm with an interval of 200 rpm and with load
ranging from 15 kp to 55 kp by an increment of 5 kp in order to determine the BSFC, exhaust gas
temperatures and the particulates and NOx emissions. At the second stage, the same experimental
measurements were repeated, as with the rst stage, on the LHR version of the same engine all of
whose parts in contact with the combustion gases were coated with the ceramic material. Care was
taken to ensure that all original dimensions were kept the same after the coating process to produce the same compression ratio. In other words, both the standard engine and its LHR version

E. Buyukkaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 12981310

1303

had the same dimensions. At the nal stage, the injection delay timing of the LHR engine was
lowered from 20 BTDC to 18 BTDC and, after that, to 16 BTDC, successively. The performance tests of the LHR engine were repeated for those settings of injection delay timing. Also,
in order to ascertain the eect of valve adjustment, its original setting (0.46 mm) was set to
0.38 mm, and the performance tests were conducted for both 20 BTDC and 18 BTDC of injection delay timing of the LHR engine.

3. Results and discussion

A long term experimental study has been conducted on a six cylinder, direct injection, turbocharged Diesel engine. Both the standard engine (without TBC) and its LHR version have been
used in the experiments. A comparative evaluation for both cases has been made based upon engine performance, brake specic fuel consumption (BSFC), exhaust gas emissions, valve adjustment and injection delay timing.
3.1. Fuel consumption
A comparison of the BSFC for the standard engine (SE) and the ceramic coated engine (CE)
under full load is shown in Fig. 3. Because of the higher surface temperatures of its combustion
chamber, the BSFC values of the LHR engine were lower than those of the standard engine. The
relative reduction in the BSFC is seen to be within the range of 16%, but at full load and high
speed conditions, there was only a little increasing of specic fuel consumption. This is presumably because of the fact that at these conditions, the low heat rejection engine suers signicantly
from a loss of volumetric eciency in comparison to that of the standard engine as can be seen
from Fig. 4. In Fig. 5, the exhaust gas temperatures from the two engine congurations are plotted
as a function of engine speed for full load. The exhaust gas temperatures were seen to increase by
65 C (on average) with the addition of insulation.
250
SE 8.17 bar
CE 8.17 bar

BSFC (g/kWh)

240

230

220

210
1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 3. Variation of BSFC (uncertainty of 2.61%) with engine speed at full load.

1304

E. Buyukkaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 12981310

110%
SE 8.17 bar
CE 8.17 bar

Volumetric
efficiency

100%

90%

80%

70%
1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 4. Variation of volumetric eciency (uncertainty of 3.82%) with engine speed at full load.

500
SE 8.17 bar
CE 8.17 bar

Exhaust
temperature (oC)

475

450

425

400

375
1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 5. Variation of exhaust gas temperature with engine speed at full load.

3.2. Exhaust gas emissions

Particulate emission results were presented in Fig. 6. As expected, due to the higher temperatures at the full load conditions, particulate emission levels were lower with the LHR engine.
The LHR engine provides relatively low exhaust gas temperatures for low loads at low speeds
compared to the standard engine (SE), which causes lower turbocharger performances. Therefore,
the volumetric eciency of the converted engine is remarkably limited by the low turbocharger
performance at low load and speed conditions. On the other hand, for full load at higher speeds,
the LHR engine gives nearly 40% reduction in particulate emission owing to the relatively higher
gas temperatures and equivalence ratios. The reported values for this reduction in the literature
can be up to 86% depending upon the operating conditions of the engine [14,15]. Previous studies
indicated that both improvements and degradations in the particulate performance could take

E. Buyukkaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 12981310

1305

55%
CE 8.17 bar
SE 8.17 bar

Particulate
(g/kWh)

45%

35%

25%

15%

5%
1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 6. Variation of particulate emission with engine speed at full load.

place for some particular LHR engines. For instance, Alkidas [8] obtained both increased and decreased particulate emissions. In the optimized engine conguration, there were notable decreases
in both particulates and smoke number over the operating range, though the reductions in particulates were not as great as the decrease in smoke number.
The higher NOx emissions from the LHR engine, in comparison to the SE, are attributed partly
to the higher combustion temperatures and partly to the shorter combustion durations in the
LHR engine. Increasing the combustion duration increases the fraction of the fuel that burns later
in the cycle and, consequently, decreases the emissions index of NOx [16]. The higher NOx emissions from the LHR engine agree with the ndings of other studies [3,17]. For the same brake
mean eective pressure, the present LHR engine produced substantially more NOx emissions than
the corresponding LHR engine of the earlier study [18], but it also had a lower BSFC. In the present study, it has been found that the LHR engine provided almost no advantage at relatively low
loads and speed conditions in terms of NOx emissions and only about 2.44% of the reduction in
the NOx emissions could be recorded. However, at higher loads, when operating at low speeds,
the NOx emission was measured at about 9% more in comparison to the standard engine. This
is presumably due to the high gas temperatures caused by higher loads (Fig. 5). On the other
hand, for full load at high speeds, this value reduced to 5.5% in parallel with the deterioration
in the overall volumetric eciency (Fig. 7).
3.3. Eects of injection delaying timing and valve adjustment
Combustion characteristics in Diesel engines are the most important factors aecting engine
output power, specic fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions as well as vibration and engine
noise. Combustion characteristics, on the other hand, depend largely upon ignition delay. However, since the temperature and the pressure of the combustion air increase as it is compressed in
the cylinders, the delay in ignition timing usually decreases. Furthermore, the temperatures in the
combustion chamber of the supercharged, ceramic coated Diesel engine would be considerably
higher than those of an uninsulated engine, which normally result in shorter ignition timing.

1306

E. Buyukkaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 12981310

NOx (g/kWh)

16

SE, injection timing 20 deg BTDC

CE, injection timing 20 deg BTDC
CE, injection timing 18 deg BTDC
CE, injection timing 16 deg BTDC

12

4
1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 7. Variation of NOx emission with engine speed for 201816 BTDC injection timings of ceramic engine (CE)
and 20 BTDC of standard engine (SE) at full load.

Therefore, the retardation of the ignition timing would be impractical for LHR engines. As a potential alternative, fuel injection timing can be delayed [5,19]. In the present study, the fuel injection timing of the standard engine was 20 BTDC, and this value was varied as 18 and 16 BTDC
for the LHR engine. Meanwhile, the valve adjustment was reduced from its original value of 0.46
0.38 mm. The eect of such settings on the specic fuel consumption and NOx emission were
experimentally investigated.
For 18 BTDC injection delay timing, a relative reduction of 12% in the specic fuel consumption was recorded. In addition, at higher speeds and full load, the deterioration in the fuel consumption for 20 BTDC was seen to disappear for 18 BTDC as shown in Fig. 8. However,
further reductions in the injection timing have been observed to increase these two crucial para-

245

BSFC (g/kWh)

235

CE, injection timing 20 deg BTDC

CE, injection timing 18 deg BTDC
CE, injection timing 16 deg BTDC

225

215

205
1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 8. Variation of specic fuel consumption (uncertainty of 2.61%) with engine speed for 201816 BTDC
injection timings of ceramic coated engine (CE) at full load.

E. Buyukkaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 12981310

1307

meters, and we concluded that the 18 BTDC could be regarded as the optimum setting for the
ceramic coated engine as illustrated in the same gure (Fig. 8).
Fig. 9 shows the variations of specic fuel consumption and particulate emission with engine
speed for 20 and 18 BTDC injection delay timings of the ceramic coated engine (CE) at nearly
full load. It is clearly seen from Fig. 9 that an 18 BTDC injection timing resulted in almost 15%
reduction (at relatively low engine speeds) in the particulate emissions, while 12% reduction (over
the full range of engine speed and at full load) in the specic fuel consumption was maintained.
However, at higher engine speeds (over 1800 rpm), the particulate emissions were seen to approach the original value (20 BTDC) of the ceramic coated engine (LHR). It is, therefore, concluded that there was almost no remarkable advantage of changing the injection timing from 20
260

45

BSFC (g/kWh)

250

CE 20 deg BTDC
CE 18 deg BTDC
CE 20 deg BTDC
CE 18 deg BTDC

35

240
25
230
15

220

210
1000

Particulate
(g/kWh)*1/100

BSFC,
BSFC,
Particulate,
Particulate,

1200

1400

1600
1800
2000
Engine speed (rpm)

2200

5
2400

Fig. 9. Variations of specic fuel consumption (uncertainty of 2.61%) and particulate emission with engine speed for
2018 BTDC injection timings of ceramic coated engine (CE) at full load.

250

BSFC (g/kWh)

240

CE, 20 deg BTDC, valve 0.46 mm

CE, 18 deg BTDC, valve 0.46 mm
CE, 20 deg BTDC, valve 0.38 mm
CE, 18 deg BTDC, valve 0.38 mm

230

220

210
1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 10. Variation of specic fuel consumption (uncertainty of 2.61%) with engine speed for 0.46 mm and 0.38 mm
valve adjustments, and 20 and 18 BTDC injection delay timings of ceramic coated engine (CE) at full load.

1308

E. Buyukkaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 12981310

16
SE, valve 0.46 mm, 20 deg BTDC
CE, valve 0.46 mm, 18 deg BTDC
CE, valve 0.38 mm, 20 deg BTDC
CE, valve 0.38 mm, 18 deg BTDC

NOx (g/kWh)

14

12

10

6
1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 11. Variation of NOx emission with engine speed for 0.46 mm valve adjustment and 20 BTDC injection delay
timing of SE and 0.46 mm and 0.38 mm valve adjustments with 18 BTDC injection delay timing of ceramic coated
engine (CE) at full load.

to 18 BTDC for engine speed over 1800 rpm, and 18 BTDC could be regarded as the optimum
injection timing when considering both fuel economy and particulate emissions.
Figs. 10 and 11 show the eects of various valve settings and injection delay timings on the specic fuel consumption and NOx emissions. It is clearly seen that such modications have almost
no eect on the fuel economy of the engine, and therefore, it can be concluded that optimization
of the injection system and injection timing would play a remarkable role for LHR engines. However, it has been observed that the delay in injection timing without modication in the valve
adjustment reduced both the specic fuel consumption and NOx emission. Similar conclusions
were also reported in the literature [1821].
In the present study, up to 27% reduction in the NOx emissions have been provided depending
upon engine speed. At higher engine speeds and loadings, the HC emissions have been observed to
be the same with the ceramic coated engine (LHR) with 20 BTDC injection timing, while better
results have been obtained compared to the base engine with the same injection timing. It can be
concluded that optimization of the fuel system and injection timing could be considered the key
issues for Diesel engines with TBC.

4. Conclusions
1. Almost 65 C increase in the combustion gas temperature has been observed for the LHR
engine compared to the standard engine working under the same conditions.
2. The brake specic fuel consumption (BSFC) values of the LHR engine were found to be
lower by about 6% than those of the standard engine.
3. The emission characteristics of the insulated engine at moderate and full loads appeared to
be attractive. Particulate emissions decreased clearly in the LHR engine. These reductions
were up to 40%.

E. Buyukkaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 12981310

1309

4. The NOx emission levels were found to be higher by about 9% compared to those of the standard engine because of the higher exhaust gas temperatures for the LHR engine.
5. Delaying the injection timing in the LHR engine from 20 to 18 resulted in a reduction of 1
2% in the specic fuel consumption. On the other hand, 16 BTDC injection timing exhibited
almost the same fuel consumption as that of the standard engine.
6. NOx emissions were observed to be lower by 11% for 18 BTDC and by 26% on average for
16 BTDC injection timings in comparison to the standard engine.
7. In terms of specic fuel consumption, considerable deteriorations have been observed for
0.38 mm of valve adjustment.
8. Reducing the valve adjustment for the LHR engine from 0.46 mm to 0.38 mm gave generally
lower NOx emissions regardless of considering the injection timing. However, 0.38 mm of
valve adjustment was observed to be a remarkable increase as compared to its original value
(0.46 mm).

Acknowledgement
This study has been nancially supported by The Scientic and Research Council of Turkey
(TUBITAK-MISAG-30). TUBITAKs support is greatfully acknowledged.
References
[1] Bryzik WR, Kamo R. TACOM/Cummins adiabatic engine program. SAE paper 830314, February 1983.
[2] Yoshimitsu T, Toyama K, Sata F, Yamaguchi H. Capabilities of heat insulated turbocompound engine. ASME
paper 80-DGP-14.
[3] Toyama K, Yoshimitsu T, Nishiyama T. Heat insulated turbocompound engine. SAE Trans 1983;92:3.108697.
[4] Woschni G, Spindler W, Kolesa K. Heat insulation of combustion chamber wallsa measure to decrease the fuel
combustion of I.C. engines. SAE paper 850359.
[5] Kamo R, Mavinahally NS, Kamo L, Bryzik W, Schwartz E. Injection characteristics that improve performance of
ceramics coated Diesel engines. Society of Automotive Engineers 1999-01-0972.
[6] Dickey DW. The eect of insulated chamber surfaces on direct-injected Diesel engine performance, emissions and
combustion. SAE paper 890292.
[7] Kvernes I., Lugscheider E., Ladru F. Lifetime and degradation processes of TBCs for Diesel engines. Available
from: http://www.rwth-aachen.de/ww/Ww/veroeentlichungen/cost501/cost501.htm, 2004.
[8] Alkidas AC. Performance and emissions achievements with an uncooled heavy duty, single cylinder Diesel engine.
SAE 890141, 1989.
[9] Miyairi Y. Computer simulation of an LHR DI Diesel engine. Society of Automotive Engineers 880187, 1989.
[10] Hejwowski T, Weronski A. The eect of thermal barrier coatings on Diesel engine performance. Vacuum
2001;65:42732.
[11] Aman CA. Promises and challenges of the low-heat-rejection diesel. J Eng Gas Turb Power 1988;110:47581.
[12] Herzog PL, Burgler L. NOx reduction strategies for DI Diesel engines. SAE 920470, 1992.
[13] Maramatsu G, Abe A, Yosdiha K. Catalytic reduction of NOx in Diesel exhaust. SAE paper no. 930135, 1993.
[14] Assanis D, Wlese K, Schwartz E, Bryzik W. The eects of ceramic coatings on Diesel engine performance and
exhaust emissions. SAE paper 910460, 1991.
[15] Bryzik W., Kamo R. TACOM/Cummins adiabatic engine program. In: SAE international congress. Michigan:
1983.

1310

E. Buyukkaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 12981310

[16] Alkidas AC, Cole RB. Gaseous and particulate emissions from a single-cylinder divided-chamber Diesel engine.
SAE Trans 1983;92:3.80214.
[17] Belardini P, Bertoli C, Corcione FE, Police G. Thermal barriers adoption in DI Diesel engines. Eect on smoke
gaseous emissions. SAE paper no. 840995, 1984.
[18] Alkidas AC. Experiments with an uncooled single-cylinder open-chamber Diesel. SAE paper 870020, 1987.
[19] Balci M. Heat release characteristics of a Diesel type combustion chamber. MSc thesis, School of Mechanical
Engineering, The University of Bath, England, 1983.
[20] Kawamura H. Study of construction and tribology in heat insulated ceramic engine. SAE paper 900624, 1990.
[21] Wang Y, Yang C, Sau G, Ju Y, Zhao K. An observation of high temperature combustion phenomenon in low heat
rejection Diesel engines. SAE paper 940949, 1984.