Bible

For other uses, see Bible (disambiguation).

Bible was the rst mass-printed book. It was the rst
Biblical redirects here. For the song by Biy Clyro, book ever printed using movable type.
see Biblical (song).

1 Etymology
The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the
same word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin and ultimately from Koine Greek ta biblia the books
(singular biblion).[7]
Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra holy book,
while biblia in Greek and Late Latin is neuter plural (gen.
bibliorum). It gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun (biblia, gen. bibliae) in medieval
Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the
vernaculars of Western Europe.[8] Latin biblia sacra holy
books translates Greek ta biblia ta
hagia, the holy books.[9]

The Gutenberg Bible, the rst printed Bible

The Bible (from Koine Greek , t bibla, the

books[1] ) is a collection of texts sacred in Judaism and
Christianity. It is a collection of scriptures written at different times by dierent authors in dierent locations.
Jews and Christians consider the books of the Bible to be
a product of divine inspiration or an authoritative record
of the relationship between God and humans.

The word itself had the literal meaning of paper or scroll and came to be used as the ordinary word
for "book". It is the diminutive of byblos, Egyptian papyrus, possibly so called from the name of the
Phoenician sea port Byblos (also known as Gebal) from
whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece. The
Greek ta biblia (lit. little papyrus books)[10] was an
expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred
books (the Septuagint).[11][12] Christian use of the term
can be traced to c. 223 CE.[7] The biblical scholar F.F.
Bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the rst writer
(in his Homilies on Matthew, delivered between 386 and
388) to use the Greek phrase ta biblia (the books) to
describe both the Old and New Testaments together.[13]

There is no single canonical Bible; many Bibles have

evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents.[2] The
Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible
and the Greek Septuagint; the Hebrew Bible is known in
Judaism as the Tanakh. The New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, consisting of narratives, letters, and apocalyptic writings. Among Christian
denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily in the Apocrypha, a list of
works that are regarded with varying levels of respect.

2 Development

Attitudes towards the Bible also vary amongst Christian

groups. Roman Catholics, Anglicans and Eastern Orthodox Christians stress the harmony and importance of
the Bible and sacred tradition, while Protestant churches
focus on the idea of sola scriptura, or scripture alone.
This concept arose during the Protestant Reformation,
and many denominations today continue to support the
use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching.

See also: Authorship of the Bible

Professor John K. Riches, Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism at the University of Glasgow, in an Oxford
University Press introduction to the Bible, says that the
biblical texts themselves are the result of a creative dialogue between ancient traditions and dierent communities through the ages,[14] and the biblical texts were
produced over a period in which the living conditions of
the writers political, cultural, economic, and ecological varied enormously.[15] Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism at

With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the

Bible is widely considered to be the best-selling book of
all time.[3][4] It has estimated annual sales of 100 million
copies,[5][6] and has been a major inuence on literature
and history, especially in the West where the Gutenberg
1

3 HEBREW BIBLE
a general rule, one can say that the Orthodox
Churches generally follow the Septuagint in including more books in their Old Testaments
than are in the Jewish canon.[18]

3 Hebrew Bible
Main article: Development of the Hebrew Bible canon
The Masoretic Text is the authoritative Hebrew text of

The Kennicott Bible, by Benjamin Kennicott, with illustration,

Jonah being swallowed by the sh, 1476

the University of Edinburgh, says that the Old Testament

is a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing.[16] He states that it is not a magical
book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to
mankind. Parallel to the solidication of the Hebrew
canon (c. 3rd century BCE), only the Torah rst and
than the Tanakh began to be translated into Greek and
expanded, now referred to as the Septuagint or the Greek
Old Testament.[17]
In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from oral traditions in the second half of the rst
century CE. Riches says that:
Scholars have attempted to reconstruct
something of the history of the oral traditions
behind the Gospels, but the results have not
been too encouraging. The period of transmission is short: less than 40 years passed between
the death of Jesus and the writing of Marks
Gospel. This means that there was little time
for oral traditions to assume xed form.[18]

The Nash Papyrus (2nd century BCE) contains a portion of a

pre-Masoretic Text, specically the Ten Commandments and the
Shema Yisrael prayer.

The Bible was later translated into Latin and other languages. John Riches states that:
the Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh. It denes the books of the
Jewish canon, and also the precise letter-text of these bibThe translation of the Bible into Latin
lical books, with their vocalization and accentuation.
marks the beginning of a parting of the ways
The oldest extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text
between Western Latin-speaking Christianity
date from approximately the 9th century CE,[19] and the
and Eastern Christianity, which spoke Greek,
Aleppo Codex (once the oldest complete copy of the MaSyriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and other languages.
soretic Text, but now missing its Torah section) dates
The Bibles of the Eastern Churches vary confrom
the 10th century.
siderably: the Ethiopic Orthodox canon inThe name Tanakh (Hebrew: )"reects the threefold
cludes 81 books and contains many apocalyptic
division of the Hebrew Scriptures, Torah (Teaching),
texts, such as were found at Qumran and subNevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings).
sequently excluded from the Jewish canon. As

3.2

3.1

Nevi'im

Torah

Main article: Torah

See also: Oral Torah

3
( Rishonim Nevi'im , the narrative books
of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) and the Latter
Prophets ( Aharonim Nevi'im , the books
of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel and the Twelve Minor
Prophets).

The Torah ( )is also known as the Five Books of The Nevi'im tell the story of the rise of the Hebrew
Moses" or the Pentateuch, meaning ve scroll-cases.[20] monarchy and its division into two kingdoms, ancient
The Hebrew names of the books are derived from the rst Israel and Judah, focusing on conicts between the Iswords in the respective texts. The Torah consists of the raelites and other nations, and conicts among Israelites,
specically, struggles between believers in the LORD
following ve books:
God[26] and believers in foreign gods,[27][28] and the criticism of unethical and unjust behavior of Israelite elites
Genesis, Bereshith ()
and rulers;[29][30][31] in which prophets played a crucial
and leading role. It ends with the conquest of the King Exodus, Shemot ()
dom of Israel by the Assyrians followed by the conquest
Leviticus, Vayikra ()
of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.
Numbers, Bamidbar ()
Deuteronomy, Devarim ()

3.2.1 Former Prophets

The rst eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of

the creation (or ordering) of the world and the history
of Gods early relationship with humanity. The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account
of Gods covenant with the Biblical patriarchs Abraham,
Isaac and Jacob (also called Israel) and Jacobs children,
the "Children of Israel", especially Joseph. It tells of how
God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home
in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan,
and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt. The
remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of Moses,
who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. He leads
the Children of Israel from slavery in Ancient Egypt to
the renewal of their covenant with God at Mount Sinai
and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation
was ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends
with the death of Moses.[21]

The Former Prophets are the books Joshua, Judges,

Samuel and Kings. They contain narratives that begin
immediately after the death of Moses with the divine appointment of Joshua as his successor, who then leads the
people of Israel into the Promised Land, and end with
the release from imprisonment of the last king of Judah.
Treating Samuel and Kings as single books, they cover:

The Torah contains the commandments of God, revealed

at Mount Sinai (although there is some debate among
traditional scholars as to whether these were all written down at one time, or over a period of time during
the 40 years of the wanderings in the desert, while several modern Jewish movements reject the idea of a literal revelation, and critical scholars believe that many of
these laws developed later in Jewish history).[22][23][24][25]
These commandments provide the basis for Jewish religious law. Tradition states that there are 613 commandments (taryag mitzvot).

the possession of the land under the divinely appointed kings of the House of David, ending in conquest and foreign exile (Books of Kings)

3.2

Nevi'im

Main article: Nevi'im

Joshuas conquest of the land of Canaan (in the Book

of Joshua),
the struggle of the people to possess the land (in the
Book of Judges),
the peoples request to God to give them a king so
that they can occupy the land in the face of their
enemies (in the Books of Samuel)

3.2.2 Latter Prophets

The Latter Prophets are divided into two groups, the
major prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and the
Twelve Minor Prophets, collected into a single book. The
collection is broken up to form twelve individual books in
the Christian Old Testament, one for each of the prophets:
Hosea, Hoshea ()
Joel, Yoel ()
Amos, Amos ()

Nevi'im (Hebrew: N'm, Prophets) is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and
Ketuvim. It contains two sub-groups, the Former Prophets

Obadiah, Ovadyah ()
Jonah, Yonah ()

3 HEBREW BIBLE
Micah, Mikhah ()
Nahum, Nahum ()
Habakkuk, Havakuk ()
Zephaniah, Tsefanya ()
Haggai, Khagay ()

Their narratives all openly describe relatively late

events (i.e., the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion).
The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to
all of them.
Two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books
in the Tanakh with signicant portions in Aramaic.

Zechariah, Zekharyah ()
Malachi, Malakhi ()

3.3

3.3.4 Order of the books

Ketuvim

Main article: Ketuvim

Ketuvim or Km (in Biblical Hebrew: writings) is the third and nal section of the Tanakh. The
Ketuvim are believed to have been written under the
Ruach HaKodesh (the Holy Spirit) but with one level less
authority than that of prophecy.[32]
3.3.1

The poetic books

In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions),

Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special twocolumn form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses,
which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, these
three books are known as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the
titles in Hebrew, , , yields Emet ",
which is also the Hebrew for "truth").
These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with
a special system of cantillation notes that are designed
to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the
beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal
prose system.
3.3.2

The ve scrolls (Hamesh Megillot)

The ve relatively short books of Song of Songs, Book of

Ruth, the Book of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Book
of Esther are collectively known as the Hamesh Megillot
(Five Megillot). These are the latest books collected and
designated as authoritative in the Jewish canon even
though they were not complete until the 2nd century
CE.[33]
3.3.3

Other books

Coloured title page from the Bishops Bible quarto edition of

1569, the British Museum. Queen Elizabeth sits in the centre on
her throne. The words on the four columns read justice, mercy,
fortitude and prudence, attributing these traits to the queen. Text
at the bottom reads God Save the Queene.

The following list presents the books of Ketuvim in the

order they appear in most printed editions. It also divides
them into three subgroups based on the distinctiveness of
Sifrei Emet and Hamesh Megillot.
The Three Poetic Books (Sifrei Emet)
Tehillim (Psalms)

Mishlei (Book of Proverbs)

Besides the three poetic books and the ve scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel, EzraNehemiah
Iyybh (Book of Job)
and Chronicles. Although there is no formal grouping
for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless
The Five Megillot (Hamesh Megillot)
share a number of distinguishing characteristics:

3.4

Original languages

Shr Hashshrm (Song of Songs) or (Song of 3.4 Original languages

Solomon) ( Passover)
The Tanakh was mainly written in biblical Hebrew, with
Rth (Book of Ruth) ( Shbhth)
some portions (Ezra 4:86:18 and 7:1226, Jeremiah
Eikhah (Lamentations) ( Ninth of Av) [Also 10:11, Daniel 2:47:28) in biblical Aramaic, a sister language which became the lingua franca of the Semitic
called Kinnot in Hebrew.]
world.[40]
Qheleth (Ecclesiastes) ( Sukkth)
Estr (Book of Esther) ( Prm)

4 Septuagint

Other books
Main article: Septuagint
Dnl (Book of Daniel)
Ezr (Book of Ezra-Book of Nehemiah)
Divrei ha-Yamim (Chronicles)

The Septuagint, or LXX, is a translation of the Hebrew scriptures and some related texts into Koine Greek,
begun in the late 3rd century BCE and completed by
132 BCE,[41][42][43] initially in Alexandria, but in time
elsewhere as well.[44] It is not altogether clear which
was translated when, or where; some may even have
been translated twice, into dierent versions, and then
revised.[45]

The Jewish textual tradition never nalized the order

of the books in Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud
(Bava Batra 14b-15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms,
Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, As the work of translation progressed, the canon of the
Chronicles.[34]
Greek Bible expanded. The Torah always maintained its
In Tiberian Masoretic codices, including the Aleppo pre-eminence as the basis of the canon but the collecCodex and the Leningrad Codex, and often in old Spanish tion of prophetic writings, based on the Nevi'im, had varmanuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, ious hagiographical works incorporated into it. In adProverbs, Ruth, Song of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Lamen- dition, some newer books were included in the Septuagint, among these are the Maccabees and the Wisdom
tations of Jeremiah, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.[35]
of Sirach. However, the book of Sirach, is now known
to have existed in a Hebrew version, since ancient Hebrew manuscripts of it were rediscovered in modern
3.3.5 Canonization
times. The Septuagint version of some Biblical books,
The Ketuvim is the last of the three portions of the like Daniel and Esther, are longer than those in the Jewish
Tanakh to have been accepted as biblical canon. While canon.[46] Some of these deuterocanonical books (e.g. the
the Torah may have been considered canon by Israel as Wisdom of Solomon, and the second book of Maccabees)
early as the 5th century BCE and the Former and Latter were not translated, but composed directly in Greek.
Prophets were canonized by the 2nd century BCE, the Since Late Antiquity, once attributed to a hypothetical
Ketuvim was not a xed canon until the 2nd century of
late 1st-century Council of Jamnia, mainstream Rabbinic
the Common Era.[36]
Judaism rejected the Septuagint as valid Jewish scriptural
Evidence suggests, however, that the people of Israel were
adding what would become the Ketuvim to their holy literature shortly after the canonization of the prophets. As
early as 132 BCE references suggest that the Ketuvim was
starting to take shape, although it lacked a formal title.[37]
References in the four Gospels as well as other books of
the New Testament indicate that many of these texts were
both commonly known and counted as having some degree of religious authority early in the 1st century CE.

texts. Several reasons have been given for this. First,

some mistranslations were claimed. Second, the Hebrew source texts used for the Septuagint diered from
the Masoretic tradition of Hebrew texts, which was chosen as canonical by the Jewish rabbis.[47] Third, the rabbis wanted to distinguish their tradition from the newly
emerging tradition of Christianity.[43][48] Finally, the rabbis claimed a divine authority for the Hebrew language,
in contrast to Aramaic or Greek even though these lanMany scholars believe that the limits of the Ketuvim as guages were the lingua franca of Jews during this period
be given a holy language
canonized scripture were determined by the Council of (and Aramaic would eventually[49]
status
comparable
to
Hebrew).
Jamnia c. 90 CE. Against Apion, the writing of Josephus
in 95 CE, treated the text of the Hebrew Bible as a closed The Septuagint is the basis for the Old Latin, Slavonic,
canon to which "... no one has ventured either to add, or Syriac, Old Armenian, Old Georgian and Coptic versions
to remove, or to alter a syllable...[38] For a long time fol- of the Christian Old Testament.[50] The Roman Catholic
lowing this date the divine inspiration of Esther, the Song and Eastern Orthodox Churches use most of the books of
of Songs, and Ecclesiastes was often under scrutiny.[39]
the Septuagint, while Protestant churches usually do not.

5 CHRISTIAN BIBLES

After the Protestant Reformation, many Protestant Bibles 5 Christian Bibles

began to follow the Jewish canon and exclude the additional texts, which came to be called Biblical apocrypha. Main articles: Christian biblical canons and List of EnThe Apocrypha are included under a separate heading in glish Bible translations
the King James Version of the Bible, the basis for the A Christian Bible is a set of books that a Christian deRevised Standard Version.[51]

4.1

Incorporations from Theodotion

In most ancient copies of the Bible which contain the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Book of Daniel
is not the original Septuagint version, but instead is a copy
of Theodotion's translation from the Hebrew, which more
closely resembles the Masoretic Text. The Septuagint
version was discarded in favour of Theodotions version in
the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE. In Greek-speaking areas, this
happened near the end of the 2nd century, and in Latinspeaking areas (at least in North Africa), it occurred in
the middle of the 3rd century. History does not record The Bible translated into German by Martin Luther
the reason for this, and St. Jerome reports, in the preface to the Vulgate version of Daniel, This thing 'just'
happened.[52] One of two Old Greek texts of the Book
of Daniel has been recently rediscovered and work is ongoing in reconstructing the original form of the book.[53]
The canonical EzraNehemiah is known in the Septuagint as Esdras B, and 1 Esdras is Esdras A. 1 Esdras is a very similar text to the books of EzraNehemiah,
and the two are widely thought by scholars to be derived
from the same original text. It has been proposed, and
is thought highly likely by scholars, that Esdras B the
canonical EzraNehemiah is Theodotions version of
this material, and Esdras A is the version which was
previously in the Septuagint on its own.[52]

4.2

Final form

Some texts are found in the Septuagint but are not present
in the Hebrew. These additional books are Tobit, Judith,
Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach,
Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah (which later became chapter 6 of Baruch in the Vulgate), additions to Daniel
(The Prayer of Azarias, the Song of the Three Children,
Susanna and Bel and the Dragon), additions to Esther, 1 A page from the Gutenberg Bible
Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees,
1 Esdras, Odes, including the Prayer of Manasseh, the nomination regards as divinely inspired and thus constituting scripture. Although the Early Church primarPsalms of Solomon, and Psalm 151.
Some books that are set apart in the Masoretic Text are ily used the Septuagint or the Targums among Aramaic
grouped together. For example, the Books of Samuel and speakers, the apostles did not leave a dened set of
the Books of Kings are in the LXX one book in four parts new scriptures; instead the canon of the New Testament
called (Of Reigns). In LXX, the Books developed over time. Groups within Christianity include
of Chronicles supplement Reigns and it is called Par- diering books as part of their sacred writings, most
alipomenon (things left out). The prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or
Septuagint organizes the minor prophets as twelve parts deuterocanonical books.
of one Book of Twelve.[53]

Signicant versions of the English Christian Bible include

5.1

Old Testament

the Douay-Rheims Bible, the Authorized King James Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches include
Version, the English Revised Version, the American these books as part of their Old Testament.
Standard Version, the Revised Standard Version, the New The Roman Catholic Church recognizes:[67]
American Standard Version, the New King James Version, the New International Version, and the English Stan Tobit
dard Version.
Judith

5.1

Old Testament

Main article: Old Testament

The books which make up the Christian Old Testament
dier between the Catholic (see Catholic Bible), Orthodox, and Protestant (see Protestant Bible) churches, with
the Protestant movement accepting only those books contained in the Hebrew Bible, while Catholics and Orthodox have wider canons. A few groups consider particular translations to be divinely inspired, notably the Greek
Septuagint and the Aramaic Peshitta.
5.1.1

Apocryphal or deuterocanonical books

1 Maccabees
2 Maccabees
Wisdom
Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus)
Baruch
The Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch Chapter 6)
Greek Additions to Esther (Book of Esther, chapters
10:4 12:6)
The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy
Children verses 168 (Book of Daniel, chapter 3,
verses 2490)
Susanna (Book of Daniel, chapter 13)
Bel and the Dragon (Book of Daniel, chapter 14)
In addition to those, the Greek and Russian Orthodox
Churches recognize the following:

The Isaiah scroll, which is a part of the Dead Sea Scrolls, contains almost the whole Book of Isaiah. It dates from the 2nd
century BCE.

3 Maccabees
1 Esdras

In Eastern Christianity, translations based on the Septu Prayer of Manasseh

agint still prevail. The Septuagint was generally aban Psalm 151
doned in favour of the 10th-century Masoretic Text as the
basis for translations of the Old Testament into Western
languages. Some modern Western translations since the Russian and Georgian Orthodox Churches include:
14th century make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic Text, where the Septuagint may
2 Esdras i.e., Latin Esdras in the Russian and Georpreserve a variant reading of the Hebrew text. They also
gian Bibles
sometimes adopt variants that appear in other texts, e.g.,
those discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.[62][63]
There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as
A number of books which are part of the Peshitta or canonical in the Georgian Church, but was included by
Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew (Rab- St. Jerome in an appendix to the Vulgate, and is an apbinic) Bible (i.e., among the protocanonical books) are pendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it is therefore
often referred to as deuterocanonical books by Roman sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha.
Catholics referring to a later secondary (i.e., deutero)
The Syriac Orthodox tradition includes:
canon, that canon as xed denitively by the Council of
[64][65]
Trent 15451563.
It includes 46 books for the Old
Psalms 151155
Testament (45 if Jeremiah and Lamentations are counted
[66]
as one) and 27 for the New.
The Apocalypse of Baruch
Most Protestants term these books as apocrypha. Modern
The Letter of Baruch
Protestant traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical
books as canonical, although Protestant Bibles included
them in Apocrypha sections until the 1820s. However, The Ethiopian Biblical canon includes:

5 CHRISTIAN BIBLES
Jubilees
Enoch
13 Meqabyan

and some other books.

The Anglican Church uses some of the Apocryphal books
liturgically. Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for
use in the Anglican Church include the Deuterocanonical
books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus 1 Esdras,
2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, which were in the
Vulgate appendix.
5.1.2

Pseudepigraphal texts

Book of Enoch Notable pseudepigraphal works include the Books of Enoch (such as 1 Enoch, 2 Enoch,
surviving only in Old Slavonic, and 3 Enoch, surviving in Hebrew, c. 5th to 6th century CE). These are
ancient Jewish religious works, traditionally ascribed to
the prophet Enoch, the great-grandfather of the patriarch
Noah. They are not part of the biblical canon used by
Jews, apart from Beta Israel. Most Christian denominations and traditions may accept the Books of Enoch as
having some historical or theological interest or significance. It has been observed that part of the Book of
Enoch is quoted in the Epistle of Jude (part of the New
Testament) but Christian denominations generally regard
the Books of Enoch as non-canonical or non-inspired.[69]
However, the Enoch books are treated as canonical by
the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean
Orthodox Tewahedo Church.

The older sections (mainly in the Book of the Watchers)

are estimated to date from about 300 BC, and the latest
part (Book of Parables) probably was composed at the
The term Pseudepigrapha commonly describes numerous
end of the 1st century BCE.[70]
works of Jewish religious literature written from about
300 BCE to 300 CE. Not all of these works are actually pseudepigraphical. It also refers to books of the New Denominational views of Pseudepigrapha
There
Testament canon whose authorship is misrepresented. arose in some Protestant biblical scholarship an extended
The Old Testament Pseudepigraphal works include the use of the term pseudepigrapha for works that appeared
following:[68]
as though they ought to be part of the biblical canon, beMain article: Pseudepigrapha

cause of the authorship ascribed to them, but which stood

outside both the biblical canons recognized by Protestants
3 Maccabees
and Catholics. These works were also outside the partic4 Maccabees
ular set of books that Roman Catholics called deuterocanonical and to which Protestants had generally applied
Assumption of Moses
the term Apocryphal. Accordingly, the term pseudepigraphical, as now used often among both Protestants and
Ethiopic Book of Enoch (1 Enoch)
Roman Catholics (allegedly for the clarity it brings to
the discussion), may make it dicult to discuss questions
Slavonic Book of Enoch (2 Enoch)
of pseudepigraphical authorship of canonical books disHebrew Book of Enoch (3 Enoch) (also known as passionately with a lay audience. To confuse the matThe Revelation of Metatron or The Book of ter even more, Eastern Orthodox Christians accept books
as canonical that Roman Catholics and most Protestant
Rabbi Ishmael the High Priest)
denominations consider pseudepigraphical or at best of
much less authority. There exist also churches that reBook of Jubilees
ject some of the books that Roman Catholics, Orthodox
and Protestants accept. The same is true of some Jewish
Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (2 Baruch)
sects. Many works that are apocryphal are otherwise
Letter of Aristeas (Letter to Philocrates regarding considered genuine.
the translating of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek)

Life of Adam and Eve

5.1.3 Role of Old Testament in Christian theology

Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah

Further information: Sola scriptura and Christian theology

Psalms of Solomon
Sibylline Oracles
Greek Apocalypse of Baruch (3 Baruch)
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs

The Old Testament has always been central to the life of

the Christian church. Bible scholar N.T. Wright says Jesus himself was profoundly shaped by the scriptures.[71]
He adds that the earliest Christians also searched those
same Hebrew scriptures in their eort to understand the

5.3

Development of the Christian canons

earthly life of Jesus. They regarded the Israelites holy

writings as instructive for the Christian, and as pointing
to the Messiah, and as having reached a climactic fulllment in Jesus himself, generating the new covenant
prophesied by Jeremiah.[72]

The original autographs, that is, the original Greek writings and manuscripts written by the original authors of
the New Testament, have not survived.[81] But historically copies exist of those original autographs, transmitted and preserved in a number of manuscript traditions.
When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they sometimes wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal
glosses) to correct their textespecially if a scribe acci5.2 New Testament
dentally omitted a word or lineand to comment about
Main article: Development of the New Testament canon the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they
were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be
included as part of the text. Over time, dierent regions
The New Testament is a collection of 27 books[73] evolved dierent versions, each with its own assemblage
of 4 dierent genres of Christian literature (Gospels, of omissions and additions.[82]
one account of the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles and
an Apocalypse). Jesus is its central gure. The The three main textual traditions of the Greek New TesNew Testament presupposes the inspiration of the Old tament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type
Testament.[74] (2 Timothy 3:16) Nearly all Christians rec- (generally minimalist), the Byzantine text-type (generognize the New Testament as canonical scripture. These ally maximalist), and the Western text-type (occasionally wild). Together they comprise most of the ancient
books can be grouped into:
manuscripts.
The New Testament books are ordered dierently in the
Catholic/Orthodox/Protestant tradition, the Slavonic tradition, the Syriac tradition and the Ethiopian tradition.

5.3 Development of the Christian canons

5.2.1

Original language

Main articles: Development of the Old Testament canon

and Development of the New Testament canon

See also: Language of the New Testament

The mainstream consensus is that the New Testament
was written in a form of Koine Greek,[75][76] which
was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean[77][78][79][80] from the Conquests of Alexander the
Great (335323 BCE) until the evolution of Byzantine
Greek (c. 600).

5.2.2

Historic editions

The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in

the Greek Septuagint translations and original books, and
their diering lists of texts. In addition to the Septuagint, Christianity subsequently added various writings
that would become the New Testament. Somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in antiquity. In the 4th century a series of synods produced a
list of texts equal to the 39, 46(51),54, or 57 book canon
of the Old Testament and to the 27-book canon of the
New Testament that would be subsequently used to today, most notably the Synod of Hippo in 393 CE. Also
c. 400, Jerome produced a denitive Latin edition of the
Bible (see Vulgate), the canon of which, at the insistence
of the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. With
the benet of hindsight it can be said that this process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there are
examples of other canonical lists in use after this time.

The Protestant Old Testament of today has a 39-book

canonthe number of books (though not the content)
varies from the Jewish Tanakh only because of a dierent
method of divisionwhile the Roman Catholic Church
recognizes 46 books (51 books with some books combined into 46 books) as the canonical Old Testament.
The Eastern Orthodox Churches recognise 3 Maccabees,
1 Esdras, Prayer of Manasseh and Psalm 151 in addiThe Codex Gigas from the 13th century, held at the Swedish tion to the Catholic canon. Some include 2 Esdras. The
Royal Library in Stockholm
Anglican Church also recognises a longer canon. The
term Hebrew Scriptures is often used as being synonySee also: Biblical manuscript and Textual criticism
mous with the Protestant Old Testament, since the surviving scriptures in Hebrew include only those books, while

10

7 VERSIONS AND TRANSLATIONS

Catholics and Orthodox include additional texts that have

not survived in Hebrew. Both Catholics and Protestants
(as well as Greek Orthodox) have the same 27-book New
Testament Canon.[83]
The New Testament writers assumed the inspiration of
the Old Testament, probably earliest stated in 2 Timothy
3:16, All scripture is given by inspiration of God.[10]

5.3.1

Ethiopian Orthodox canon

Main article: Ethiopian Biblical canon

antiquity,[88][89] and this belief can also be seen in

the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of
the Bible mention divine agency in relation to its
writings.[90] In their book A General Introduction to the
Bible, Norman Geisler and William Nix wrote: The
process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of
God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary,
inerrant, and authoritative record.[91] Most evangelical
biblical scholars[92][93][94] associate inspiration with
only the original text; for example some American
Protestants adhere to the 1978 Chicago Statement on
Biblical Inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied
only to the autographic text of Scripture.[95] Among
adherents of Biblical literalism, a minority, such as
the King-James-Only Movement, extend the claim of
inerrancy only to a particular translation.[96]

The Canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

is wider than the canons used by most other Christian
churches. There are 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible.[84] The Ethiopian Old Testament Canon includes the books found in the Septuagint accepted by
other Orthodox Christians, in addition to Enoch and 7 Versions and translations
Jubilees which are ancient Jewish books that only survived in Ge'ez but are quoted in the New Testament, also Further information: Bible translations and List of Bible
Greek Ezra First and the Apocalypse of Ezra, 3 books of translations by language
Meqabyan, and Psalm 151 at the end of the Psalter. The The original texts of the Tanakh were mainly in Hebrew,
three books of Meqabyan are not to be confused with
the books of Maccabees. The order of the other books
is somewhat dierent from other groups, as well. The
Old Testament follows the Septuagint order for the Minor Prophets rather than the Jewish order.

Divine inspiration

Main articles: Biblical inspiration, Biblical literalism,

Biblical infallibility and Biblical inerrancy
The Second Epistle to Timothy says that all scripture is
given by inspiration of God, and is protable for doctrine,
for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness. (2 Timothy 3:16)[85] Some Christians believe that
the Bible is the inspired word of God, that God, through
the Holy Spirit, intervened and inuenced the words,
message, and collation of the Bible.[86] For many Christians the Bible is also infallible, and is incapable of error
in matters of faith and practice, but not necessarily in historic or scientic matters. A related, but distinguishable
belief is that the Bible is the inerrant word of God, without error in any aspect, spoken by God and written down
in its perfect form by humans. Within these broad beliefs
there are many schools of hermeneutics. Bible scholars
claim that discussions about the Bible must be put into its
context within church history and then into the context of
contemporary culture.[72] Fundamentalist Christians are
associated with the doctrine of biblical literalism, where
the Bible is not only inerrant, but the meaning of the text
is clear to the average reader.[87]

A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey,

Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in
1407 for reading aloud in a monastery.

with some portions in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint,
the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, and the
Targum Onkelos, an Aramaic version of the Bible. There
are several dierent ancient versions of the Tanakh in
Hebrew, mostly diering by spelling, and the traditional
Jewish version is based on the version known as Aleppo
Codex. Even in this version there are words which are traditionally read dierently from written, because the oral
tradition is considered more fundamental than the written
one, and presumably mistakes had been made in copying
the text over the generations.

The primary biblical text for early Christians was the Septuagint. In addition, they translated the Hebrew Bible into
several other languages. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and Latin, among other languages.
Belief in sacred texts is attested to in Jewish The Latin translations were historically the most impor-

11

8 Views
John Riches, professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism
at the University of Glasgow, provides the following view
of the diverse historical inuences of the Bible:
It has inspired some of the great monuments of human thought, literature, and art; it
has equally fuelled some of the worst excesses
of human savagery, self-interest, and narrowmindedness. It has inspired men and women
to acts of great service and courage, to ght
for liberation and human development; and it
has provided the ideological fuel for societies
which have enslaved their fellow human beings and reduced them to abject poverty. ...
It has, perhaps above all, provided a source of
religious and moral norms which have enabled
communities to hold together, to care for, and
to protect one another; yet precisely this strong
sense of belonging has in turn fuelled ethnic,
racial, and international tension and conict.[98]

8.1 Other religions

Main article: Islamic view of the Christian Bible
Title page from the rst Welsh translation of the Bible, 1588.
William Morgan (1545-1604)

In Islam, the Bible is held to reect true unfolding

revelation from God; but revelation which had been corrupted or distorted (in Arabic: tahrif); which necessitated the giving of the Qur'an to the Islamic prophet,
Muhammad, to correct this deviation.

Members of other religions may also seek inspiration

tant for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking
from the Bible. For example, Rastafaris view the Bible
East continued to use the Septuagint translations of the
as essential to their religion[99] and Unitarian UniversalOld Testament and had no need to translate the New Tesists view it as one of many important religious texts.[100]
tament.
The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or
Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to 8.2 Biblical studies
have been made by several authors over a period of time.
It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books Main articles: Biblical studies and Biblical criticism
not in the Hebrew Bible.
Pope Damasus I assembled the rst list of books of the
Bible at the Council of Rome in 382 CE. He commissioned Saint Jerome to produce a reliable and consistent
text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts
into Latin. This translation became known as the Latin
Vulgate Bible and in 1546 at the Council of Trent was
declared by the Roman Catholic Church to be the only
authentic and ocial Bible in the Latin Church.

Biblical criticism refers to the investigation of the Bible as

a text, and addresses questions such as authorship, dates
of composition, and authorial intention. It is not the same
as criticism of the Bible, which is an assertion against
the Bible being a source of information or ethical guidance, or observations that the Bible may have translation
errors.[101]

Since the Protestant Reformation, Bible translations for

many languages have been made. The Bible continues 8.3 Higher criticism
to be translated to new languages, largely by Christian
organisations such as Wyclie Bible Translators, New Main articles: Higher criticism and Lower criticism
Tribes Mission and Bible societies.

12

12

In the 17th century Thomas Hobbes collected the current evidence to conclude outright that Moses could not
have written the bulk of the Torah. Shortly afterwards
the philosopher Baruch Spinoza published a unied critical analysis, arguing that the problematic passages were
not isolated cases that could be explained away one by
one, but pervasive throughout the ve books, concluding
that it was clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses . . .[102][103] Despite determined opposition from Christians, both Catholic and
Protestant, the views of Hobbes and Spinoza gained increasing acceptance amongst scholars.

Archaeological and historical research

ILLUSTRATIONS

In modern times, the view that the Bible should be accepted as historically accurate and as a reliable guide to
morality has been questioned by many mainstream academics in the eld of biblical criticism. Most Christian
groups claim that the Bible is inspired by God, and some
oppose interpretations of the Bible that are not traditional
or plain reading. Some groups within the most conservative Protestant circles believe that the Authorized
King James Version is the only accurate English translation of the Bible, and accept it as infallible. They are
generally referred to as "King James Only". Many within
Christian fundamentalism as well as much of Orthodox
Judaismstrongly support the idea that the Bible is a historically accurate record of actual events and a primary
source of moral guidance.

In addition to concerns about morality, inerrancy, or historicity, there remain some questions of which books
should be included in the Bible (see canon of scripture).
Main articles: Biblical archaeology school and The Bible Jews discount the New Testament, most Christians deny
and history
the legitimacy of the New Testament apocrypha, and a
view sometimes referred to as Jesusism does not arm
Biblical archaeology is the archaeology that relates to and the scriptural authority of any biblical text other than the
sheds light upon the Hebrew Scriptures and the Christian teachings of Jesus in the Gospels.
Greek Scriptures (or New Testament). It is used to help
determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in
biblical times. There are a wide range of interpretations 11 Bibles Gallery
in the eld of biblical archaeology. One broad division
includes biblical maximalism which generally takes the
Bibles
view that most of the Old Testament or Hebrew Bible
is based on history although it is presented through the
Old Bible from a Greek monastery
religious viewpoint of its time. It is considered the opposite of biblical minimalism which considers the Bible
Imperial Bible, or Vienna Coronation Gospels from
a purely post-exilic (5th century BCE and later) compoWien (Austria), c 1500.
sition. Even among those scholars who adhere to biblical
minimalism, the Bible is a historical document contain The Kennicott Bible, 1476
ing rst-hand information on the Hellenistic and Roman
A Baroque Bible
eras, and there is universal scholarly consensus that the
events of the 6th century BCE Babylonian captivity have
The bible used by Abraham Lincoln for his oath of
a basis in history.
oce during his rst inauguration in 1861
The historicity of the biblical account of the history of ancient Israel and Judah of the 10th to 7th centuries BCE is
A miniature Bible
disputed in scholarship. The biblical account of the 8th to
7th centuries BCE is widely, but not universally, accepted
19th century Victorian Bible
as historical, while the verdict on the earliest period of the
Shelves of the Bizzell Bible Collection at Bizzell
United Monarchy (10th century BCE) and the historicity
Memorial Library
of David is unclear. Archaeological evidence providing
information on this period, such as the Tel Dan Stele, can
potentially be decisive. The biblical account of events of
the Exodus from Egypt in the Torah, and the migration 12 Illustrations
to the Promised Land and the period of Judges are not
considered historical in scholarship.[104][105]
Most old Bibles were illuminated, they were manuscripts
in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia)
10 Criticism
and miniature illustrations. Up to the twelfth century,
most manuscripts were produced in monasteries in order
Main article: Criticism of the Bible
to add to the library or after receiving a commission from
a wealthy patron. Larger monasteries often contained

13
separate areas for the monks who specialized in the production of manuscripts called a scriptorium, where separate little rooms were assigned to book copying; they were
situated in such a way that each scribe had to himself a
window open to the cloister walk.[106] By the fourteenth
century, the cloisters of monks writing in the scriptorium
started to employ laybrothers from the urban scriptoria,
especially in Paris, Rome and the Netherlands.[107] Demand for manuscripts grew to an extent that the Monastic
libraries were unable to meet with the demand, and began
employing secular scribes and illuminators.[108] These individuals often lived close to the monastery and, in certain instances, dressed as monks whenever they entered
the monastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of the
day.[109]
The manuscript was sent to the rubricator, who added
(in red or other colors) the titles, headlines, the initials
of chapters and sections, the notes and so on; and then
if the book was to be illustrated it was sent to the
illuminator.[106] In the case of manuscripts that were sold
commercially, the writing would undoubtedly have been
discussed initially between the patron and the scribe (or
the scribes agent,) but by the time that the written gathering were sent o to the illuminator there was no longer
any scope for innovation.[110]

Scriptorium
Theodicy and the Bible

14 Endnotes
[1] Miller & Huber, Stephen & Robert (2003). The Bible: the
making and impact on the Bible a history. England: Lion
Hudson. p. 21. ISBN 0-7459-5176-7.
[2] Riches, John (2000). The Bible: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 78. ISBN
978-0-19-285343-1.
[3] Best selling book of non-ction. Guinness World
Records. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
[4] Ryken, Leland. How We Got the Best-Selling Book of
All Time. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
[5] The battle of the books. The Economist. 22 December
2007.
[6] Ash, Russell (2001). Top 10 of Everything 2002. Dorling
Kindersley. ISBN 0-7894-8043-3.
[7] Harper, Douglas. bible. Online Etymology Dictionary.

Bible illustrations

[8] The Catholic Encyclopedia. Newadvent.org. 1907. Retrieved 2010-04-23.

Bible from 1150, from Scriptorium de Chartres,

Christ with angels

[9] Biblion, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A GreekEnglish Lexicon, at Perseus.

Blanche of Castile and Louis IX of France Bible,

13th century
Bible moralise : Christ the architect of the Universe.
Maciejowski Bible, Leaf 37, the 3rd image, Abner
(in the center in green) sends Michal back to David.
Jephthahs daughter laments - Maciejowski Bible
(France, ca. 1250)
Colored version of the Whore of Babylon illustration
from Martin Luthers 1534 translation of the Bible.
An Armenian Bible, illuminated by Malnazar, Armenian) illuminator.
Fleeing Sodom and Gomorrah, Foster Bible

13

See also

Biblical software
Code of Hammurabi
List of major biblical gures
Religious text

[10] Stagg, Frank. New Testament Theology.

Broadman, 1962. ISBN 0-8054-1613-7.

Nashville:

[11] From Hebrew Bible to Christian Bible by Mark Hamilton on PBSs site From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians.
[12] Dictionary.com etymology of the word Bible.
[13] Bruce, Frederick (1988). The Canon of Scripture. Downers Grove, Illinois, U.S.: IVP Academic. p. 214. ISBN
083081258X.
[14] Riches, John (2000). The Bible: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 83. ISBN 9780-19-285343-1.
[15] Riches, John (2000). The Bible: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 9. ISBN 9780-19-285343-1.
[16] Lim, Timothy H. (2005). The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Very
Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.
41.
[17] Riches, John (2000). The Bible: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780-19-285343-1.
[18] Riches, John (2000). The Bible: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 23, 37. ISBN
978-0-19-285343-1.

14

[19] A 7th-century fragment containing the Song of the Sea

(Exodus 13:1916:1) is one of the few surviving texts
from the silent era of Hebrew biblical texts between the
Dead Sea Scrolls and the Aleppo Codex. See Rare scroll
fragment to be unveiled, Jerusalem Post, May 21, 2007.
[20] The Restored New Testament: A New Translation with
Commentary, Including the Gnostic Gospels Thomas,
Mary, and Judas by Willis Barnstone W. W. Norton &
Company page 647
[21] The Torah: Portion by Portion By Seymour Rossel
Torah Aura Productions, 2007, p. 355
[22] Mordecai Kaplan 1934 Judaism as a Civilization MacMillan Press
[23] Elliot N. Dor 1979 Conservative Judaism: Our Ancestors to Our Descendants. United Synagogue. p. 9899
(114115 in 1978 edition) Archived May 14, 2015, at the
Wayback Machine.
[24] Milton Steinberg 1947 Basic Judaism Harcourt Brace, p.
2728 ISBN 0-15-610698-1 Archived May 15, 2015, at
the Wayback Machine.
[25] Gilbert Rosenthal 1973 Four paths to One God Bloch Publishing pp. 116128, 180192, 238242
[26] 1Kings.18:24;1Kings.18:3739 9
[27] George Savran I and II Kings in The Literary Guide
to the Bible edited by Robert Alter and Frank Kermode.
Each king is judged either good or bad in black-andwhite terms, according to whether or not he did right
or did evil in the sight of the Lord. This evaluation is
not reective of the well-being of the nation, of the kings
success or failure in war, or of the moral climate of the
times, but rather the state of cultic worship during his
reign. Those kings who shun idolatry and enact religious
reforms are singled out for praise, and those who encourage pagan practices are denounced. 146
[28] Yehezkel Kaufmann Israel In Canaan in Great Ages and
Ideas of the Jewish People edited by Leo Schwartz, The
Modern Library. The ght against Baal was initiated by
the prophets 54
[29] Yehezkel Kaufmann The Age of Prophecy in Great Ages
and Ideas of the Jewish People edited by Leo Schwartz,
The Modern Library. The immediate occasion of the
rise of the new prophecy was the political and social ruin
caused by the wars with Israels northerly neighbor, Aram,
which continued for more than a century. They raged
intensely during the reign of Ahab, and did not end until the time of Jeroboam II (784744). While the nation
as a whole was impoverished, a few apparently of the
royal ocialdom grew wealthy as a result of the national calamity. Many of the people were compelled to
sell their houses and lands, with the result that a sharp social cleavage arose: on the one hand a mass of propertyless
indigents, on the other a small circle of the rich. A series
of disasters struck the nation drought, famine, plagues,
death and captivity (Amos 4: 611), but the greatest disaster of all was the social disintegration due to the cleavage between the poor masses and the wealthy, dissolute

14 ENDNOTES

upper class. The decay aected both Judah and Israel ...
High minded men were appalled at this development. Was
this the people whom YHWH had brought out of Egypt,
to whom He had given the land and a law of justice and
right? it seemed as if the land was about to be inherited
by the rich, who would squander its substance in drunken
revelry. it was this dissolution that brought the prophetic
denunciations to white heat. 5758
[30] Abraham Joshua Heschel 1955 The Prophets Harper and
Row: What manner of man is the prophet? A student
of philosophy who runs from the discourses of the great
metaphysicians to the orations of the prophets may feel as
if he were going from the realm of the sublime to an area
of trivialities. Instead of dealing with the timeless issues
of being and becoming, of matter and form, of denitions and demonstrations, he is thrown into orations about
widows and orphans, about the corruption of judges and
aairs of the market place. Instead of showing us a way
through the elegant mansions of the mind, the prophets
take us to the slums. The world is a proud place, full of
beauty, but the prophets are scandalized, and rave as if the
whole world were a slum. They make much ado about paltry things, lavishing excessive language upon triing subjects. What if somewhere in ancient Palestine poor people
have not been treated properly by the rich? .... Indeed, the
sorts of crimes and even the amount of delinquency that
ll the prophets of Israel with dismay do not go beyond
that which we regard as normal, as typical ingredients of
social dynamics. To us a single act of injustice cheating in business, exploitation of the poor is slight; to the
prophets, a disaster. To us an injustice is injurious to the
welfare of the people; to the prophets it is a deathblow to
existence; to us an episode; to them, a catastrophe, a threat
to the world. 34
[31] Joel Rosenberg I and II Samuel in The Literary Guide
to the Bible edited by Robert Alter and Frank Kermode.
Samuel is thus a work of national self-criticism. It recognizes that Israel would not have survived, either politically or culturally, without the steadying presence of a
dynastic royal house. But it makes both that house and
its subjects answerable to rm standards of prophetic justice not those of cult prophets or professional ecstatics,
but of morally upright prophetic leaders in the tradition of
Moses, Joshua, Deborah, Gideon, and others ... 141
[32] Neusner, Jacob, The Talmud Law, Theology, Narrative:
A Sourcebook. University Press of America, 2005
[33] Coogan, Michael D. A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: the Hebrew Bible in its Context. Oxford University
Press. 2009; p. 5
[34] The Babylonian Talmud, Vol. 7 of 9: Tract Baba Bathra
(Last Gate) translated by Michael L. Rodkinson, rst published 1918 published 2008 by Forgotten Books, p. 53
[35] Ketuvim 30 July 2008
[36] Coogan, Michael. A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context. Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 5
[37] Henshaw, T. The Writings: The Third Division of the Old
Testament Canon. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1963, pp.
1617

15

[38] Lightfoot, Neil R. How We Got the Bible, 3rd edition, rev.
and expanded. Baker Book House Company. 2003, pp.
154155.
[39] Henshaw, T. The Writings: The Third Division of the Old
Testament Canon. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1963, p.
17
[40] Sir Godfrey Driver. Introduction to the Old Testament
of the New English Bible. Web: 30 November 2009
[41] Life after death: a history of the afterlife in the religions of
the West (2004), Anchor Bible Reference Library, Alan
F. Segal, p. 363
[42] Gilles Dorival, Marguerite Harl, and Olivier Munnich, La
Bible grecque des Septante: Du judasme hellnistique au
christianisme ancien (Paris: Cerfs, 1988), p.111
[43] "[...] die griechische Bibelbersetzung, die einem innerjdischen Bedrfnis entsprang [...] [von den] Rabbinen
zuerst gerhmt (..) Spter jedoch, als manche ungenaue
bertragung des hebrischen Textes in der Septuaginta
und bersetzungsfehler die Grundlage fr hellenistische
Irrlehren abgaben, lehte man die Septuaginta ab. Verband der Deutschen Juden (Hrsg.), neu hrsg. von Walter
Homolka, Walter Jacob, Tovia Ben Chorin: Die Lehren
des Judentums nach den Quellen; Mnchen, Knesebeck,
1999, Bd.3, S. 43
[44] Karen H. Jobes and Moises Silva (2001). Invitation to the
Septuagint. Paternoster Press. ISBN 1-84227-061-3.
[45] Joel Kalvesmaki, The Septuagint
[46] Rick Grant Jones, Various Religious Topics, "Books of the
Septuagint, (Accessed 2006.9.5).
[47] The translation, which shows at times a peculiar ignorance of Hebrew usage, was evidently made from a codex
which diered widely in places from the text crystallized
by the Masorah. Bible Translations The Septuagint.
JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
[48] Two things, however, rendered the Septuagint unwelcome in the long run to the Jews. Its divergence from
the accepted text (afterward called the Masoretic) was
too evident; and it therefore could not serve as a basis
for theological discussion or for homiletic interpretation.
This distrust was accentuated by the fact that it had been
adopted as Sacred Scripture by the new faith [Christianity] [...] In course of time it came to be the canonical
Greek Bible [...] It became part of the Bible of the Christian Church.Bible Translations The Septuagint. JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
[49] Mishnah Sotah (7:24 and 8:1), among many others, discusses the sacredness of Hebrew, as opposed to Aramaic
or Greek. This is comparable to the authority claimed for
the original Arabic Koran according to Islamic teaching.
As a result of this teaching, translations of the Torah into
Koine Greek by early Jewish Rabbis have survived as rare
fragments only.
[50] Ernst Wrthwein, The Text of the Old Testament, trans.
Errol F. Rhodes, Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. Eerdmans,
1995.

[51] NETS: Electronic Edition. Ccat.sas.upenn.edu. 201102-11. Retrieved 2012-08-13.

[52] This article incorporates text from the 1903
Encyclopaedia Biblica article TEXT AND VERSIONS, a publication now in the public domain.
[53] Jennifer M. Dines, The Septuagint, Michael A. Knibb, Ed.,
London: T&T Clark, 2004.
[54] Timothy McLay, The Use of the Septuagint in New Testament Research ISBN 0-8028-6091-5. The current standard introduction on the NT & LXX.
[55] The canon of the original Old Greek LXX is disputed.
This table reects the canon of the Old Testament as used
currently in Orthodoxy.
[56] (Basilein) is the genitive plural of
(Basileia).
[57] That is, Things set aside from .
[58] also called or in some sources.
[59] Not in Orthodox Canon, but originally included in the
LXX. http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/
[60] Obdiou is genitive from The vision of Obdias, which
opens the book.
[61] Originally placed after 3 Maccabees and before Psalms,
but placed in an appendix of the Orthodox Canon
[62] The Masoretic Text and the Dead Sea Scrolls biblicalarchaeology.org. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
[63] Dead Sea Scrolls (PDF). Retrieved 2013-06-06.
[64] Council of Trent: Decretum de Canonicis Scripturis Decree Concerning the Canonical Scriptures, from the
Councils fourth session, of 4 April 1546: Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, The Fourth Session, Celebrated on the eighth day of the month of April, in the year
1546, English translation by James Waterworth (London
1848).
[65] The Council of Trent conrmed the identical list/canon
of sacred scriptures already anciently approved by the
Synod of Hippo (Synod of 393), Councils of Carthage
(The Council of Carthage, 28 August 397), and Council
of Florence (originally Council of Basel), Session 11, 4
February 1442 [Bull of union with the Copts] seventh
paragraph down.
[66] Paragraph 120. Catechism of the Catholic Church, Second Edition. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2012. Retrieved
6 August 2014.
[67] Canon of Trent: List of the Canonical Scriptures.
But if anyone receive not, as sacred
and canonical, the said books entire with
all their parts, as they have been used to be
read in the Catholic Church, and as they are
contained in the old Latin vulgate edition;
and knowingly and deliberately contemn the

16

14 ENDNOTES

traditions aforesaid; let him be anathema.

Decretum de Canonicis Scripturis, Council
of Trent, 8 April 1546
[68] Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto:
Mayeld. 1985.
[69] The Book of Enoch The Reluctant Messenger. Retrieved 14 June 2014.
[70] Fahlbusch E., Bromiley G.W. The Encyclopedia of Christianity: PSh page 411, ISBN 0-8028-2416-1 (2004)
[71] Wright, N.T. The Last Word:, page 3 HarperCollins, 2005.
ISBN 0-06-087261-6 / 9780060872618
[72] Wright, N.T. The Last Word: Scripture and the Authority
of GodGetting Beyond the Bible Wars. HarperCollins,
2005. ISBN 0-06-087261-6 / 9780060872618
[73] What the Bible is All About Visual Edition by Henrietta
C. Mears Gospel Light Publications, Feb 5, 2007 page
438-439
[74] Inspiration and Inerrancy: A History and a Defense,Henry
Preserved Smith R. Clarke, 1893, p. 343
[75] Kurt Aland, Barbara Aland The text of the New Testament: an introduction to the critical 1995 p52 The New
Testament was written in Koine Greek, the Greek of daily
conversation. The fact that from the rst all the New
Testament writings were written in Greek is conclusively
demonstrated by their citations from the Old Testament
...
[76] Archibald Macbride Hunter Introducing the New Testament 1972 p9 How came the twenty-seven books of the
New Testament to be gathered together and made authoritative Christian scripture? 1. All the New Testament
books were originally written in Greek. On the face of
it this may surprise us.
[77] Wenham The elements of New Testament Greek -p xxv
Jeremy Du, John William Wenham 2005 This is the
language of the New Testament. By the time of Jesus
the Romans had become the dominant military and political force, but the Greek language remained the 'common
language' of the eastern Mediterranean and beyond, and
Greek ...
[78] Daniel B. Wallace Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics:
An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament 1997
[79] Henry St. John Thackeray Grammar of New Testament
Greek ed. Friedrich Wilhelm Blass, 1911 By far the most
predominant element in the language of the New Testament is the Greek of common speech which was disseminated in the East by the Macedonian conquest, in the form
which it had gradually assumed under the wider development ...

[81] Manuscripts and the Text of the New Testament: An Introduction for English Readers by Keith Elliott, Ian Moir
Continuum International Publishing Group, Nov 20,
2000, p. 9
[82] God-Trail of Evidence: The Quest for the Truth By Dwo
iUniverse, Jul 12, 2011, p. 152. ISBN 978-1-45029429-4 {sc}
[83] Encyclopedia of Catholicism, Frank K. Flinn, Infobase
Publishing, Jan 1, 2007, p. 103
[84] The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Ethiopianorthodox.org. Archived from the original on 5 November 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
[85] Grudem, Wayne (1994). Systematic Theology. Leicester,
England: Inter-Varsity Press. pp. 4950.
[86] Rice, John R. - Our God-Breathed Book: The Bible - ISBN
0-87398-628-8, Sword of the Lord Publishers, 1969, pp
68-88.
[87] Beyond Biblical Literalism and Inerrancy: Conservative
Protestants and the Hermeneutic Interpretation of Scripture, John Bartkowski, Sociology of Religion, 57, 1996.
[88] Philo of Alexandria, De vita Moysis 3.23.
[89] Josephus, Contra Apion 1.8.
[90] Basis for belief of Inspiration Biblegateway. Biblegateway.com. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
[91] Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix. A General Introduction to the Bible. Moody Publishers, 1986, p.86. ISBN
0-8024-2916-5
[92] For example, see Leroy Zuck, Roy B. Zuck. Basic Bible
Interpretation. Chariot Victor Pub, 1991, p.68. ISBN 089693-819-0
[93] Roy B. Zuck, Donald Campbell. Basic Bible Interpretation. Victor, 2002. ISBN 0-7814-3877-2
[94] Norman L. Geisler. Inerrancy. Zondervan, 1980, p.294.
ISBN 0-310-39281-0
[95] International Council on Biblical Inerrancy (1978). The
Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (PDF). International Council on Biblical Inerrancy. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 13 April 2008.
[96] Ruckmans belief in advanced revelations in the KJV.
Retrieved 27 February 2014.
[97] (Figures correct as of 2014.)
[98] Riches, John (2000). The Bible: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 134. ISBN
978-0-19-285343-1.

[99] Becoming Rasta: Origins of Rastafari Identity in Jamaica

Page 171, Charles Price 2009
[80] David E. Aune The Blackwell companion to the New Testament 2009 p61 CHAPTER 4 New Testament Greek [100] Unitarian Universalism Page 42, Zondervan Publishing,
Christophe Rico In this short overview of the Greek lan2009
guage of the New Testament we will focus on those topics
that are of greatest importance for the average reader, that [101] Expondo Os Erros Da Sociedade Bblica Internacional.
Baptistlink.com. 2000. Retrieved 2012-01-13.
is, those with important ...

17

[102] In the Beginning: Hijacking of the Religion of God, Volume 1 by Sami M. El-Soudani, Nabawia J. El-Soudani
Xlibris Corporation, January 1, 2009, p. 65
[103] Ten More Amazing Discoveries By George Potter, Cedar
Fort, October 1, 2005, p. 121
[104] Finkelstein, Israel; Neil Silberman. The Bible Unearthed.
[105] Dever, William. Who Were the Early Israelites and Where
Did They Come from?.
[106] Putnam A.M., Geo. Haven. Books and Their Makers
During The Middle Ages. Vol. 1. New York: Hillary
House, 1962. Print.
[107] De Hamel, 45
[108] De Hamel, 57
[109] De Hamel, 65
[110] De Hamel, Christopher. Medieval Craftsmen: Scribes
and Illuminations. Bualo: University of Toronto, 1992.
p. 60.

Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (August

2002). Review: The Bible Unearthed": A Rejoinder. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental
Research 327: 6373. JSTOR 1357859.
Herzog, Ze'ev (29 October 1999). Deconstructing
the walls of Jericho. Ha'aretz. Archived from the
original on 21 December 2008.
Dever, William G. (MarchApril 2007). Losing
Faith: Who Did and Who Didn't, How Scholarship
Aects Scholars (PDF). Biblical Archaeology Review 33 (2): 54.
Dever, William G. Who Were the Early Israelites and
Where Did They Come from? Grand Rapids, MI:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2003.
ISBN 0-8028-0975-8.
Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind
Who Changed the Bible and Why New York, NY:
HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. ISBN 0-06-073817-0.

References and further reading

Geisler, Norman (editor). Inerrancy. Sponsored

by the International Council on Biblical Inerrancy.
Zondervan Publishing House, 1980, ISBN 0-31039281-0.

Anderson, Bernhard W. Understanding the Old Testament. ISBN 0-13-948399-3.

Head, Tom. The Absolute Beginners Guide to the

Bible. Indianapolis, IN: Que Publishing, 2005.
ISBN 0-7897-3419-2

Asimov, Isaac. Asimovs Guide to the Bible. New

York, NY: Avenel Books, 1981. ISBN 0-51734582-X.

Homan, Joel M. In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language. New York University
Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8147-3690-4

Berlin, Adele, Marc Zvi Brettler and Michael Fishbane. The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford University
Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-529751-2.

Hotchkiss, Gregory K. The Middle Way: Reections on Scripture and Tradition, in series, Reformed
Episcopal Pamphlets, no. 3. Media, Penn.: Reformed Episcopal Publication Society, 1985. 27 p.
N.B.: Place of publication also given as Philadelphia, Penn.; the approach to the issue is from an
evangelical Anglican (Reformed Episcopal Church)
orientation. Without ISBN

15

Bible, Authorized Version. The New Cambridge

Paragraph Bible, with the Apocrypha, King James
Version, ed. by David Norton. Cambridge, Eng.:
Cambridge University Press, 2005. N.B.: This is a
critically reconstructed text of the Authorized King
James Bible with its entire contents (including all
of its marginalia, fore-matter, the Apocrypha, etc.),
as close to the original translators intentions and
wording as possible at the time of this edition, with
spelling modernized according to current Commonwealth usage. ISBN 978-0-521-84386-7
Brown, Raymond E., Joseph A. Fitzmyer, and
Roland E. Murphy, eds. (1990). The New Jerome
Biblical Commentary. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
ISBN 0-13-614934-0.
Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001).
The Bible Unearthed: Archaeologys New Vision
of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts.
New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-23381.

Lienhard, Joseph T. The Bible, The Church, and Authority. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1995.
Lindsell, Harold. The Battle for the Bible. Zondervan Publishing House, 1978. ISBN 0-310-27681-0
Masalha, Nur, The Bible and Zionism: Invented
Traditions, Archaeology and Post-Colonialism in
Palestine-Israel. London, Zed Books, 2007.
McDonald, Lee M. and Sanders, James A., eds. The
Canon Debate. Hendrickson Publishers (1 January
2002). 662p. ISBN 1-56563-517-5 ISBN 9781565635173
Miller, John W. The Origins of the Bible: Rethinking Canon History Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1994.
ISBN 0-8091-3522-1.

18
Riches, John. The Bible: A Very Short Introduction,
Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-2853430
Roper, J.C., Bp., et al.. The Bible. Toronto: Musson Book Co., 1924. In series, The Laymans Library of Practical Religion, Church of England in
Canada, vol. 4. N.B.: Series statement given here
in the more extended form of it on the books front
cover.
Siku. The Manga Bible: From Genesis to Revelation.
Galilee Trade (15 January 2008). 224p. ISBN 0385-52431-5 ISBN 978-0385524315
Taylor, Hawley O. Mathematics and Prophecy.
Modern Science and Christian Faith. Wheaton: Van
Kampen, 1948, pp. 17583.
Wyclie Bible Encyclopedia, s.vv.
Book of
Ezekiel, p. 580 and prophecy, p. 1410. Chicago:
Moody Bible Press, 1986.

15

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

19

16
16.1

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Cmgunn, The Realms of Gold, MisterWing, EmxBot, CConnla77, Xgllo, Fatslan, DigitalC, Cryonic07, Biscuittin, EJF, Snowmachine,
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Niceguyedc, Blanchardb, Kadajvince, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Leadwind, Ottava Rima, Rprpr, RenamedUser jaskldjslak903, LSFenster, Auntof6, Rooney3322, Mike0001, Monster boy1, Mackstar1, Masterpiece2000, DragonBot, Kitsunegami, Robert Skyhawk, Excirial,
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16.2

Images

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hisattvaBot, Rostama~enwiki, Jgkdjr~enwiki, Agazfatboy, Jovianeye, EastTN, Connorwithteeth, Tgannon, ManOfSummer, St.Trond, Rickmansbrick, AndreNatas, Rreagan007, Wikiplantjud, WikHead, Ougner, Npnunda, SilvonenBot, Galzigler, Joearmacost, Sweetpoet, Mercyguy18, Zubair71, Shamanstk, Clab6, B Fizz, Holyman101, Janisterzaj, D2qa, Kyleelridgeisgay10, Sibyllam, Prowikipedians, Busterfelix,
Bjpd, Proofreader77, Antiwikki, Rockmeallnightlong, Manuel Trujillo Berges, Bottleofwater66, Sky454, Diplomacy rule, Wojew, Tcncv,
Revelation2:27, Morriswa, Dgggioo, Grossjack, Billforrstlady, Hatashe, ArbiterQ19, Leszek Jaczuk, Musdan77, WikiUserPedia, Eivindbot, Kellygirlaj, Lihaas, Hdalip, AndersBot, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Emadd, Paulbriggs, Tassedethe, Sakisg088, Bigcatlovinggirl, Numbo3bot, Dukee, Blazn0azn, Clarion1, Verbal, Cesiumfrog, Andrevruas, Ret.Prof, Ben Ben, Legobot, Yobot, Rsquire3, Nickdnk, Matanya,
Alessio.aguirre, Fatima30, Kata Markon, AnomieBOT, Marauder40, 1exec1, Galoubet, Soxwon, Flewis, Mann jess, Elmmapleoakpine,
Citation bot, UnnaturalSelection, Sl63, Basilisk4u, LovesMacs, Quebec99, Mickey436, Cms100000000, Uni1aaaa, MauritsBot, Xqbot,
TinucherianBot II, Timir2, Plumpurple, TechBot, Live Light, Srich32977, Anonymous from the 21st century, GrouchoBot, PerLundberg, Alumnum, Omnipaedista, Johnnysmitthy, Frumphammer, Hornymanatee, Samuelmunster, JohnKeble, WikiyPruf, FrescoBot, Paine
Ellsworth, Coroboy, Keepwritingkeepdreaming, Peteinterpol, HJ Mitchell, Indexcard88, Airborne84, Citation bot 1, Pshent, Intelligentsium, Elockid, Per Ardua, Dazedbythebell, Gmasterman, RedBot, Jamesb3947, Yehoshuapinto, Russelldansmith, Jeppiz, Boywiz, Newmanyb, Frindro, Lemmiwinks2, ImmortalYawn, Hollisshuner, Lightlowemon, FoxBot, TobeBot, Mercy11, Vejlefjord, Jonkerz, Nickyus,
Mitchell Powell, Begoon, Cirrus Editor, Dsavage87, Jhenderson777, Tbhotch, Dcastorina, Noraft, Difu Wu, Aviv007, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot,
MShabazz, ChilternGiant, , Lopifalko, In ictu oculi, DASHBot, Esoglou, EmausBot, John of Reading, Cyber4911, WikitanvirBot, Never give in, GoingBatty, Gwillhickers, Ajm500, Mmeijeri, P. S. F. Freitas, Djembayz, Deanybabeh, Financeguy222, AvicBot,
ZroBot, Josve05a, Iwanttoeditthissh, The Nut, TheiGuard, Aeonx, Rosasdeagua, Asimov123, Gniniv, SporkBot, Dynasteria, Someone65,
Rcsprinter123, Theologian42, Zsh118, Themadgician, Monteitho, ChuispastonBot, AndyTheGrump, MarcusLeDain, Giftzwerg 88, AmiiKaay, Wayne Field, Zaza8675, CocuBot, Wacko787878, Hazhk, Porkloinson, Spel-Punc-Gram, Dream of Nyx, Telpardec, Cognate247,
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Ssdoubled, JZCL, Oct13, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Joeymanderson, DoctorKubla, JBGeorge77, Uno b4, ThePepel-Eterni, All Worlds,
Dexbot, Mogism, DiD001, Inayity, BLZebubba, Gabby Merger, Dhsahlin, Wan yik hay, BreakfastJr, Melonkelon, Cezar teodosiu, Abrahamic Faiths, Cherubinirules, Iniciativass, Mar044, Paul2520, Truewhit, Infantom, Man of Steel 85, Jerm729, Teacum, Justinrleung,
Writers Bond, TheG3NERAL John 3:16, Monkbot, Ruben fdo, LawrencePrincipe, Lord Laitinen, Edwardjones2320, Biblioworm, Dianamendez, ElectronicKing888, Joseph Yanchar, Witwitwit6553765537, JudeccaXIII, Piledhighandeep, Narky Blert, RyanTQuinn, WEvanTh, Ign christian, Stevenjeers1, Jason.nlw, , Miraclexix, Abdullah Al Wasif, Prinsgezinde, KasparBot, Capankajsmilyo,
Jzsj, Anentai, Fountains-of-Paris, Duivelwaan, Hawaan12 and Anonymous: 1506

16.2

Images

File:1588_First_Welsh_Bible.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/1588_First_Welsh_Bible.jpg License: CC0 Contributors:

This digital image can be seen in its original context here
Original artist: William Morgan (1545-1604)
File:2nd_century_Hebrew_decalogue.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/2nd_century_Hebrew_
decalogue.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archology, Volume 25 (January-December
1903), p. 56 Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:
Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.
svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x'
data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.aleppocodex.org Original artist: see en:Aleppo Codex; scanned by http://www.
aleppocodex.org
File:Allah-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Allah-green.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Converted to SVG from Image:Islam.png, originally from en:Image:Ift32.gif, uploaded to the English Wikipedia by Mr100percent on
4 February 2003. Originally described as Copied from Public Domain artwork. Original artist: ?
File:Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Anonymous (photo by Adrian Pingstone)
File:Bishops_Bible_Elizabeth_I_1569.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Bishops_Bible_Elizabeth_
I_1569.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from Susan Doran, editor. Elizabeth:The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum. 2003, London, Chatto & Windus/National Maritime Museum, ISBN 0701174765 (Doran 2003a) Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
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org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
/></a>
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File:Devil_codex_Gigas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Devil_codex_Gigas.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: http://www.kb.se/samlingarna/handskrifter/utlandska/ Original artist: Kungl. biblioteket
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File:Great_Isaiah_Scroll.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Great_Isaiah_Scroll.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Website of The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, see link. Original artist: Photographs by Ardon Bar Hama, author of
original document is unknown.

22

16

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Gutenberg_Bible,_Lenox_Copy,_New_York_Public_Library,_2009._Pic_01.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Gutenberg_Bible%2C_Lenox_Copy%2C_New_York_Public_Library%2C_2009._Pic_01.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Gutenberg Bible Original artist: NYC Wanderer (Kevin Eng)
File:Gutenberg_Bible_scan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Gutenberg_Bible_scan.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Scan by Ransom Center of the University of Texas at Austin http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/
gutenberg/ Original artist: Jerome (* ca 347, 420) (script), Johannes Gutenberg (* ca. 1400, 1468) (printing), various employees (decorations)
File:Kennicott_Bible_305r.l.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Kennicott_Bible_305r.l.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Facsimile Editions Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Lutherbibel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Lutherbibel.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own photo taken in Lutherhaus Wittenberg Original artist: Torsten Schleese
File:P_christianity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/P_christianity.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: OpenClipart Original artist: OpenClipart
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:StJohnsAshfield_StainedGlass_GoodShepherd_Portrait_cropped.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/8/89/StJohnsAshfield_StainedGlass_GoodShepherd_Portrait_cropped.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
StJohnsAsheld_StainedGlass_GoodShepherd.png Original artist: StJohnsAsheld_StainedGlass_GoodShepherd.png: Stained glass: Alfred Handel, d. 1946[2], photo:Toby Hudson
File:Star_of_David.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Star_of_David.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Prol by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Prol
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wikiversity-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p) Original artist: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p)
File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

16.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0