Single Cell protein

By-

Ananda Subramani K

1MS07BT004

M.S.Ramaiah Institute of technology

Bangalore

1
 Contents

Introduction 3-5

Production of SCP 6 - 19

Harvesting the SCP 20 - 21

Properties of SCP 22 - 25

References 26

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 Introduction
SCP is the name given to a variety of microbial products that are produced by fermentation. SCP
refers to the dried microbial cells or total protein extracted from pure microbial cell culture
(monoculture – Algae, bacteria, filamentous fungi, yeasts, etc…), which can be used as food
supplement to humans (Food Grade) or animals (Feed grade). When properly produced, these
materials make satisfactory proteinaceous ingredients for animal feed or human food. The
production of protein from hydrocarbon wastes of the petroleum industry is the most recent
microbiological industry.

The term SCP was coined by Prof.C.L.Wilson in 1966. This term is more appropriate as most of
the microorganisms grow as single or filamentous individuals. SCP contains high protein content
(60 – 80% of dry cell weight), fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, vitamins, and minerals. It is
also rich in essential amino acids such as Lys and Met.

Yeast, fungi, bacteria, and algae are grown on hydrocarbon wastes, and cells are harvested as
sources of protein. It has been calculated that 100 lbs of yeast will produce 250 tons of proteins
in 24 hours, whereas a 1000 lbs steer will synthesize only 1 lb of protein 24 hours and this after
consuming 12 to 20 lbs of plant proteins. Similar, algae grown in ponds can produce 20 tons (dry
weight) of protein, per acre, per year. This yield is 10 to 15 times higher than soybean and 25 to
50 times higher than corn. There are both advantages and disadvantages in using microorganisms
for animal or human consumption. Bacteria are usually high in protein (50 to 80 percent) and
have a rapid growth rate. 

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Single cell protein has the potential to be developed into a very large source of supplemental
protein that could be used in livestock feeding. In some regions single cell protein could become
the principal protein source that is used for domestic livestock, depending upon the population
growth and the availability of plant feed protein sources. This could develop because microbes
can be used to ferment some of the vast amounts of waste materials, such as straws; wood and
wood processing wastes; food, cannery and food processing wastes; and residues from alcohol
production or from human and animal excreta. Producing and harvesting microbial proteins is
not without costs, unfortunately. In nearly all instances where a high rate of production would be
achieved, the single cell protein will be found in rather dilute solutions, usually less than 5 %
solids. Methods available for concentrating include - filtration, precipitation, coagulation,
centrifugation, and the use of semi-permeable membranes. These de-watering methods require
equipment that is quite expensive and would not be suitable for most small-scale operations.
Removal of the amount of water necessary to stabilize the material for storage, in most instances,
is not currently economical. Single cell protein must be dried to about 10 % moisture, or
condensed and acidified to prevent spoilage from occurring, or fed shortly after being produced.

ADVANTAGES OF USING MICROORGANISMS FOR SCP PRODUCTION

 Protein synthesis is much more rapid than higher living systems.

 Microbes have short generation time.
 Easily modifiable genetically for determining the amino acid composition.
 Microbes have high protein content (7.12g protein Nitrogen/100g dry weight).
 Microbes can be grown on media containing cheap sources of C and N.
 Easy regulation of environmental factors for efficient yield.

DISADVANTAGES OF USING MICROORGANISMS FOR SCP PRODUCTION

 Bacterial cells have small size and low density, which makes harvesting from the
fermented medium difficult and costly.
 Bacterial cells have high nucleic acid content relative to yeast and fungi This can be
detrimental to human beings, tending to increase the uric acid level in blood. This may

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 cause uric acid poising or gout. To decrease the nucleic acid level additional processing
step has to be introduced, and this increases the cost.
 The general public thinking is that all bacteria are harmful and produce disease. An
extensive education programme is required to remove this misconception and to make the
public accept bacterial protein.

Yeasts have as advantages their larger size (easier to harvest), lower nucleic add content, high
lysine content and ability to grow at acid pH. However the most important advantage is
familiarity and acceptability because of the long history of its use in traditional fermentations.
Disadvantages include lower growth rates, lower protein content (45 to 65 per cent), and lower
methionine content than in bacteria. Filamentous fungi have advantages .in ease of harvesting,
but have their limitations in lower growth rates, lower protein content, and acceptability. Algae
have disadvantages of having cellulosic cell walls which are not digested by human beings.
Secondly, they also concentrate heavy metals.

Single cell protein basically comprises proteins, fats carbohydrates, ash ingredients, water, and
other elements such as phosphorus and Potassium. The composition depends upon the organism
and the substrate which it grows, some typical compositions which are compared with soy meal
and fish meal. If SCP is to be used successfully, there are five main criteria to be satisfied;
 The SCP must be safe to eat.
 The nutritional value dependent on the amino acid composition must be high.
  It must be acceptable to the general public.
 It must have the functionality, i.e. characteristics, which are found in common staple
foods.
 The economic viability of the SCP process is extremely complex and is yet to be
demonstrated.

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 Production of SCP
Single cell proteins develop when microbes ferment waste materials (including wood, straw,
cannery and food processing wastes, residues from alcohol production, hydrocarbons, or human
and animal excreta. The problem with extracting single cell proteins from the wastes is the
dilution and cost. They are found in very low concentrations, usually less than 5%. Engineers
have developed ways to increase the concentrations including centrifugation, flotation,
precipitation, coagulation and filtration, or the use of semi-permeable membranes. The single
cell protein needs to be dehydrated to approximately 10% moisture content and/or acidified to
aid in storage and prevent spoilage. The methods to increase the concentrations to adequate
levels, and de-watering process require equipment that is expensive and not always suitable for
small-scale operations. It is economically prudent to feed the product locally and shortly after it
is produced.

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 General Schematic for Production of SCP

Some important substrates for SCP production

Sulphite waste liquor
Candida utilis has been produced as a protein supplement by fermentation of sulphite waste
liquor in Germany during both world wars. More recently a Finnish company developed a fungal
SCP production process, the Pekilo Process, to grow Paecilomyces varioti using sulphite waste
liquor.

Cellulose
Cellulose from natural sources and waste wood is an attractive starting material for SCP
production because of its abundance. The association of cellulose with lignin in wood makes it
somewhat intractable to microbial degradation. Thermal or chemical pretreatment, used in
combination with enzymatic hydrolysis, is usually required. Systems using cellulolytic
organisms appear to have promise, but economic viability has yet to be achieved.

Whey
Whole milk whey or deproteinised whey is a carbohydrate source, which creates disposal
problems. (High BOD) Problems associated with whey for SCP production
are usually insifficient substrate, seasonal supply variations and its high water content (>90%)
which makes transport prohibitively expensive. While most organisms do not grow on lactose as
a carbon source, strains of the yeast Kluyveromyces marxianus readily grow on lactose.

Starch
The symba process was developed in Sweden to produce SCP from potato starch using two yeast

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strains. Saccharomyces fibuligera produces the enzyme necessary for starch degradation
enabling co-growth of Candida utilis. This process is known as simultaneous saccharification
and fermentation.

Glucose
Food grade glucose was the substrate chosen by RHM for production of fungal SCP using
Fusarium graminearum. The strategy adopted was to take advantage of mycelial fibre content to
produce a range of high added value products including meat analogues for human consumption.
Higher Alkanes
The original alkane SCP fermentation process, developed by BP in France used 10-20% wax
contained in gas oil. Substrate costs were very low, however due to their crude nature, exhaustive
processing was required to recover the yeast free of a gas-oil flavour taint. Other alkane based
SCP processes were developed in Italy, Japan and Romania but many of them suffered from the
problems of potential carcinogenic residues and most of the plants have never run on full
capacity or have been closed.

Methane/Methanol
Methane was initially considered as a SCP raw material because, as a gas product, purification
problems after fermentation would be minimal. Disadvantages associated with methane-based
processes are related to: (a) the greater oxygen requirements necessary to fully oxidise methane
compared with paraffins, (b) the low solubility of methane in water and (c) the requirement that
the fermentation plant be flame proof as methane-oxygen mixtures are highly explosive.
Methane is however easily converted to methanol which requires less oxygen, less fermenter
cooling, is highly water soluble and has minimal explosion risks.
ICI, which manufactures bulk methanol, chose this substrate for backterial SCP production for
animal feed using the trade name Pruteen. The company designed a non-mechanical “pressure
cycle fermenter” which uses air for both agitation and aeration in the worlds largest single
aerobic fermenter of 3000m3 capacity. The process which produces 50-60,000 tonnes SCP
per year, using the organism Methylophilus methylotrophus, was comissioned in 1979-1980, but

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has suffered from dramatic increases in methanol prices. The economic difficulties encountered
by ICI with animal feed processes lead to a joint venutre with RHM to produce Fusarium SCP in
the ICI plant.

Choice of Microorganism

The key criteria used in selecting suitable strains for SCP production should consider the
following:
 The substrates to be used as carbon energy and nitrogen source and the need for nutrient
supplementation.
 High specific growth rates, productivity and yields on a given substrate. pH and
temperature tolerance.
 Aeration requirements and foaming characteristics.
 Growth morphology in the reactor.
 Safety and acceptability – non pathogenic, absence of toxins.
 Ease of recovery.
 Protein, RNA and nutritional composition of the product.
 Structural properties of the final product.

In general, fungi have the capacity to degrade a wider range of complex plant materials,
particularly plant polysaccharides. They can tolerate low pH which contributes to reducing
fermenter infections. Growth of fungi as short, highly branched filaments rather than in pellets is
essential in order to optimize growth rate. Bacteria, in general, have faster growth rates than
fungi and grow at higher temperatures, thereby reducing fermenter cooling requirements.
Bacterial and yeast fermentations are easier to aerate. In contrast to fungi, which are easily
recovered by filtration, bacteria and yeast require the use of sedimentation techniques and
centrifugation. Bacteria, in general produce a more favorable protein composition than yeast or
fungi. Protein content in bacterial can range from 60-65% whereas fungi selected for biomass
production and yeast have protein contents in the range of 33-45%. However, associated with the
higher acterial protein levels is a much higher level of nutritionally undesirable RNA content of
15-25%. Microorganisms involved in SCP production must be safe and acceptable for use in
food. Organisms should be stable genetically so that the strain with optimal biochemical and

9
physiological characteristics may be maintained in the process through many hundreds of
generations.

Production
Large scale fermenters are required. High biomass productivity requires high oxygen transfer
rates which promotes high respiration rates which in turn increase metabolic heat production and
the need for an efficient cooling system. In order to maximise fermentation productivity it is
essential to operate continuous fermentation processes. Different processes have adopted
different fermenter designs with respect to process requirements.

Diagrammatic Representation of Commercial Production of Barker's Yeast

Commerical Production

The raw materials that can be used for single-cell protein manufacture include whey, sulphate
waste liquors, hydrocarbon waste from the pet petroleum industry, and the vats used to produce
alcoholic beverages. The production process involves growth of the organisms in large
fermenting tanks with forced aeration for vigorous cell-growth. Manufacture process used by
British Petroleum Industry for single-cell protein from hydrocarbons is represented in figure
below

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Yeast, fungi, bacteria,
and algae are grown on hydrocarbon wastes, and cells are harvested as sources of protein. It has
been calculated that 100 lbs of yeast will produce 250 tons of proteins in 24 hours, whereas a
1000 lbs steer will synthesize only 1 lb of protein 24 hours and this after consuming 12 to 20 lbs
of plant proteins. Similar, algae grown in ponds can produce 20 tons (dry weight) of protein, per
acre, per year.

Most of the work on single-cell protein production has been focused on the yeast, Candida utilis
(Torula utilis). The yeast meets most of the requirements named in the preceding paragraph. Not only
is the yeast easily grown, it also is a good food and fodder yeast. Although sterility is necessary,
purity of culture is not essential.

INDIRECT vs. DIRECT production

The relation of single-cell protein production to the reclamation of useful nutrient elements in
waste is by way of the utilisation of sugars formed through hydrolization of cellulosic substances
in municipal waste. However, a separate hydrolysis step may be bypassed by culturing the yeast
directly on the cellulosic waste. For convenience, in this presentation, the two approaches are
respectively designated by the terms “indirect” and “direct”.

Indirect production

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The production of C. utilis is an example of the indirect approach. The sequence of events in the
production is diagrammed in Figure IX-2.

With respect to nutritional requirements, the sugars (glucose) satisfy the carbon needs. The other
required essential nutritional elements are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which must
come from an external source. Usually, nitrogen is added as an ammonium compound (e.g.,
ammonium sulphate); a phosphate is used for phosphorus; and a potassium sulphate or hydroxide
compound for potassium. Generally, it is not necessary to add the essential trace elements.

Principal cultural conditions are a temperature at 20° to 35°C; and O 2, about 1.02 kg/kg cell
mass-produced. The necessarily aerobic conditions are attained by continuously agitating the
culture. The volume of air applied to meet the oxygen demand would be a rate of about 120
millimoles O2 absorbed per L-hr (3.84 g/L-hr). The yield to be expected at such a rate is 3.66 g
yeast per L-hr.

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Under proper cultural conditions, the yield of the cell mass should be from 45% to 55% of the
sugar consumed . The production rate under continuous conditions depends upon a combination
of cell mass and hydraulic detention time (culture volume/volume feed medium/day). must be
cellulolytic, i.e., capable of breaking down cellulose molecules. Preferably, most should be
cellulolytic. A disadvantage is the inability to use submerged culture in the absence of special
adaptations.

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Maximum cell concentration is a function of the hydrolysate sugar concentration multiplied by
the sugar conversion efficiency of the yeast. All sequences are not occurring simultaneously and,
collectively, they constitute a single unit process. Therefore, at least some of the microorganisms

Direct production
Direct production differs from indirect production in that organisms are cultured upon
unhydrolyzed wastes. Indirect production involves two discrete steps (hydrolysis and cell
production); whereas in direct production, the two steps are neither spatially nor always
temporally discrete. Although of necessity, the steps are sequential (hydrolysis must precede
utilisation for cellular growth; both may involve the same microorganism). In other words, an
organism can degrade a cellulosic molecule and utilize the constituent sugars to synthesise
cellular mass. All sequences are not occurring simultaneously and, collectively, they constitute a
single unit process. Therefore, at least some of the microorganisms must be cellulolytic, i.e.,
capable of breaking down cellulose molecules. Preferably, most should be cellulolytic. A
disadvantage is the inability to use submerged culture in the absence of special adaptations.

Most of the experience with single-cell production from waste has been at the laboratory- and
pilot-scale levels and has been with paper and bagasse. Paper is from 40% to 80% cellulose, 20%
to 30% lignin, and 10% to 30% hemicellulose and xylosans. Bagasse is the residue remaining
after the juice has been extracted from sugar cane by milling. Inasmuch as the studies were
limited to laboratory- and pilot-scale levels, projections and estimates based on the studies must
be considered in that light.

Among the cellulolytic microorganisms that have been studied are the yeasts, C. utilis and
Myrothecium verrucaria, and the bacteria, Cellulomonas flarigena .

In a study that involved the culture of M. verrucaria on a substrate composed of ball-milled

newspaper, a yield of crude protein amounting to 1.42 g/L was obtained . A pilot-scale study
involved the application of a system such as is diagrammed in Figure IX-3 . The organism used
in the investigation was C. utilis. The bagasse was pre-treated because experience had shown that
without pre-treatment, the soluble carbohydrate content of untreated bagasse is only about 2%;

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whereas after treatment, it is almost 18%. Pre-treatment reduces the cellulose crystallinity of the
bagasse from almost 50% to only 10%. As stated earlier, pre-treatment generally takes one or a
combination of the following forms: fine milling and exposure to moderately elevated
temperature under either acid or alkaline conditions.

The bacteria C. flavigena and C. uda constituted the product in a pilot study in which the
feedstock was bagasse. The study confirmed the need to pre-treat bagasse -- specifically, alkaline
pre-treatment. Moreover, in the study, extent of conversion of feedstock to cell mass was very
modest despite a continuous fermenter efficiency of 75% and an approximate 90% solubilization
of bagasse. Supplementary nutritional needs could be supplied by fertiliser and industrial
chemicals. From 50% to 55% of the product is crude protein that has a good amino acid balance.

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Some Common processes for SCP production -

SCP from N. Alkanes

In the late 1950's, British Petroleum (BP) became interested in the growth of a micro-organism
in C12-C20 alkanes. This constitutes the wax fraction of gas oils for treating. Some crude oils
contain up to 15% in wax, and these waxes must be removed since they make oil more viscous,
precipitate out at low temperatures, block tubes etc.

BP uses two yeasts, Candidor lipolytica and C. tropicals and built a 16,000 tons/year plant in
Cap Lavera, France, and a 4,000 tons/year plant in England. The product produced was called
"TOPRINA". In the UK the product "TOPRINA G" was a purer product while the one in France
was not separated from alkanes.

Both processes employed NH3 as N-source and Mg ions to increase yields. No other carbon
source was used. For 12 years TOPRINA was tested for toxicity and carcinogenecity and was
marketed as a replacement for fish meal in high protein feeds and as a replacement for skimmed
milk powder in milk replacers.

There were no signs at all for toxicity or carcinogenicity. In spite of this, people were concerned
that aromatic hydrocarbons may be carried over to SCP. The main opposition came from Japan,
where environmental groups and university professors condemned SCP as dangerous, and the
matter became political. In 1972 a specialised committee decided that SCP was only for animal
feeding but later, Japan was the first country to ban petrochemical protein. Meanwhile BP and an
Italian company constructed a 100,000 tn/year plant in Sardinia. Following the Japanese attack
on SCP, there has been great concern about and opposition to the use of SCP from environmental
groups in government. The Italian government ordered further studies which showed that there
was no hazard or carcinogenesis due to SCP. Pigs fed on 30% TOPRINA in their diets showed
less n-paraffins in their fat tissue than those fed on pasture. Based on this evidence the Italian
government agreed to the use of TOPRINA in limited amounts and only for export.

In 1977 Italy stopped the SCP production for alkanes altogether due to the increase in oil prices.
The price of soya was more competitive. Now there is no factory which produces any
petrochemical protein.

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SCP from Methane
Methane is cheap, abundant and without the toxicity problems of alkanes. It is a constituent of
North Sea Gas and is also produced during anaerobic digestion. Methane contains the most
highly reduced form of carbon and consequently gives high cell yields relative to the amount of
gas consumed. The general Methylomonas and Methylococcus have been recognised as utilising
methane as a carbon source. The species which has been extensively studied is Methylomonas
methanica. Nitrates or ammonium salts can serve as N-source.

Perhaps the most important work in this field was carried out by Shell in England. The process
involves methane oxidation by stable mixed cultures. These were

1. a methane utilising G(-) rod;

2. a Hyphomicrobium;
3. two g(-) rods; Acinetobacter and Flavobacterium

This mixed culture was one of the best examples of symbiosis. The process began in 1970 in a
300 e pilot plant at Sittingbourne, UK. In 1974 Shell announced plans for a construction of a
larger pilot-plant in the same area and a development program in Amsterdam with a goal of
producing 100,000 tn/year. In spring 1976, Shell stopped commercialisation and its development
plans were indefinitely postponed. This decision was based on 3 factors:

1. the low price of soybeans & maize;

2. the potential of many countries for expanding existing protein sources;
3. the difficulty in applying Shell's sophisticated process in underdeveloped countries.

SCP from Methanol – ICI process

The technology of SCP from methanol has been well studied and the most advanced process
belongs to ICI. The fermentation was carried out in a big airlift fermentor with the bacterium.
Methylophilus methylotropha. This organism was selected among other methanol utilises after
screening tests for pathogenicity and toxicity. As a nitrogen source ammonia was used. The
product was named "PRUTEEN". Pruteen contained 72% crude protein and was marketed for
feed as a source of energy, vitamins and minerals as well as a highly balanced protein source.
The methionine and lysine content of Pruteen compared very favourably with white fish meal.

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ICI has commissioned a 60,000 tn/year plant utilising the single largest fermentor in the world (2
x 10,000,000 l).

Unfortunately Pruteen now cannot compete with soya and fish meal. ICI hopes to be able to sell
their technology, because they have given up the idea of making money out of Pruteen. So today
Pruteen although a major engineering success is not economical to run.

SCP from Ethanol

Ethanol although expensive as a substrate has been used for SCP. The process comes from the
Amoco Company in the US utilising a food grade yeast: "Torula". The product is sold by the
name "TORUTEIN" and government clearances have been obtained to market Torutein in
Canada and Sweden. The yeast is about 52% protein and due to its relatively low Methionine
level has a PER of about 1.7. The PER of wheat from 1.1 to 2.0. Torutein is being marketed as a
flavour enhancer of high nutritional value, and a replacement for meat, milk and egg protein.
However it is not very successful in the United States since soya which is plentiful and cheap can
serve as an alternative or substitute to meat and egg diets.

RHM Mycoprotein process

This is a development of Ranks Hovis McDougall and is the only mycoprotein (except edible
mushrooms) that has been cleared for human consumption. It uses a Fusarium graminearum
growing in molasse, or glucose. The medium contains NH3 for nitrogen source and pH control.
The product is heat treated for RNA reduction. The mycelium is separated by vacuum filtration,
and can be technologically treated to match food texture. In the UK it is marketed as pies and is
considered a success since having less fat than meat, it can be sold at a premium price.

SCP from Lignocellulose

The lignocellulosic wastes, mainly from agriculture, constitute the most abundant substrate for
SCP which is also renewable. The world annual production of straw for example reaches 600
million tons every year. In Greece the straw from wheat and rye, the two most important cereals,
is an estimated 1.5 million tons per year.

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For the utilisation of lignocellulose, a pre-treatment is usually necessary. Many pre-treatment
methods have been reported which vary from alkali or acid treatment, steam explotion or even x-
ray radiation.

To the present time the only economical utilisation of lignocellulosic wastes is in mushroom
production. Besides our well know cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus there are many
important ones which contain lignocellulolytic enzymes and are cultivated for food mainly in
Asia and Africa. Some are of great economic significance and are cultivated on an industrial
scale. Examples of important ones include the following species: Volvariella sp., Lentinus
edodes and Pleurotus sp.

Bel Fromageries process: Kluyveromyces marxianus from whey

Whey which contains about 5% lactose, 0.8% protein and 0.2-0.6% lactic acid, is used as a
substrate. Biomass production requires an aerobic fermentation whereas aeration is minimal for
ethanol production. For feed grade biomass, the entire fermentation minerals and lactic acid may
be recovered. For preparation of food grade material, cells are harvested by centrifugation,
washed and dried.Cell yield is 0.45-0.55 g/g based on lactose consumed.

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An Overview of SCP production

20
 Harvesting THE SCP
Harvesting usually is done in two main stages: a concentration stage and a concentrate
processing stage.

First-stage concentration
This stage results in the formation of a concentrate that has a sludge-like consistency and is in
need of further processing. The need for the concentration step arises from the relatively low
concentration of cells and large volumes of material that must be processed. The sludge
(concentrate) is dewatered and dried. The concentration step is beset with many and grave
difficulties due to the microscopic size and the physical characteristics of the cells, as well as
their modest monetary value. The several technologies available for accomplishing the
concentration step can be grouped into the categories of screening, filtration, settling
(sedimentation), and centrifugation.

Screening and filtration

Screening and filtration are discussed under a single heading because they share a common
characteristic: separation of particles (cells) depends upon the difference between the size of the
particles and that of the openings (screen) or pores (filter medium). The problem is that the
screen or filter medium becomes clogged before a workable “cake” can be accumulated.

Settling
Their small size, low specific gravity, density, and low settling velocity render concentration by
sedimentation impractical. The settling velocity of yeast cells is approximately 1.1 x 10-5 cm/sec.
Significant advances in settling tank design and operation may enhance settling to a point at
which it becomes a feasible option. Another approach to settling or a modification is to induce
floc formation and thereby promote settling to a level at which it might be practical. Floc
formation can be induced by altering the surface charge of yeast cells such that they agglomerate
into floc particles. Surface charge can be altered by introducing a polymer flocculant (either
anionic or cationic) into the suspension. Alteration can also be accomplished by passing the
suspension through an ion exchange column.
Centrifugation

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Centrifugation is an effective concentration method. Unfortunately, it is expensive in terms of
equipment and power, and requires skilled personnel. A high-velocity rotor is necessary because
of the microscopic size and low specific gravity and density of the cells and viscosity of the
medium. A putative advantage is that the two separation stages can be accomplished in a single
operation.

Second stage - concentrate (sludge) processing

Treatment consists of dewatering and drying. Flash drying is a good approach. It is rapid and is
amenable to mass production and is successfully used in food and feedstuff preparation.
Moreover, it removes threats to human and animal health posed by chance pathogens. Other
options include pressure filtration and vacuum drying, such as is used in sewage sludge
conditioning.

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 Properties of SCP
One of the main advantages of SCP compared to other types of protein is the small doubling time
of cells (td) as shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Mass doubling time (S)

Due to this property, the productivity of protein production form micro-organisms is greater than
that of traditional proteins (Table 2).

Table 2
Efficiency of protein production of several protein sources in 24 hours (16)

It is assumed that the growth occurs without any restriction. Other advantages of SCP over
conventional protein sources are:

a. it is independent of land and climate;

b. it works on a continuous basis;
c. it can be genetically controlled;
d. it causes less pollution.

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There are five factors that impair the usefulness of SCP:

a. non digestible cell wall (mainly algae);

b. high nucleic acid content;
c. unacceptable coloration (mainly with algae);
d. disagreeable flavour (part in algae and yeasts);
e. cells should be killed before consumption.

Thus SCP is treated with various methods in order to:

1. kill the cells;

2. improve the digestibility;
3. reduce the nucleic acid content.

Nutritional Value of SCP

For the assessment of the nutritional value of SCP, factors such as nutrient composition, amino
acid profile, vitamin and nucleic acid content as well as palatability, allergies and gastrointestinal
effects should be taken into consideration . Also long term feeding trials should be undertaken
for toxicological effects and carcinogenesis.

Table 3 shows the average cell composition of the major groups of micro-organisms.

Table 3
Average composition of the main groups of micro-organisms (% dry weight)

Bacterial protein is similar to fish protein, yeast's protein resembles soya and the fungi protein is
somewhat lower than the yeast's. Of course microbiological proteins are deficient in the sulphur
amino acids cysteine and methionine and require supplementation, while they exhibit better
levels of lysine (Table 4).

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Table 4
Essential amino acid content of the cell protein in comparison with several reference proteins
(grams of amino acid per 100 grams of protein)

The vitamins of micro-organisms are primarily of the B type, B12 occurs mostly in bacteria,
while vitamin A is usually found in algae. Table 5 shows the vitamin content of various food
micro-organisms.

Table 5
Vitamin content of various food micro-organisms (mg/100 g dry weight)

25
Other nutritional parameters which evaluate the quality of a given SCP are:
- the digestibility (D)
- the biological value (BV)
- the protein efficiency ratio (PER)
- the net protein utilisation (NPU)

With microbial cells it is important to note that digestibility is low especially with algae cells
because of indigestible cell walls.

SCP evaluation and future prospects

The development of SCP was really the beginning of biotechnology. Prior to this the industrial
fermentation was mainly focused on antibiotics and other products which did not have to
compete. This was not the case with SCP which had to compete with similar products in the
market. The development was brought up by the oil companies rather than the food companies,
because they could take the risk of a highly costly product out with no real expected profit. They
also had all the high technology required.

The efforts tried so far by adding dry SCP as a supplement to diets in order to solve the problems
of the hungry in the Third World Countries, certainly have not given the expected results. Every
new food which appears in the market should have not only high nutritive quality, but also
satisfactory organoleptic supplementary element.

Today in most countries where market forces operate. SCP cannot compete with soya, alfalfa or
fish meal (19). Mushroom production from lignocellulosics seems to be one economical and
promising use for SCP. For future success of SCP, first, food technology problems have to be
solved in order to make it similar to familiar foods and second, the production should compare
favourably with other protein sources.

26
 References
 www.plosmedicine.com

 Biochemical Engineering, Aiba, S., A.E. Humphrey, and N.F. Mills,

Academic Press, Inc., New York, New York, USA, 1965.

 Conversion of Organic Solid Wastes into Yeast: An Economic

Evaluation, Meller, F.H, prepared for Bureau of Solid Waste Management

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 www.springerlink.com

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