Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Session 2011-2015
Authors
Abdul Wahab
Hafiz Sikandar Hayat
11-ME-70
11- ME-142
Supervisor
Dr Shahab Khusnood
Dean Faculty of M&AE
11-ME-70
11- ME-142
Supervisor:
DR Shahab Khusnood
Dean Faculty of M&AE
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated with the sense of gratitude to our parents, who taught us that the
best kind of knowledge to have is that which is learned for its own sake.
It is also dedicated to our teachers, who taught us that even the largest task can be
accomplished if it is done one step at a time.
UNDERTAKING
We certify that research work titled Vibration Based Condition Monitoring is our own
work. The wok has not been presented elsewhere for assessment. The material in this
project that has been used from the other resources, it has been properly
acknowledged/referred.
Abdul Wahab
Hafiz Sikandar Hayat
11-ME-70
11-ME-142
Countersigned by:
Dr Shahab Khusnood
Dean Faculty of M&AE Department
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praise to almighty Allah who enabled us to complete this dissertation in time.
Enormous thanks to all those personalities, who helped and encouraged us in the
accomplishment of this project. We are particularly grateful to our advisor Dr. Shahab
Khushnood for extending the most sincere guidance and help in the connection with this
project. His comments and questions were very beneficial for us at every stage of this
project. We are highly thankful to Sir Masood, Assistant Mechanical Engineer, OGDCL
who spared their valuable time to guide us in difficulties and providing all the available
resources for establishing project set up.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication .3
UNDERTAKING..4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...5
Abstract:.9
Chapter I: Introduction.10
1.1 Background..10
1.2 Maintenance Strategies10
1.2.1 Breakdown Maintenance...10
1.2.2 Preventive Maintenance ....11
1.2.3 Condition Based Maintenance...12
1.3 Condition Monitoring Methods...13
1.3.1 Machinery Vibration.13
1.4 Advantages of Condition Monitoring...14
Chapter 2: Vibration Technology15
2.1 Vibration Technology.15
2.2 Vibration as an Indicator of Machinery Condition.15
2.3 WHAT IS VIBRATION16
2.3.1 CAUSES of VIBRATION16
2.3.2 Unbalance..17
2.3.3 Mechanical looseness.........................18
2.3.4 Misalignment..........................19
2.4 Vibration and Machine Life..........................20
2.5 Why worry about a machine's vibration...20
2.6 The Vibration Predictive Maintenance Program.....................22
2.6.1 Detection22
6
2.6.2 Analysis..26
2.6.3 Correction.................26
2.7 Additional Applications for Vibration Detection & Analysis.................27
Chapter 3: CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION..30
3.1 Characteristics of Vibration...............30
3.2 Vibration frequency..32
3.2.1 Significance of Vibration Frequency..33
3.3 Complex vibration.36
3.4 Vibration Amplitude..........37
3.4.1 Vibration Displacement...38
Abstract:
This project is based on a Diesel Generator suffering with the vibration problems installed
at the Qadirpur gas field of OGDCL. The vibration analysis of that engine is done by using
the machinery health analyzer. On the basis of these results the intensity and cause of
vibration is found. This project shows that vibration based condition monitoring is a very
useful maintenance technique through which fault is detected and then diagnosed before it
cause any catastrophic failure. Condition monitoring is based on being able to monitor the
current condition and predict the future condition of machines while in operation. Thus it
means that information must be obtained externally about the internal effects while the
machines are in operation.
Condition monitoring consists of three faces which are fault detection, fault diagnosis and
fault prognosis. A machine in standard condition has a certain vibration signature. Fault
development changes that signature in a way that can be related to the fault. The fault is
measured by using a number of transducers like displacement transducers, velocity
transducers and acceleration transducers. This fault is then diagnosed, on the basis of
which the remaining useful life of machine is predicted. Condition monitoring reacts very
quickly to the sudden change and gives the best potential for protecting critical and
expensive equipment. This technique provides a detailed analysis to get much more
advance warning of impending failure and thus plan the maintenance work and production
to maximize availability of equipment.
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
High system availability is the most effective lever for increasing productivity. This is why
it is important to identify potential sources of error early and to perform scheduled
maintenance at the right time within the production cycle.
The measurement of various parameters such as vibration, bearing temperature, oil
pressure, and performance related to the mechanical condition of machinery is called
condition monitoring. This information is used to predict whether a breakdown is about to
occur in the very near future. It is a major component of predictive maintenance. Condition
Monitoring Systems are ideal for monitoring mechanical components. You have all your
machines and the entire system constantly in view. This facilitates predictive maintenance,
allowing you to plan and implement maintenance operations in due time.
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useful life of machine is predicted. This has been given rise to the term Mechanical
Signature Analysis.
1.4 Advantages of Condition Monitoring
There are many advantages of condition monitoring. Some of these are listed below.
Maximise machine productivity
Minimise unscheduled downtime
Safely extend overhaul intervals
Extend bearing service life
Improve product quality
Increased machine life
Reduce product cost
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Chapter 2
Vibration Technology
2.1 Vibration Technology
Machines of some kind are used in nearly every aspect of our daily lives; from the vacuum
cleaner and washing machine we use at home, to the industrial machinery used to
manufacture nearly every product we use on a daily basis. When a machine fails or breaks
down, the consequences can range from annoyance to financial disaster, or personal injury
and possible loss of life. For this reason, the early detection, identification and correction
of machinery problems is paramount to anyone involved in the maintenance of industrial
machinery to insure continued, safe and productive operation.
not only minimizes the need for extensive experience, but makes it possible to detect
developing problems that are outside the range of human senses of touch and hearing.
Further, human perception differs from individual to individual. What one person may
consider as bad, another may consider as normal. Attempting to trend changes in
machinery condition using human perception is nearly impossible, since it is nearly
impossible to put a documented number on "how it feels".
To overcome this problem, instrumentation has been developed to actually measure a
machine's vibration level and assign it a numerical value. This tool not only overcomes the
limitations of inexperience, but it addresses the limitations of human perception as well.
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2.3.2 Unbalance
The horizontal, vertical and axial vibration signatures presented in figure given below
illustrate typically Amplitude v/s Frequency analysis data resulting from an unbalance
condition. It can be noted that the predominant vibration occurs at 2200 CPM
corresponding to the 2200 RPM fan speed. Since the amplitude of vibration in the axial
direction is relatively low compared to the radial amplitude, a bent shaft or misalignment is
not indicated. The appearance of small of small amplitude at the harmonic frequencies in
common and does not necessarily any unusual problems such as Mechanical looseness.
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2.3.4 Misalignment
Misalignment is an extremely common problem. Misalignment even with flexible coupling,
results in two forces, axial and radial vibration. The significant characteristic of
misalignment and bent shaft is that vibration will be noted in both the radial and axial
direction. As a result, a comparatively axial vibration is the best indication of misalignment
or a bent shaft.
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Where:
Of course, there are other reasons to strive for low levels of machinery vibration besides
increasing the time between failures. In the case of precision machine tools, maintaining
low levels of vibration is necessary in order to manufacture quality products from a
dimensional tolerance and surface finish quality standpoint. In residences, office
buildings and hospitals, low levels of vibration of heating, ventilation, air conditioning
and other machinery is necessary to avoid human annoyance. With few exceptions,
when the condition of a machine deteriorates, one of two (and possibly both) things will
generally happen:
1. The dynamic forces generated by the machine will increase in intensity, causing an
increase in machine vibration. Wear, corrosion or a build-up of deposits on the rotor may
increase unbalance forces. Settling of the foundation may increase misalignment forces or
cause distortion, piping strains, etc.
2. The physical integrity (stiffness) of the machine will be reduced, causing an increase in
machine vibration.
Loosening or stretching of mounting bolts, a broken weld, a crack in the foundation,
deterioration of the grouting, increased bearing clearance through wear or a rotor loose on
its shaft will result in reduced stiffness to control even normal dynamic forces.
Thus, it should be obvious that an increase in machinery vibration is a positive indicator of
developing problems. In addition, each mechanical or operational problem generates
vibration in its own unique way. As a result, it is also possible to identify the specific
nature of the problem by simply measuring and noting its vibration characteristics. The
techniques of identifying specific defects and problems is presented in the section on
VIBRATION ANALYSIS.
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For programs that include only a small number of machines and measurement points, a
manually operated instrument and data recording system, such as that described above,
may be quite adequate. However, for programs that may include literally hundreds or,
perhaps, thousands of machines and measurement points, a computerized data collection
system is generally needed to not only minimize data collection time, but to minimize data
evaluation as well. The typical system consists of a predictive maintenance software
program installed in the computer and a compatible vibration instrument for collecting
data in the field. Most systems not only provide for collecting and trending overall levels
of machinery vibration, but also the detailed analysis data necessary to identify specific
machinery faults.
The first step is to set up the program in the computer software that will include:
Listing all machines to be included in the program.
1. Identifying the bearing locations where readings will be taken on each machine.
2. Identifying the directions (horizontal, vertical and axial) where readings will
be taken on each machine.
3. Identify the vibration parameters that will be measured at each location.
4. Parameters other than vibration such as bearing temperature, speed (RPM),
amps, pressures, flow rates, etc., may be incorporated as well.
5. Establish alarm or warning levels for each measurement.
6. Establish details for "spectral" (FFT) data needed for vibration analysis.
7. Organize machines into workable groups or "routes".
8. Establish a schedule for data collection for each group of machines.
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At first glance, this may seem like a tedious and time consuming process. However, most
vibration predictive maintenance software programs on the market today are very "user
friendly" with numerous features that greatly simplify the process of setting up the
program. Typically, a program can be set up for as many as 100 motor-pump systems in
as little as an hour. Establishing measurement locations, alarm levels and analysis
parameters requires additional training and/or experience.
Once the program has been set up in the computer software, the next step is to collect
data. Based on the established schedule, a group of machines is selected and "loaded"
into the vibration data collector instrument from the computer program. With the
instrument loaded, the operator proceeds to the assigned area and turns the instrument on.
The display on the instrument screen will direct the operator to the specific machine,
measurement location and transducer direction for the measurement. Once the transducer
is in place, the operator simply pushes the "store" button on the instrument to collect the
data. Once the reading has been taken, the operator pushes a button to reveal the next
required measurement. This process is repeated until all measurements on the route have
been collected. After the data has been collected, the operator returns to the computer and
"down-loads" the data to the predictive maintenance software, following a few simple
instructions. Once the collected data has been down-loaded, numerous reports can be
generated to reveal those machines that have experienced a significant increase in
vibration or have exceeded a preset alarm level, indicating developing problems. A report
is generated that identifies the specific machines, measurement points, vibration levels,
alarm levels and percentage change from the last reading for those machines with
developing problems. Another useful report is the graphic trend. This allows the operator
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to see how the vibration reading has progressed over a period of time, to determine
whether an increase in vibration has been gradual or sudden. Sudden increases in
vibration are generally regarded as potentially more serious than those that have steadily
increased over a period of weeks or months. Alarms and trends are only a few of the
many reports that can be generated by modern-day vibration predictive maintenance
software programs. The automated data collectors and computerized data handling
systems basically serve the same purpose as the simple hand-held vibration meter and
data sheet. However, the automated systems allow the computer to do what it does best,
and that is to "crunch" the numbers in a highly efficient and rapid manner. With a data
collector, one technician can take vibration readings on many machines throughout a
plant in a much shorter period of time.
Although most general machinery can be protected with periodic checks of vibration,
some machines may not be well suited to "manual monitoring" techniques. High
performance machinery such as steam and gas turbines, high-speed centrifugal
compressors and pumps can develop problems very quickly, with little or no preliminary
warning. Machines such as these may require continuous, on-line monitoring.
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2.6.2 Analysis
Once machinery problems have been detected by manual or on- line monitoring, the
obvious next step is to identify the specific problem(s) for scheduled correction. This is
the purpose of vibration analysis - to pinpoint specific machinery problems by revealing
their unique vibration characteristics.
In most cases, the same data collector instrument and software used for routine vibration
surveillance and trending can be used to obtain the detailed vibration characteristics
needed to pinpoint the specific problem.
2.6.3 Correction
Once problems have been detected and identified, required corrections can be scheduled
for a convenient time. Of course, in the meantime, any special requirements for repair
personnel (including outside repair facilities), replacement parts and tools can be
arranged in advance to insure that machine downtime is kept to an absolute minimum.
If the vibration problem is diagnosed as unbalance, in many cases the same instrument
used to detect and analyze the problem can be used to perform in-place balancing.
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2.7.3 Engineering:
Vibration detection and analysis play important roles in the development and testing of
new or prototype machines. Vibration measurements provide overall performance data.
Analysis techniques reveal troubles that might be the result of improper installation and
adjustment as well as improper design.
2.7.4 Field Service:
In spite of the many engineering tests and quality control inspections, vibration problems
do occur once a machine is delivered, installed and brought into service.
Such problems may include:
Damage to the machine during transportation or installation
Improper alignment of couplings or pulleys
Weak or inadequate base or foundation
Resonance of the machine or a machine component
Distortion due to "soft foot" or piping strain
Machine operating outside designed performance parameters
Improper design of related components such as piping, duct work, etc.
Due to the multitude of problems that can result in vibratory forces, a complete vibration
analysis of the complete installation is often the only way to clearly define the source of a
problem and the corrective action required for its solution.
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Chapter 3
CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION
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3.1.1 Cycle
The motion of the mass from top to bottom range and back to the initial starting
position in the vertical direction is referred to as one cycle, and it has all the
characteristics needed to define the vibration. Continued motion of the spring-mass
system will simply be repeating these measurable characteristics.
3.1.2 Period of Vibration
The amount of time required to complete one full cycle of the vibration is called the period
of the vibration. If, for example, the machine completes one full cycle of vibration in
1/60th of a second, the period of vibration is said to be 1/60th of a second.
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Although vibration frequency may be expressed in cycles per second or CPS, the
common practice is to use the term Hertz (abbreviated Hz) in lieu of CPS. This is in
honor of Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, a 19th century German physicist who is credited with
discovering electromagnetic radiation. Thus, a vibration with a frequency of 60 CPS
would actually be expressed as 60 Hz.
Although vibration frequency can be measured and expressed in Hertz (Hz), for most
machinery vibration work, vibration frequency is measured in cycles-per-minute,
abbreviated CPM. Expressing vibration frequency in terms of CPM makes it much easier
to relate this characteristic to the rotational speed of the machine that is normally
expressed in revolutions- per-minute or RPM. Thus, if a machine operates at 3600 RPM,
it is much more meaningful to know that a vibration occurs at 3600 CPM (1 x RPM) than
60 Hz. Of course CPM and Hz can be easily converted to one another as follows:
Given a frequency expressed in Hz, you can convert it to CPM:
CPM = Hertz x 60 Seconds/Minute
Given a frequency expressed in CPM, you can convert it to Hz:
Hertz = CPM/60 Seconds/Minute
3.2.1 Significance of Vibration Frequency
When a vibration problem exists, a detailed analysis of the vibration should be performed
to identify or pinpoint the specific cause. This is where knowing the frequency of
vibration is most important. Vibration frequency is a very valuable analysis or diagnostic
tool.
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The forces that cause vibration are usually generated through the rotating motion of the
machine's parts. Because these forces change in direction or amplitude according to the
rotational speed (RPM) of the machine components, it follows that most vibration
problems will have frequencies that are directly related to the rotational speeds. To
illustrate the importance of vibration frequency, assume that a machine, consisting of a
fan operating at 2400 RPM and belt driven by a motor operating at 3600 RPM, is
vibrating excessively at a measured frequency of 2400 CPM (1 x fan RPM), this clearly
indicates that the fan is the source of the vibration and not the motor or belts.
Following chart lists the most common vibration frequencies as their relate to rotating
speed (RPM) along with the common causes for each frequency. To illustrate how this
chart is used, if the frequency of excessive vibration was found to be 1 x RPM, the first
row will be the possible causes. So by using this chart, along with the fact that the
frequency of excessive vibration is 1 x RPM, the number of possible causes has been
reduced to only ten form literally hundreds. Vibration analysis is truly a process of
elimination. Additional tests and measurements can be taken to further reduce the number
of possible causes of a vibration problem. However, it should be obvious that knowing
the frequency of vibration and how the frequency relates to the rotating speed of the
machine components is truly the first step in the analysis process.
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Frequency In Term Of
RPM
1xRPM
2.
Resonance
3.
Reciprocating forces
4.
Electrical problem
5.
1.
2.
Reciprocating forces
Mechanical
3.
Resonance
Looseness
4.
Unbalance
2xRPM
Misalignment
2. Background vibration
3. Sub-harmonic vibration
High Frequency
Bad
bearing
Not
harmonically
anti-friction
Related frequency)
Synchronous
Electrical Problem
2x synch. frequency
Torque Pulses
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36
the fundamental gear mesh frequency would be called the second harmonic frequency of
gear mesh frequency.
Order Frequency
An order frequency is the same as a harmonic frequency.
Sub-harmonic Frequency
Sub-harmonic frequency is an exact sub-multiple (1/2, 1/3, 1/4 etc.) Of a fundamental
frequency. For example, a vibration with a frequency with a frequency of exactly 1/2 the
fundamental gear mesh frequency would be called the sub harmonic of gear mesh
frequency. Vibration at frequencies of exactly 1/2, 1/3, , of the rotating speed frequency
would be called sub harmonic frequencies; and these can also be called sub-synchronous
frequencies. However not all sub-synchronous frequencies are sub-harmonic. For
example, a vibration with a 43% of the running speed frequency is a sub-synchronous
frequency but it is not a sub harmonic frequency.
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1. Displacement
2. Velocity
3. Acceleration
The following paragraphs describe each of these units of vibration amplitude, their
significance and applications.
3.4.1 Vibration Displacement
Figure shows the time waveform generated by the up-and-down motion of the springmass system. The vibration displacement is simply the total distance traveled by the
vibrating part from one extreme limit of travel to the other extreme limit of travel. This
distance is also called the "peak-to-peak displacement".
Peak-to-peak vibration displacement is normally measured in units called mils, where one
mil equals one-thousandth of an inch (1 mil = 0.001 inch). A measured vibration
amplitude of 10 mils simply means that the machine is vibrating a total distance of 0.010
inches peak-to-peak.
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When it is not known that whether a machines vibration level is normal or indicative of
developing trouble, one can:
1. Compare the machines vibration characteristics with other identical or similar
machines. If a machine has a level of vibration 2 or 3 times higher than that of
similar machines, some problems are usually indicated, and through analysis
should be carried out to pin-point the cause of correction.
2. Check the machines vibration on a frequent and regular basis. Normally,
machines that have significant problems will show sign of deterioration through
increasing levels of vibration. If this is the case, a thorough analysis should be
performed at the earliest opportunity to pinpoint the cause for correction. On
the other hand, if the vibration level remain unchanged over a long period of
time, that vibration may be considered as normal or inherent for the type of
equipment.
The Problem with Displacement
Although measurements of vibration displacement have been used for many years to
evaluate machinery condition, the fact that it is necessary to know the frequency as well,
makes the use of displacement somewhat cumbersome when dealing with a vibration
predictive maintenance program that may include virtually hundreds of machines and
literally thousands of measurements. In addition, it has already been shown that
machinery vibration is not always simple or occurring at only one frequency. In many
cases, machinery vibration will be complex, consisting of many frequencies. In such
cases, it is nearly impossible to use vibration displacement to judge the "overall"
condition of a machine. It must be remembered that each source of vibration contributes
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to the ultimate fatigue of machine components, and the "overall" condition of the
machine can only be determined by an overall measurement of vibration that takes into
account all frequencies of vibration. This is accomplished by measuring VIBRATION
VELOCITY.
3.4.2 Vibration Velocity
It was pointed out earlier that the vast majority of machine failures caused by vibration
problems are fatigue failures. And, the time required to achieve fatigue failure is
determined by both how far an object is deflected (displacement) and the rate of
deflection (frequency). Of course, displacement is simply a measure of the distance
traveled and frequency is a measure of the number of times the "trip" is taken in a given
period of time such as a minute or second. If it is known how far one must travel in a
given period of time, it is a simple matter to calculate the speed or velocity required. Thus,
a measure of vibration velocity is a direct measure of fatigue. In short:
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Classification
Description
Very Rough
vibration
velocity peak
0.6 in/sec
Rough
Slightly
Rough
Average
0.05
Smooth
to
0.1
in/sec
0 to 0.05 in/sec
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As with velocity, since the value of vibration acceleration is constantly changing, the
highest or peak acceleration is selected for measurement.
Since vibration acceleration is technically the rate of change of vibration velocity (in/secpeak or mm/sec-peak), it follows that the units of vibration acceleration could be
expressed in in/sec/sec-peak or mm/sec/sec-peak. This can also be written as:
in/sec/sec = in/sec2
Or
mm/sec/sec = mm/sec2
However, by international agreement, levels of machinery vibration acceleration are
expressed in units of "G's", where one (1) "G" is the acceleration produced by the Earth's
gravitational force at sea level. By international agreement, the values of 980.665
cm/sec/sec, 386.087 in/sec/sec and 32.1739 feet/sec/sec have been established as the
standard acceleration values due to Earth's gravity at sea level. Thus, a measured
vibration acceleration of 1-G peak would be approximately 386 in/sec/sec (980
cm/sec/sec).
It should be kept in mind that the Earth's gravitational force (G) has little to do with a
machine's vibration amplitude. A machine with mechanical and/or operational problems
will vibrate regardless of where it is located - on Earth or in gravity-free outer space. The
accepted practice of expressing vibration acceleration amplitudes in G's is simply one of
convenience and familiarity. As with vibration amplitudes expressed in displacement and
velocity, some guidelines are needed to evaluate vibration amplitudes measured in G's
acceleration. The chart in figure () has been developed after many year of experience on
all type of types of industrial machinery. It should be noted that judging or evaluating
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conversion formula in figure (6), the corresponding velocity is found to be only 0.26
in/sec. According to the severity guidelines, in figures (6) a vibration velocity of only
0.26 in/sec would be probably be considered between the FAIR and SLIGHTY ROUGH
regions and not a cause for immediate concern. However, it must be remembered that the
machine is being deflected 100 mils which is 0.1 inch. Under these conditions, failure
will most likely occur due to stress (displacement) rather than fatigue (velocity). For this
reason, whenever it is anticipated that vibration frequencies may be present at frequencies
below 600 CPM (10Hz), measurements of vibration displacement are recommended.
3.5.2 When to Use Vibration Velocity as an Indicator of Fatigue problem
As a general rule, fatigue failures typically result from vibration frequencies between
approximately 600 CPM (10 Hz) and 120,000 CPM (2000 Hz). Therefore, when
vibration frequencies within this range are anticipated, measurements of vibration
velocity are recommended.
3.5.3 When to Use Vibration Acceleration as an Indicator of Fatigue problem
The concept of relating stress to displacement and fatigue to velocity is fairly simple and
straightforward. Perhaps the easiest way to demonstrate force as a cause of trouble is to
simply consider striking an object with a hammer. The impact may not cause significant
displacement or velocity; however, resultant damage can be considerable. From our
earliest science classes we were taught that force equals mass times acceleration (F = M x
A). From this simple formula, it is apparent that vibration acceleration is directly
proportional to vibratory force. And, since vibration acceleration increases proportional
to the square of vibration frequency, very large vibratory forces can occur at high
frequencies of vibration even though the displacement and velocity amplitudes may be
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quite small. To illustrate, assume that a machine has a measured vibration velocity of
0.25 in/sec-pk, occurring at a frequency of 600,000CPM (2000Hz), perhaps due to a gear
problem. The resultant vibration acceleration is found to be over 40 Gs.
Again, according to the severity guidelines in figures (6), a vibration velocity of only
0.25 in/sec would be considered within the FAIR to SLIGHTY ROUGH regions.
However, according to the vibration acceleration severity chart in figure (10), the Gs is
off the chart and would be considered EXTREAMLY ROUGH. In this case, failure
will be most likely result extremely forces and not stress and fatigue. Excessive forces
generally cause deformation of the surface of machine components such as gear teeth and
rotating element bearings. High forces can also cause the lubricating film to break down,
resulting in friction, heat generation and ultimate failure. Because of the importance of
vibratory forces at high frequencies, vibration acceleration measurements (G's) are
recommended whenever vibration frequencies above 120,000 CPM (2000 Hz) are
anticipated. Probably the most common source of such high frequencies are gear-mesh
frequencies and harmonics or multiples of gear mesh frequencies on high-speed gear
drives.
3.6 Contours of Equal Severity
Perhaps the best way to summarize the application for displacement, velocity and
acceleration measurement is to examine Contours of Equal Severity chart in figures (6,
10). This chart shows the frequency ranges over which each parameter of vibration
amplitude best indicates the severity of vibration. From the chart, it can be seen at low
frequencies, below 600 CPM, vibration displacement, by far, the best indicator of
vibration severity from a stress standpoint. This is not say that velocity or even
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acceleration could not be used at frequency below 600 CPM; however, the allowable
levels of velocity and acceleration below 600 CPM would be considerably lower than
they would at match higher frequencies. For example, according to the chart, a vibration
acceleration of only 0.051 Gs at a frequency of 60,000 CPM.
Similarly, although vibration acceleration is obviously the best indicator of severity from
a force stand point at high frequencies, (above 60,000), this does not mean that velocity,
and displacement could not be used. However, according the chart, a vibration
displacement of only 0.1 mil at 60,000 CPM would be equal in severity to a vibration
displacement of 10.0 mils at a frequency of 600 CPM. The chart also shows that the most
linear indicator of vibration severity over the frequency range from 600 CPM to 60,000
CPM (10 Hz to 1,000) is velocity. Although this chart tends to indicate that vibration
acceleration should be for frequencies above 60,000 CPM (1000 Hz), experience has
proven that vibration velocity is quite useful at even much higher frequencies and its use
is recommended to at least 120,000 CPM (2,000 Hz), in fact, many experienced vibration
technicians have reported using vibration velocity measurements for vibration
frequencies as high as 240,000 CPM (4,000 Hz) with excellent results.
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Chapter 4
VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS
4.1 VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS
To be able to measure vibration of a machine, some technical equipment is necessary. In
practice, various tools are used, from simple instruments measuring overall vibration to
multi-channel analyzer equipped with numerous features that facilitate not only the
measurement itself but also the analysis of the measured data.
In this chapter, the typical scheme of vibration analyzer and various types of sensors that
are used for vibration measurements will be introduced. Furthermore, analysis and
evaluation of the vibration measurements will be described.
4.1.1Analyzer
Basic scheme of the analyzer used for vibration measurements is in Fig. (11) The
analogue signal from the vibration sensor passes through the input amplifier, anti-aliasing
filter and A/D converter, where it is digitized and enters the data buffer. From the buffer
it can be displayed either as a time waveform or can be further processed by the Fourier
transform to obtain frequency spectrum. Individual functional units of the analyzer will
be discussed in detail in the following topics.
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But already in the range from 1000 to 2000 Hz, measurements performed by non-contact
proximity probes are very suspicious because it is not possible to adequately eliminate
the influence of unevenness of the shaft surface, which is comparable to the measured
displacements. Velocity transducers are limited because of their design to frequencies of
approximately 10-1500 Hz. Accelerometers that can measure frequencies lower than 1
Hz to about 30 kHz have the widest frequency range.
Further on, the individual types of sensors, their typical applications and mode of
operation will be described.
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cable or the shield threatens the quality of measurements. After affecting the carrier wave
and eddy current by the variable distance of the target surface during the vibration, the
signal is led back to the demodulator. Then - now already low-frequency - the signal is
led to the evaluation unit.
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Permanent magnet that is fastened to the sensor's housing and therefore with the
case of the measured machine (when properly mounted).
Coil (hollow bobbin wrapped with wire) which is hanged on very soft springs and
which due to its inertia remains at rest, while the permanent magnet vibrates with
the case. Sometimes the wire is wound on the bobbin two-way to distract external
electric fields.
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During installation, the sensitivity axis of the transducer should be considered - due to the
effects of gravitational forces, sensors specified for measuring in vertical direction should
have different design from those specified for horizontal direction. Velocity transducers
are very sensitive to lateral vibration (other than in the sensitive axis direction) - the coil
could get in touch with the sensor housing and cause damage of the sensor. The place for
sensor mounting should be adjusted so that the surface was straight and slightly larger
than the base of the sensor.
Velocity transducers have the advantage that they are low-cost and quite sensitive; the
disadvantage is that because of their fragile design they are susceptible to shocks and are
not suitable for "manual" measurements, they are used only permanently mounted on the
machine case using screw. Velocity transducers of modern type are laser sensors that
operate on the base of the Doppler Effect. They are very expensive and not commonly
used in diagnostics.
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4.2.3 Accelerometers
Nowadays, an accelerometer is used as a basic vibration sensor, particularly for
measuring on stationary parts of the equipment (rotating machinery), as it has minimum
disadvantages in comparison with previous types of sensors (such as the one that it
cannot measure at 0 Hz). If velocity or displacement is needed, this information can be
obtained by integrating the signal from the accelerometer.
Figure 16 Accelerometers
The principle of accelerometer operation is that deformation of a plate of piezoelectric
ceramic material results in an electrical charge, magnitude of which is directly
proportional to the deformation. The ceramic plate is placed between two masses, one of
which is inertia (seismic) reference mass and the other is firmly attached to the sensor
case and therefore to the case of the measured machine (see Fig.16). The seismic mass is
flexibly supported; pre-stressed bolt with piezo ceramic plate is here considered as a
spring, so that the stiffness to the mass ratio of this system is large and the resonant
frequency of the sensor itself is very high.
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When the measured machine vibrates, the mass firmly attached to the transducer case
also vibrates, while the reference inertial mass remains at rest. This creates a force
applied to the piezoelectric element that deforms and creates an electrical charge that is
proportional to the acceleration of the machine case. Thus, the accelerometer measures
absolute vibrations (stationary inertial mass is the reference) unlike proximity probes that
measure relative vibrations (vibration of the rotor relative to the stator, which itself may
vibrate).
Due to the fact that accelerometers do not contain any moving parts, they are durable and
reliable and do not require frequent calibration check as velometers. Their installation on
the machine case is easy, they can be used in a wide range of frequencies (from 0.1 Hz to
30 kHz) and they have large dynamic range. Designs for high operating temperatures are
also available.
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Chapter 5
Fourier Series
5.1 Fourier Series
In mathematics, a Fourier series decompose periodic functions or periodic signals into the
sum of a (Possibly infinite) set of simple oscillating functions, namely sine and cosines
(or complex exponentials). The study of Fourier series is a branch of Fourier analysis
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Windowing
Zero Padding
System expert (may often add significantly to the value and trustworthiness of the
analysis results)
The FFTs properties and the limitations are directly related to the incomplete co-ordinate
system that it attaches to the data. Use of the FFT is equivalent to assuming that the
original continuous time signal is periodic and that the period is equal to the observation
time. This forces the spectral estimate to exist at a finite number of frequencies as
opposed to continuum.
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For problems where sensitivity to frequency drift, resolution or leakage is crucial, other
spectral estimators with more elaborate co-ordinate system should be considered. Unless
the co-ordinate system the co-ordinate system for a measured space associated with a
signal processing technique matches the system space, the performance of the technique
cant be expected to be ideal. Better performance can be generally be expected from a
longer co-ordinate system.
5.3 Problems with Fast Fourier Transform
When using FFT analysis to study the frequency spectrum of signals, there are limits on
resolution between different frequencies, and on detectability of a small signal in the
presence of a large one.
There are two basic problem: the fact that we can only measure the signal for a limited
time; and the fact that the FFT only calculates results for certain discrete frequency value
(the FFT bins). The limit on measurement time is fundamental to any frequency
analysis technique: the frequency sampling is peculiar to numerical method like the FFT.
The first problem arises because the signal can only be measured for a limited time.
Nothing can be known about the signals behavior outside the measured interval. We
have to assume something about the signal outside the measure interval, and the Fourier
transform makes an implicit assumption that the signal is repetitive: that is. The signal
within the measured time repeats for all time. Most real signals will have discontinuities
at the ends of the measured time, and when the FFT assume the signal repeats it will
assume discontinuities that are not really there. Since sharp discontinuities have broad
frequency spectra, there will cause the signals frequency spectrum to be spread out.
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Chapter 6
Methodology
6.1 Vibration Standards
Following are few important vibration standards that we use during the vibration analysis.
ANSI S2.1
Vibration and Shock - Vocabulary
ANSI S2.2
Methods for the Calibration of Shock and Vibration Pickups
ANSI S2.7
Method for Specifying the Characteristics of Auxiliary
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Routine data and corrective maintenance jobs can be uploaded to the companion AMS
Suite: Machinery Health Manager Software for analysis and reporting.
6.4.1 Features
Data collection, vibration analysis, alignment and balancing in a single unit
Embedded intelligence unlocks powerful technology solutions
Compact, rugged design holds up to any plant environment
Intuitive operation shortens the learning curve for faster implementation
Modular format allows you to add capabilities as your needs change
Upload data to AMS Suite for a single view of machinery health
Atex, FM, CSA Rated versions available.
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6.6 Experimentation
When the problem is not solved with the visual inspection and the conventional vibration
analysis then we did a thorough vibration analysis of that Diesel Generator using the
machinery health analyzer. We performed the vibration analysis on six different points
which are as follows:
Generator outboard Vertical
Generator outboard Horizontal
Engine Outboard Horizontal
Engine Outboard Vertical
Engine outboard Axial
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Chapter 7
Results
7.1 Problem
During our internship here at (OGDCL Qadirpur gas field) an emergency diesel generator
got vibration problems. The generator has two parts Cummins G3 engine which is the
prime mover of the generator and the alternator (model# P173481) which transfers the
mechanical energy into electrical energy. We did the vibration Analysis on the different
parts of the generators and on the basis of this analysis we determine the cause of the
vibration.
The factors which were mainly focused during the analysis were:
RMS Value.
Frequency in orders.
Acceleration
Time.
For each part of the analysis we obtain two types of plots
Pot between RMS value and Frequency in orders.
Plot between Acceleration and Time.
Through these graphs we detect either the vibration is present in that engine part or not.
After we measure the severity of the vibration and at the last we found out the cause of
the vibration in that part of the generator.
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30 - DG Set
-G2V Generator Outboard Vertical
50
10
8
Route Spectrum
12-Feb-15 13:16:20
OVERALL= 9.43 V-DG
RMS = 9.38
LOAD = .0
RPM = 1529. (25.48 Hz)
.50
10.50
7.00
6.00
6.50
5.00
4.00
3.50
2.50
1.50
0
0
12
15
18
Frequency in Orders
Acceleration in G-s
3
2
Route W aveform
12-Feb-15 13:16:20
RMS = .5859
PK(+/-) = 2.40/2.25
CRESTF= 4.09
FAULT
ALERT
0
-1
ALERT
-2
FAULT
-3
0
50
100
150
200
Time in mSecs
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50
18
30 - DG Set
-G2H Generator Outboard Horizontal
Route Spectrum
12-Feb-15 13:16:03
OVERALL= 15.64 V-DG
RMS = 15.44
LOAD = .0
RPM = 1528. (25.46 Hz)
1.50
15
12
7.00
6.50
4.00
3.50
2.50
2.00
1.00
.50
.23
0
0
Frequency in Orders
Acceleration in G-s
3
2
Route W aveform
12-Feb-15 13:16:03
RMS = .7081
PK(+/-) = 1.92/2.61
CRESTF= 3.68
FAULT
ALERT
0
-1
ALERT
-2
FAULT
-3
0
50
100
150
200
Time in mSecs
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50
30 - DG Set
-E1H Engine Outboard Horizontal
Route Spectrum
12-Feb-15 13:06:47
OVERALL= 6.20 V-DG
RMS = 6.18
LOAD = .0
RPM = 1527. (25.44 Hz)
8.51
2.50
6.00
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0
0
12
15
18
21
Frequency in Orders
Acceleration in G-s
10
Route W aveform
12-Feb-15 13:06:47
RMS = 2.31
PK(+/-) = 8.40/6.69
CRESTF= 3.63
5
FAULT
ALERT
ALERT
FAULT
-5
-10
0
50
100
150
200
Time in mSecs
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50
30 - DG Set
-E1V Engine Outboard Vertical
Route Spectrum
12-Feb-15 13:00:52
OVERALL= 7.70 V-DG
RMS = 7.68
LOAD = .0
RPM = 1528. (25.46 Hz)
.50
1.50
5
4
5.99
6.00
6.50
4.00
2.00
2.50
.69
1.00
0
0
12
15
18
21
Frequency in Orders
Acceleration in G-s
3
2
Route W aveform
12-Feb-15 13:00:52
RMS = .4361
PK(+/-) = 1.53/1.57
CRESTF= 3.59
FAULT
ALERT
0
-1
ALERT
-2
FAULT
-3
0
50
100
150
200
Time in mSecs
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30 - DG Set
-E1A Engine Outboard Axial
50
8.50
24
20
Route Spectrum
12-Feb-15 13:17:07
OVERALL= 26.68 V-DG
RMS = 26.61
LOAD = .0
RPM = 1525. (25.41 Hz)
15.00
16
15.50
11.50
12.00
8.00
9.00
9.50
10.00
12
4.00
0
0
12
15
18
21
Acceleration in G-s
Frequency in Orders
16
12
Route W aveform
12-Feb-15 13:17:07
RMS = 4.39
PK(+/-) = 14.45/14.25
CRESTF= 3.29
8
4
FAULT
ALERT
ALERT
FAULT
0
-4
-8
-12
-16
0
50
100
150
200
Time in mSecs
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7.3 Conclusion:
After observing all the graphs that we obtained from the vibration analysis on different
parts of generator we found out that Maximum vibration is observed at the Engine
outboard Axial. So, axial vibration in this case was greater than the radial vibration. We
know that the axial vibration occurs due to the misalignment of shaft. So, misalignment
of shaft was the main cause of the vibration in the generator. Hence through the vibration
analysis we point out the main cause of the vibration in the generator. Hence we can
conclude that the through condition monitoring we can easily describe the place and
cause of vibration which makes vibration tackling easier and accurate. Also, through
condition monitoring we can predict the fault before it occur so that we can make plans to
counter this problem and can save the machine from damage.
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LIST OF FIGURES
82
List of Table
83
REFERENCES
1.
http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470747854.html
2.
http://shm.sagepub.com/content/3/4/355.short?rss=1&ssource=mfc
3.
4.
J. Rafiee and P.W. Tse, Use of autocorrelation in wavelet coefficients for fault
ASTM D6595-00: "Standard Test Method for Determination of Wear Metals and
Analysis"
7.
Liu, Jie; Wang, Golnaraghi (2008). "An extended wavelet spectrum for bearing
Jar dine, A.K.S.; Lin, Banjevic (2006). "A review on machinery diagnostics and
introduction" (2005)
10.
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