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Fig. 2.1: Characteristic and design stress-strain curves for concrete in flexural
compression
For the purpose of limit states design, the appropriate partial safety factor c has to be
applied, and c is equal to 1.5 for the consideration of ultimate limit states. Thus, the
design curve is obtained by simply scaling down the ordinates of the characteristic
curve, i.e., dividing by c (Fig. 2.1). Accordingly, the maximum design stress becomes
equal to 0.447fck, and the formula for the design compressive stress fc corresponding to
any strain 0.0035 is given by:
Page 1
< 0.002
0.002
0.002
0.447 0.002 0.0035
0.447 2
Fig. 2.2: Characteristic and design stress-strain curves for Fe 250 grade mild steel
Fig. 2.3: Characteristic and design stress-strain curves for Fe 415 grade cold-worked
steel
Page 2
The stress-strain curves for steel, both in tension and compression in the structure, are
assumed to be the same as obtained in the tension test. As the yield strength of IS grade
steel has a minimum guaranteed yield strength, the partial safety factor to be used for
steel strength need not be as large as that for concrete. The partial safety factor
recommended for steel is 1.15, and this is to be applied to the stress-strain curve as shown
in Figs. 2.2 and 2.3 (IS: 456-2000, Fig. 22). It should be noted that for cold worked
deformed bars the factor 1.15 is applied to points on the stress-strain curve from 0.87fy to
fy only. The strain corresponding to 0.87fy stress is,
0.87
=
+ 0.002
Page 3
Out of these, the important limit states of serviceability are excessive deflection and
cracking. The deflection of a structure or part thereof shall not adversely affect the
appearance or efficiency of the structure or finishes or partitions. Cracking of concrete
should not adversely affect the appearance or durability of the structure. Generally crack
widths at surface shall not exceed 0.3 mm. The limit state of excessive deflection and
crack width is applicable at service loads and is estimated on the basis of elastic analysis
(working stress method). The limit state of collapse (or failure), however, depends upon
ultimate strength.
2.3 ASSUMPTIONS MADE IN LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE IN FLEXURE
The following assumptions are relevant in the computations of ultimate flexural strength
of reinforced concrete sections as specified in IS: 456-2000 clause 38.1.
1. Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending. It means the strain
diagram across the depth of the cross section is linear as shown in Fig. 2.4.
applied to compute the design strength. Hence, the maximum stress in steel is limited
to fy/1.15 = 0.87fy.
6. The maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the section at the failure shall not
be less than
0.002
x
0.0035 u
3
x i.e.,
7 u
x
7 u
0.67
f
1.5 ck
for
From the stress strain curve we find that when this value exceeds
0.87
0.87
+ 0.002
Page 6
0.87
+ 0.002 earlier to
compressive strain in concrete reaching the limiting value of 0.0035, are called under
reinforced section. In these cases as moment increases, first steel reaches yield strain.
The stress in steel remains same (fy) but strain goes on increasing. When the moment
corresponding to 0.0035 strain in concrete is reached, concrete is crushed and failure
takes place. The excess strain in steel beyond
0.87
cracks in concrete. The deflection will increase. They serve as a warning to the user and
one can take precautions to avoid disaster. Hence, IS code specifies that the maximum
strain in tension reinforced shall not be less than
0.87
prefers design of under reinforced sections and at the most it can be balanced section.
This type of failure in under reinforced section is called primary tensile failure.
RC sections in which the limiting strain in concrete is reached earlier than the yield strain
of steel are called over reinforced sections. At failure steel is not yet yielded and
concrete bursts out. As there are no warning of failure in such sections, IS code
recommends avoiding such designs. Hence, a designer should not provide extra steel to
get the feeling of making design safer. No doubt, providing extra steel increases the load
carrying capacity of the section, but in case of over loading, it results into sudden
collapse.
If xulim is the value of depth of neutral axis in balanced section, it may be noted that
xu<xulim in under reinforced sections and xu>xulim in over reinforced sections. These
sections are shown in Fig. 2.7.
2.6 DEPTH OF NEUTRAL AXIS
Beams are assumed to fail in bending when the strain in concrete reaches limiting
compression strain of cu = 0.0035. But in all cases of design tensile strain in steel need
not be equal to limiting strain =
0.87
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0.36
Where, Ast = area of tension steel
xu = depth of neutral axis from top compression fibre
b, d = width and effective depth of the beam.
Case 1: Balanced section:
From strain diagram of Fig. 2.8 (d),
0.0035
=
Rearranging,
0.0035
=
0.0035
=
+ 0.0035
Page 8
0.0035
=
0.87
+ 0.002 + 0.0035
0.0035
=
0.87
+ 0.0055
Since, E = 2*105 N/mm2 for all types of steels,
fy in N/mm2
250
415
500
xulim/d
0.53
0.48
0.46
0.36
Case 3: Over reinforced section:
For over reinforced section, s < slim. Hence, the actual strain in steel at failure es is to be
found from the equation,
0.0035
=
Then using stress strain diagram of steel, corresponding stress is to be found. Since, s
and xu are independent; it is not possible to get one value from the other. Trial and error
method is to be used.
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1 0.42
2
1 0.42
2
= 2
Where,
= 0.36
1 0.42
Substituting the values of (xulim/d) for different grades of steel, we get the values of k for
finding Mulim for different grade of steel as shown in Table 2.2 below.
Table 2.2: Limiting moment carrying capacity for different grade of steels
Type of steel
Fe250
Fe415
Fe500
xulim/d
0.53
0.48
0.46
Mulim
0.148fckbd2
0.138fckbd2
0.133fckbd2
0.87
=
0.36
Moment equilibrium equation gives,
= = 0.87 0.42
= 0.87 0.42
0.87
0.36
= 0.87 1 1.015
In case of over reinforced sections (xu> xulim), the actual moment of resistance of the
section may be obtained by usual formula C x LA or T x LA. However, to avoid
compression failure, the strength of such sections to be considered as that of balanced
sections only, i.e.,
= = 0.36
1 0.42
2
The effective width of flange may be taken as the following but in no case greater than
the breadth of web plus half the sum of the clear distance to the adjacent beams on either
side.
(a) For T-beams
= + + 6
6
(b) For L-beams
=
+ + 3
12
For continuous beams and frames lo may be assumed as 0.7 times the effective span.
The following cases are considered.
(a) Neutral axis lies within the flange
In this case since, xu < Df, the section can be considered as rectangular with the width of
compression flange as the width of the section.
i.e., b = bf
The moment of resistance of under reinforced section is computed by the relation:
= 0.87 1
In the case of over reinforced sections, xu > xulim, the moment of resistance is computed
by,
= 0.36
1 0.42
2
(b) Neutral axis lies outside the flange and (Df/d) 0.2
When the neutral axis falls outside the flange (xu > Df) and the ration (Df/d) 0.2 and
(Df/xu) < 0.43, the flexural strength can be computed by using the stress block parameters
shown in figure above. The stress blocks are considered separately for the web portion
and the flanges. Considering the tensile and compressive forces shown in figure above,
the moment of resistance of the flanged section is expresses as,
= 1 0.42 + 2 ( 0.5 )
Where,
1 = 0.36
2 = 0.45 ( )
The final expression being,
= 0.36
2 1 0.42
+ 0.45 0.5
The above equation is valid for the case (Df/d) < 0.2 and (Df/xu) < 0.43
Page 12
(c) Neutral axis lies outside the flange and (Df/d) > 0.2
When the ratio (Df/d) > 0.2, the moment equation is modified by substituting yf for Df in
above equation where,
= 0.15 + 0.65
The modified equation for moment of resistance is expressed as,
= 0.36
2 1 0.42
+ 0.45 0.5
The Indian standard further states that for xumax > xu > Df, the moment of resistance may
be calculated by using (b) condition when (Df/xu) does not exceed 0.43 and when (Df/xu)
exceeds 0.43, the moment of resistance is computed by the condition (c) by substituting
xumax by xu.
(d) Computation of tension steel in tee beam
(i) When xu < Df, the tee beam is considered as rectangular and the area of reinforcement
is computed by the following equation for a known value of Mu.
= 0.87 1
(ii) When xu > Df, (Df/d) 0.2 and (Df/xu) 0.43, the area of tension reinforcement is
computed by the following equation,
Force equilibrium,
T1 = C1
0.87 fy Astw = 0.36 fck bw xu
=
Also,
0.36
0.87
T2 = C2
0.87 fy Astf = 0.45 fck (bf-bw) Df
=
0.45 ( )
0.87
Therefore,
=
0.45
0.36
+
0.87
0.87
Page 13
(iii) When xu > Df, (Df/d) 0.2 and (Df/xu) > 0.43, the area of tension reinforcement is
computed by the following equation,
Replace Df by yf,
=
0.45
0.36
+
0.87
0.87
(iv) When xu > Df, (Df/d) < 0.2 and (Df/xu) > 0.43, this is similar to case iii.
2.9 DOUBLY REINFORCED SECTIONS IN FLEXURE
Doubly reinforced sections are required in beams of restricted depth due to head room
requirements. When the singly reinforced section is insufficient to resist the bending
moment on the section, additional tension and compression reinforcements are designed
based on steel beam theory.
There are several reasons to add compression steel. Keep in mind, supported steel
(meaning it can't buckle) resists compression as well.
Compression steel helps reduce long term deflections. Concrete creeps under
sustained loads. Steel lessens the compression, meaning less sustained compressive
stress to cause creep deflection.
It makes members more ductile. Since the steel takes some of the compressive
stress, the compression block depth is reduced, increasing the strain in the tension
steel at failure, resulting in more ductile behaviour (the moment at first yield
remains largely the same with compression steel added, but the increase in capacity
after yield is significant).
Compression steel insures that the tension steel yields before the concrete crushes,
meaning it helps change the failure mode to tension controlled.
It makes beams easier to construct. With bars in the top and bottom, you have
longitudinal reinforcement in all 4 corners of the shear stirrups to keep them in
place when pouring the concrete. Also, for continuous members, its often easier to
run your negative moment steel the full length of the beam rather than trying to cut
it off in the positive moment regions.
Serviceability concerns. You're going to end up putting steel in that region anyway
to for temperature and shrinkage.
Page 14
The following procedure is used to compute the ultimate flexural strength of doubly
reinforced section.
1. Computing the limiting moment Mulim of the singly reinforced section as,
= 0.36
1 0.42
2
0.36f ck bx u lim
2. Calculate A st1
0.87f y
3. Compute A st 2 A st A st1
Page 15
0.87f y A st 2
4. Calculate A sc
f sc
Where, f sc sc E s
5. The ultimate moment capacity of the section is given by,
= + `
0.0035x u max d`
The strain, sc
x u max
2.10 ULTIMATE
SECTIONS
SHEAR
STRENGTH
OF
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
Reinforced concrete members are generally subjected to maximum shear forces normally
near the support sections of simply supported flexural members. The shear stress
developed is accompanied by diagonal tension as shown in Fig. 2.11. In continuous
beams the support sections are subjected to shear coupled with moments. In the case of
corbels and brackets, large shear forces develop at the junction of the corbel and column.
Page 16
The prominent types of shear failures observed in reinforced concrete members can be
categorized under the following types:
(a) Shear-tension or diagonal tension failure.
(b) Flexure-shear failure.
(c) Shear-compression failure.
(d) Shear-bond failure.
The shear stress distribution in a reinforced concrete beam is influenced by the shear
force acting on the section and the shape of cross section in the elastic stage. At the
ultimate stage, concrete below the neutral axis is ineffective due to cracking. Hence, for
simplicity the nominal shear stress across the section is computed as average shear stress
and is expressed as,
=
where k is a multiplying factor depending upon the overall depth of slab as shown in
clause 40.2.1.1 (Table 2.5).
The code also specifies an upper limit for the design of shear strength of concrete
strengthened by shear reinforcements. Accordingly the maximum shear stress in concrete
(cmax) should not exceed the values specified in Table 2.6 (Table 20 of IS: 456-2000). If
the values of nominal shear stress (v) exceeds the value of cmax, the section should be
redesigned with increased cross sectional dimensions.
Table 2.4: Design shear strength of concrete (c) N/mm2
Page 18
Then,
If,
0.87f y A sv d
Then, S v
Vus
The shear resisted by the bent up bars inclined at an angle to the horizontal is given
by,
Vus 0.87f y A sv sin
These equations are recommended for the design of shear reinforcements in IS: 456-2000,
clause 40.4.
Page 19
In designing reinforced concrete beams, the IS code stipulates that minimum shear
reinforcements are to be designed even if the design shear strength of concrete (c)
exceeds the nominal shear stress (v) to safeguard against local cracking and nominal
safety requirements.
The minimum shear reinforcements to be designed using the relation,
0.4
0.87
Provision of nominal shear reinforcement is equivalent to designing the shear
reinforcement for a shear stress of (v c) = 0.4 N/mm2 and it safeguards against spalling
of concrete cover and bond failures.
2.11 ULTIMATE TORSIONAL STRENGTH OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
SECTIONS
Design of reinforced concrete structures subjected to torsion requires a proper
understanding of the torsional strength of reinforced concrete sections. Pure torsion is
exceptional in reinforced concrete. Normally torsion associated with flexure and shear
develops in reinforced concrete structures such as L-beams, circular girders, corner lintels
where the loading is eccentric to the line of reaction at supports. Primary torsion is
generally induced by eccentric loading and equilibrium conditions are sufficient to
evaluate the torsional moments acting at critical sections.
The effect of torsion is to induce shear stresses and causes warping of non-circular
sections. The failure of plain concrete members in torsion is due to diagonal tensile cracks
since concrete is weak in tension. Hence, the IS code provides a method of designing
suitable reinforcements in concrete sections subjected to combined effects of torsion,
flexure and shear by introducing the concept of enhanced equivalent bending moment,
shear and torsion.
The design rules specified in IS code applies to beams of solid rectangular section and
flanged sections in which the width of rib is considered for computations. Sections
subjected to torsion and shear are to be designed for an equivalent shear force computed
as,
Ve = Vu + 1.6 (Tu/b)
Where,
Ve = equivalent shear
Vu = transverse shear
Tu = torsional moment
b = breadth of beam
Page 20
+ 1.6
=
The values of ve should lie between c, the permissible shear stress compiled in Table 19
of IS code and the maximum shear stress cmax given in Table 20 of IS code.
In cases where ve > cmax, the section has to be suitably redesigned by increasing the
cross-sectional area and/or increasing the grade of concrete.
In ve < c, minimum shear reinforcements are designed. Longitudinal reinforcements are
designed to resist an equivalent bending moment expressed as,
Me = Mu + Mt
Where,
Where,
1+
1.7
Tu = torsional moment
D = overall depth
b = breadth of section
In cases where the numerical value of Mt exceeds the numerical value of Mu, longitudinal
reinforcement should be provided on flexural compression face such that the beam can
also withstand an equivalent moment Me computed as Me2 = (Mt Mu), the moment Me2
being taken as acting in the opposite sense to the moment Mu.
Transverse reinforcements comprising of two legged closed hoops enclosing the corner
longitudinal bars should have the area given by,
=
+
1 1 (0.87 ) 2.51 (0.87 )
Page 21
However, the total transverse reinforcement should not be less than the values computed
as,
0.87
Where,
Tu = torsional moment
Vu = transverse shear force
sv = spacing of vertical links
b1 = centre to centre distance between corner bars in the direction of width
d1 = centre to centre distance between corner bars in the direction of depth
fy = characteristic strength of stirrup reinforcement
ve = equivalent shear stress
c = shear strength of concrete
given critical section. Though, the overall bond failure may be avoided by this provision
of additional development length Ld, slippage of a bar may not always result in overall
failure of a beam. It is, thus, desirable to provide end anchorages also to maintain the
integrity of the structure and thereby, to enable it carrying the loads. Clause 26.2 of IS
456 stipulates, The calculated tension or compression in any bar at any section shall be
developed on each side of the section by an appropriate development length or end
anchorage or by a combination thereof.
The local bond stress varies along the length of the reinforcement while the average bond
stress gives the average value throughout its development length. This average bond
stress is still used in the working stress method and IS 456 has mentioned about it in cl.
B-2.1.2. However, in the limit state method of design, the average bond stress has been
designated as design bond stress bd and the values are given in cl. 26.2.1.1. The same is
given below as Table 2.7.
Table 2.7: Design bond stress in limit state method for plain bars in tension
For deformed bars conforming to IS 1786, these values shall be increased by 60 percent.
For bars in compression, the values of bond stress in tension shall be increased by 25
percent.
2.12.1 Development Length
Page 23
=
4
The above equation is given in cl. 26.2.1 of IS 456 to determine the development length
of bars.
The example taken above considers round bar in tension. Similarly, other sections of the
bar should have the required Ld as determined for such sections. For bars in compression,
the development length is reduced by 25 percent as the design bond stress in compression
bd is 25% more than that in tension (see the last lines below Table 2.7). Following the
same logic, the development length of deformed bars is reduced by 60 percent of that
needed for the plain round bars. Tables 64 to 66 of SP-16 present the development lengths
of fully stressed plain and deformed bars (when fs = 0.87fy) both under tension and
compression. It is to be noted that the consequence of stress concentration at the lugs of
deformed bars has not been taken into consideration.
(b) Bars bundled in contact
The respective development lengths of each of the bars for two, three or four bars in
contact are determined following the same principle. However, cl. 26.2.1.2 of IS 456
stipulates a simpler approach to determine the development length directly under such
cases and the same is given below:
The development length of each bar of bundled bars shall be that for the individual bar,
increased by 10 percent for two bars in contact, 20 percent for three bars in contact and 33
per cent for four bars in contact.
Page 24
However, while using bundled bars the provision of cl. 26.1.1 of IS 456 must be satisfied.
According to this clause:
In addition to single bar, bars may be arranged in pairs in contact or in groups of
three or four bars bundled in contact.
Bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or ties to ensure the bars remaining
together.
Bars larger than 32 mm diameter shall not be bundled, except in columns.
Curtailment of bundled bars should be done by terminating at different points spaced
apart by not less than 40 times the bar diameter except for bundles stopping at support (cl.
26.2.3.5 of IS 456).
Checking of Development Lengths of Bars in Tension
1
+
Page 25
The anchorage length of straight compression bars shall be equal to its development
length as mentioned in pervious section.
The development length shall include the projected length of hooks, bends and
straight lengths beyond bends, if provided.
Page 26
Inclined bars in tension zone will have the development length equal to that of bars
in tension and this length shall be measured from the end of sloping or inclined
portion of the bar.
Inclined bars in compression zone will have the development length equal to that of
bars in tension and this length shall be measured from the mid-depth of the beam.
where Fbt = tensile force due to design loads in a bar or group of bars,
r = internal radius of the bend, and
= size of the bar or bar of equivalent area in bundled bars
Page 27
1.5
1 + 2
Page 28