PracticalResearchPlanningandDesign,byPaulDLeedy,Chap1:WhatIsResearch

WhatisResearch?
Everywhere,ourknowledgeisincompleteandproblemsarewaitingtobesolved.Weaddressthevoidinourknowledgeand
thoseunresolvedproblemsbyaskingrelevantquestionsandseekinganswerstothem.Theroleofresearchistoprovidea
methodforobtainingthoseanswersbyinquiringlystudyingtheevidencewithintheparametersofthescientificmethod.

hewordresearchisusedineverydayspeechtocoverabroadspectrumofmeaning,whichmakesitadecidedly

confusingtermforstudentsespeciallygraduatestudentswhomustlearntousethewordinitsspecializeddenotation.
Muchthatstudentshavelearnedtheymustsuddenlyunlearn;manyofthefalseconceptstheyhadpreviouslylearnedthey
mustdiscard.
Unfortunately,manystudentshavebeentaughtmisconceptionsaboutthenatureofresearch.Fromelementaryschoolto
college,theyhaveheardthewordresearchusedlooselyandgivenmultiple,misleadingmeanings.Ononehand,theword
connotesthefindingofanitemofinformationorthemakingofnotesandthewritingofadocumentedpaper.Ontheother
hand,itisusedfortheactofinformingoneselfaboutwhatonedoesnotknoworofrummagingthroughavailablesourcesto
retrieveabitofinformation.Merchandisersusethewordtosuggestthediscoveryofarevolutionaryproductwhen,often,
thetruthisthatonlyaminoralterationhasbeenmadetoanexistingproduct,withthepurposeofenhancingtheproduct's
salesappeal.Alltheseactivitieshavebeencalledresearchbutshouldhavebeencalledbytheirappropriatenames:
informationgathering,libraryskills,documentation,selfenlightenment,andanattentiongettingsalespitch.
Thewordresearchhasacertainmystiqueaboutit.Itsuggeststomanypeopleanactivitythatisexclusiveandremovedfrom
everydaylife.Researchersaresometimesregardedasesotericindividualswhosecludethemselvesinlaboratories,in
scholarlylibraries,orwithintheprecinctsofanacademicenvironment.Thepublicgenerallyisnotawareoftheirdaily
activityoroftheimportantcontributionstheirworkfrequentlymakestopeople'scomfortandgeneralwelfare.Manypeople,
therefore,regardresearchasawayoflifedissociatedfromthecommonactivitiesoftheeverydayworld.
Thepurposeofthischapteristodispelthesemythsandmisconceptionsandtopresentanaccuratedefinitionofresearch.I
defineresearchhereasthesystematicprocessofcollectingandanalyzinginformation(data)inordertoincreaseour
understandingofthephenomenonwithwhichweareconcernedorinterested.Althoughthisconceptionofresearchmay
seemsomewhatremoteandacademic,manypeoplerelyonatruncatedformofiteachdaytosolvesmallerproblemsthan
thoseresolvedbythemoreelaboratemethodologyofformalresearch.Itiswithformalresearch,however,thatweare
concernedinthistext.
Toappreciatethedifferencebetweenpeople'scommonunderstandingofresearchandthemoreaccuratedefinition,wecan
perhapsbetterunderstandthelatterbyfirstlookingatthenatureoftheformer.

PracticalResearchPlanningandDesign,byPaulDLeedy,Chap1:WhatIsResearch

WHATRESEARCHISNOT
Ihavesuggestedthatthewordresearchhasbeensolooselyemployedineverydayspeechthatfewpeoplehaveanyideaofits
realmeaning.Hereareafewguidelinesastowhatresearchisnot;accompanyingeachguidelineisanillustrationdepicting
thepopularconceptoftenheldaboutresearch.
1.Researchisnotmereinformationgathering.Afourthgradechildcamehomefromschoolwiththisannouncement:
"Mom,theteachersentustothelibrarytodaytodoresearch,andIlearnedalotaboutColumbus."Thischildhasbeengiven
theideathatresearchmeansgoingtothelibrarytogetinformationortogleanafewfacts.Thismaybeinformation
discovery;itmaybelearningreferenceskills;butitcertainlyisnot,astheteachersotermedit,research.
2.Researchisnotmeretransportationoffactsfromonelocationtoanother.Astudentcompletesa"researchpaper"on
theDarkLadyinthesonnetsofWilliamShakespeare.Althoughthestudentdid,indeed,gothroughcertainactivities
associatedwithformalresearchcollectingdata,assemblingabibliography,referencingstatementsproperlythese
activitiesstilldonotadduptoatrue"research"paper.Thestudentmissedtheessenceofresearch:theinterpretationofdata.
Nowhereinthepaperdidthestudentsay,ineffect."ThesefactsthatIhavegatheredseemtoindicatethisabouttheDark
Lady."Nowheredidthestudentdrawconclusionsorinterpretthefactsthemselves.Thisstudentisnextdoortogenuine
research;butthemerecompilationoffacts,presentedwithreferencecitationsandarrangedinaseries,nomatterhow
appealinglyneattheformat,missesgenuineresearchbyahair.Alittlefarther,andthisstudentwouldhavetraveledfromone
worldtoanother:fromtheworldofmeretransportationoffacttotheworldofinterpretationoffact.Thedifferencebetween
thetwoworldsisthedistinctionbetweentransferenceofinformationandgenuineresearchadistinctionthatisimportant
tounderstand.
Unfortunately,manystudentsthinkthatlookingupafewfactsandtransferringthemtoawrittenpaperwithbenefitof
referencesconstitutesresearch.Suchactivityis,ofcourse,morerealisticallycalledfactdiscovery,facttransportation,and/
orfacttranscription.
3.Researchisnotmerelyrummagingforinformation.Thehouseacrossthestreetisforsale.Iconsiderbuyingit,andsoI
callmyrealtortofindouthowmuchmyownhomewouldsellfor."I'llhavetodosomeresearch,"therealtorsays,"tofind
thefairmarketvalueofyourproperty."Whattherealtorcalls"doingsomeresearch"means,ofcourse,goingthroughfiles
ofrecentsalesofpropertiescomparabletominetoseewhattheyhavesoldfor;thiswillgivetherealtoranestimatetoreport
tome.Thissocalledresearchislittlemorethanrummagingthroughfilestofindwhattherealtordidnotknow.
Rummaging,whetherinone'spersonalrecordsorinthepublicorcollegelibrary.isnotresearch.Itisaccuratelytermedan
exerciseinselfenlightenment.
4.Researchisnotacatchwordusedtogetattention.Themorningmailarrives.Iopenanenvelopeandpulloutitscontents.
Astatementinboldfacetypecommandsattention:

YearsofResearchHaveProducedaNewCarWash!
GiveYourCaraMiracleShinewithSoapySuds!
Thephrase"yearsofresearch"catchesmyattention.Theproductmustbegood,Ireason,because"yearsofresearch"have
beenspentondevelopingit.IordertheproductandwhatdoIget?Dishwashingdetergent!Noresearch.merelytheclever
useofacatchwordthat,indeed,fulfilleditspurpose:tocatchmyattention."Yearsofresearch"whatanattentiongetting
phrase,yethowmisleading!
Formalresearchisentirelydifferentfromanyoftheaboveactivities.Ioutlineitsessentialnatureandcharacteristicsinthe
followingsection.

PracticalResearchPlanningandDesign,byPaulDLeedy,Chap1:WhatIsResearch

WHATRESEARCHIS
Researchisaprocessthroughwhichweattempttoachievesystematicallyandwiththesupportofdatatheanswertoa
question,theresolutionofaproblem,oragreaterunderstandingofaphenomenon.Thisprocess,whichisfrequentlycalled
researchmethodology,haseightdistinctcharacteristics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Researchoriginateswithaquestionorproblem.
Researchrequiresacleararticulationofagoal.
Researchfollowsaspecificplanofprocedure.
Researchusuallydividestheprincipalproblemintomoremanageablesubproblems.
Researchisguidedbythespecificresearchproblem,question,orhypothesis.
Researchacceptscertaincriticalassumptions.
Researchrequiresthecollectionandinterpretationofdatainattemptingtoresolvetheproblemthatinitiatedthe
research.
8. Researchis,byitsnature,cyclical;ormoreexactly,helical.
Idiscusseachofthesecharacteristicsinturnsothatyouappreciatemorefullytheprecisenatureofformalresearch.

CharacteristicsofFormalResearch
1.Researchoriginateswithaquestionorproblem.Theworldisfilledwithunansweredquestions,unresolvedproblems.
Everywherewelook,weobservethingsthatcauseustowonder,tospeculate,toaskquestions.Andbyaskingquestions,we
strikethefirstsparkignitingachainreactionthatterminatesintheresearchprocess.Aninquisitivemindisthebeginningof
research.Thereissomuchthatwedonotknowthatwedonotunderstand!Thehopeofmitigatingourignoranceliesinthe
questionsweaskandtheinformationwegatherandinwhosecollectivemeaningwemayfindinsight.
Lookaroundyou.Considertheunresolvedsituationsthatevokethesequestions:Why?What'sthecauseofthat?Whatdoes
itallmean?Theseareeverydayquestions.Withquestionslikethese,researchbegins.
InChapter3,Idiscusstheresearchproblematgreaterlength.Theproblemanditsstatementareimportantbecausetheyare
thepointoforiginofformalresearch.
2.Researchrequiresacleararticulationofagoal.Aclear,unambiguousstatementoftheproblemiscritical.This
statementisanexerciseinintellectualhonesty.Itcannotbrookvagueness,welshing,ortheavoidanceofanobligationtoset
forthclearlyandinagrammaticallycompletesentencepreciselywhattheultimategoaloftheresearchis.Thestatement
askstheresearcher,"Whatpreciselydoyouintendtodo?"Thisisbasicandisrequiredforthesuccessofanyresearch
undertaking.Withoutit,theresearchisonshakygroundindeed.
3.Researchrequiresaspecificplanofprocedure.Researchisnotanexcursionintohappyexpectation,offondlyhoping
thatthedatanecessarytosolvetheproblemwillsomehowfortuitouslyturnup.Itis,instead,acarefullyplannedattack,a
searchanddiscovermissionexplicitlyplannedinadvance.Considerthetitleofthistext:PracticalResearch:Planningand
Design.Thelastthreewordsaretheimportantones.Theoverallresearcheffortmustbeexplicitlyplannedandlogically
designed.Researchersplantheiroverallresearchdesignandspecificresearchmethodsinapurposefulwaythatis,toyield
datarelevanttotheirparticularresearchproblem.Dependingonthespecificresearchquestion,differentdesignsand
methodswillbemoreorlessappropriate.
Inthesectionimmediatelyprecedingthisone,youconsideredthegoalforresearch;thatwaswhatyouintendedtodo.Here,
youstatetheplan,thedesign;thisishowyouproposetoreachthatgoal.Youmustnotwaituntilyou'rechindeepinthe
projecttoplananddesignyourstrategy;Intheformativestagesoftheresearchproject,muchcanbedecided:Wherearethe
data?Doanyexistentdataaddressthemselvestotheresearchproblem?Evenifthedataexist,isitreasonablethatyouhave
accesstothem?Presumingthatyouhaveaccesstothedata,whatwillyoudowiththemaftertheyareinyourpossession?I
mightgoonandon.Thesequestionsmerelyhintthatplanninganddesigncannotbepostponed.Eachofthequestionsabove
3

PracticalResearchPlanningandDesign,byPaulDLeedy,Chap1:WhatIsResearch
musthaveananswerearlyintheresearchprocess.
4.Researchusuallydividestheprincipalproblemintomoremanageablesubproblems.Thewholeiscomposedofthesum
ofitsparts.Thatisauniversalnaturallaw;thatisalsoagoodprecepttoobserveinthinkingaboutone'sprincipalgoalin
research.Webreakdownprincipalproblemsmuchmorefrequentlythanwerealize.
Let'stakeaneverydayproblemtoseehowitbreaksdownintoanumberofsubproblems.Supposeyouwanttogetfromyour
towntoatown50milesaway.Yourprincipalgoalistogetfromonelocationtotheotherasexpeditiouslyaspossible.You
soonrealize,however,thatattheoutsetsomesubproblemsmustbeconsidered.Hereisastructuralizationoftheproblem
anditsattendantsubproblems:
Mainproblem:

Subproblems:

HowdoIgetfromTownAtoTownB?

1. Whatisthemostdirectroute?
2. HowfardoItravelonthethruway?

3. WhatisthenumberoftheexitItakeinleavingthethruway?
Whatseemslikeasimpleprimaryquestioncanbedividedintoatleastthreeotherquestionsbeforetheprincipalquestion
canberesolved.Soitiswithmostresearchproblems.Theresearcherusuallycannotdealwiththeprincipalresearch
problemintoto.Toproceedlogically,oneshouldcloselyinspecttheprincipalproblembecauseresearchwillsooncausethe
appropriateand,infact,necessarysubproblemstofloattothesurface.Byresolvingthem,wefinallyresolvethemain
problem.
Ifresearchersdon'ttakethetimeortroubletoisolatethelesserproblemswithinthemajorproblem,theirresearchprojects
becomecumbersomeandunwieldy.Fromadesignstandpoint,therefore,itisexpedienttoreducethemainproblemtoa
seriesoflogicalsubproblemsthat,whenresolved,willresolvethemainproblem.
5.Researchisguidedbythespecificresearchproblem,question,orhypothesis.Havingstatedtheproblemandthe
attendantsubproblems,eachsubproblemisthenviewedthroughaconstructcalledahypothesis.Ahypothesisisalogical
supposition,areasonableguess,aneducatedconjecture.Itmaydirectyourthinkingtothepossiblesourceofinformation
thatwillaidinresolvingtheresearchproblemthroughtheresolutionofeachattendantsubproblem.
Hypothesesarenothingnew.Theyareconstant,recurringfeaturesofeverydaylife.Theyrepresentthenaturalworkingof
thehumanmind.Somethinghappens.Immediately,youattempttoaccountforthecauseofthehappeningbyconstructinga
seriesofreasonableguesses.Insodoing,youarehypothesizing.Let'stakeacommonplaceoccurrence:Youcomehome
afterdark,openthefrontdoor,andreachinsidetoturnonthelampthatstandsonanearbytable.Yourfingersfindthe
switch.Youturnit.Nolight.
Atthispoint,youbegintoconstructaseriesofreasonableguesseshypothesesforthecauseofthelampfailure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Thebulbhasburnedout.
Thelampisnotpluggedintothewalloutlet.
Alateafternoonthunderstorminterruptedtheelectricalservice.
Thewirefromthelamptothewalloutletisdefective.
Youforgottopayyourelectricbill.

Eachofthesehypothesesprovidesadirectionforexplorationtolocatetheinformationthatmayresolvetheproblemofthe
malfunction.Imustmentionherethathypothesesareneverprovednordisproved;theyareeithersupportedornotsupported
(rejected).
Now,yougoinsearchofinformationtodeterminewhichofyourhypothesesmaybecorrect.
1. Yougoouttoyourcar,getaflashlight,findanewbulb,andinsertthenewbulb.Thelampfailstolight.
(Hypothesis1isrejected.)
2. Youglancedownatthewalloutletandseethatthelampispluggedintoit.(Hypothesis2isrejected.)

PracticalResearchPlanningandDesign,byPaulDLeedy,Chap1:WhatIsResearch
3. Youlookatyourneighbors'homes.Everyonehaselectricalpower.(Hypothesis3isrejected.)
4. Yougobackintoyourhomeandliftthecordconnectingthelamptothewalloutlet.Thelamplightsbrieflyand
thengoesout.Youliftthecordagain.Again,thelamplightsbriefly.Theconnectingcordisdefective.(Hypothesis
4issupported.)
5. Fortunately,hypothesis4solvedtheproblemandyoucancountonadequatelighttostudybyforanothermonth.
Afterthehypothesescomesinformation(data).Thedataeithersupportorfailtosupportthehypotheses.
Manyofthegreatestdiscoveriesinsciencehavebegunashypotheses.Scientistscallhypothesestheories.AlbertEinstein's
generaltheoryofrelativityisessentiallyahypothesis.Hismathematicalequationssuggestedwhatonlythedatacould
ultimatelyverify.Takethematterofthenatureoflight,forexample.Einsteinpostulatedthatlightpassesthroughspaceas
protonsminutemassesofspectralenergyIflight,Einsteinreasoned,hasmass,thenitissubjecttothepullofa
gravitationalfield.Einsteinproposedhisgeneraltheoryin1915.AyearlaterK.Schwarzchildproducedthefirstexact
solutionofthefieldequationswithrespecttothegravitationalfieldofthesun.AccordingtotheEinsteinSchwarzchild
hypothesisraysoflightshouldbedeflectedtwicetheamountthatIsaacNewtonhadpredictedearlier.
InMay1919,aneclipseofthesunoccurred.MembersoftheRoyalSocietyandtheRoyalAstronomicalSociety,bothof
London,traveledtoBrazilandNorthAfricatoobservetheaberrationofthelightofadistantstar,causedbythe
gravitationalfieldofthesun.Afterthedatawereanalyzedandinterpreted,theresultsclearlyvalidatedEinstein's
hypothesis.
6.Researchacceptscertaincriticalassumptions.Inresearch,assumptionsareequivalenttoaxiomsingeometryself
evidenttruths,thesinequanonofresearch.Theassumptionmustbevalidorelsetheresearchcannotproceed.Forthis
reason,carefulresearcherscertainlyinacademicresearchsetforthastatementoftheassumptionsasthebedrockupon
whichthestudymustrest.Inyourresearch,therefore,itisimportantthatothersknowwhatyouassumewithrespecttoyour
project.For,ifoneistojudgethequalityofyourstudy,thentheknowledgeofwhatyouassumeasbasictothevery
existenceofyourstudyisvitallyimportant.
Anexamplemayclarifythepoint.Supposeyourproblemistoinvestigatewhetherstudentsacquirefacilityingraspingthe
ambienceofalanguagemorequicklybylearningonlyoneforeignlanguageatatimeorbyattemptingtolearntwoforeign
languagesconcurrently.Byambience,Imeanthenativeaccent,acomprehensionoftheexpressivecharacteristicsof
grammatical,idiomatic,accentual,andsimilaruniqueaspectsofthelanguage.
Whatassumptionswouldunderliesuchaproblem?

Itwouldbeassumedthattheteacherwouldbecompetenttoteachthelanguageorlanguagesandwouldhave
masteredthelinguisticambience.
Itwouldbeassumedthatthosestudentstakingpartintheresearcharereadilycapableofhearingthesubtletiesof
accentandalerttootheruniquecharacteristicsofthelanguage.
Itwouldbeassumedthatthelanguagesselectedwouldhavedistinguishableambiencecharacteristicsthatcouldbe
recognizedandlearnedandpracticedbythestudentsselectedforthestudy.

Adistinctionshouldbemadeherebetweenahypothesisandanassumption.Ahypothesisisaconjecturalsuppositionthatis
positedinordertofacilitatethesearchforfactsbutthatisheldinabeyanceuntilthedataareavailableandhavebeen
interpreted.Atthatpoint,thedataeithersupportordonotsupportthehypothesis.Anassumptionisquiteadifferentmatter.
Anassumptionisaconditionthatistakenforgranted,withoutwhichtheresearchsituationwouldbeimpossible.Inthe
Einsteinexamplegivenabove,weassumethattheastronomerswhowenttoobservetheaberrationofthestar'slightwere
competenttodosoandthattheirinstrumentswerecriticalenoughtomakethesensitivemeasurementsnecessarytodetect
theslightaberrationaldifferencecausedbythegravitationalpullsothatavalidconclusioncouldbedrawnfromthem.
Assumptionsareusuallysoselfevidentthat,manytimes,weconsideritunnecessarytomentionthem;but,careful
researchersdo,sothatthoseinspectingtheresearchproceduremayseeeverycomponentandevaluateitaccordingly.Forthe
beginningresearcher,itisbettertobeoverexplicitthantotaketoomuchforgranted.
7.Researchrequiresthecollectionandinterpretationofdatainattemptingtoresolvetheproblemthatinitiatedthe
research.Havingnowisolatedtheproblem,divideditintoappropriatesubproblems,positedreasonablequestionsor
5

PracticalResearchPlanningandDesign,byPaulDLeedy,Chap1:WhatIsResearch
hypotheses,andrecognizedtheassumptionsthatarebasictotheentireeffort,thenextstepistocollectwhateverdataseem
appropriateandtoorganizetheminmeaningfulwayssothattheycanbeinterpreted.
Inlaterchapters,Isuggestappropriatemethodsoforganizingandinterpretingdata.Butthepresentdiscussionisintendedto
makeyouawarethatsimplybecauseyouhaveacollectionofdata,thosedataarenotnecessarilyappropriatefor
interpretation.
Data,events,happenings,andobservationsareofthemselvesonlydata,events,happenings,andobservationsnothing
more.Butallthesearepotentiallymeaningful.Thesignificanceofthedatadependsonthewaythehumanbrainextracts
meaningfromthosedata.Inresearch,dataunprocessedbythehumanbrainareworthless.
Youwillrecallwhatsomewitdefinedasan"education":notesthatpassfromthenotebookoftheinstructortothenotebook
ofthestudentwithoutgoingthroughtheheadofeither.Researchdatacannevertravelonsuchanexpeditiousthruway!For,
unlessresearchdatapassthroughthehumanmindandareprocessedthere,theycanneverqualifyasfurtheringtheresearch
process.
Datademandinterpretation.Butnorule,noformula,willleadtheresearcherunerringlytothecorrectinterpretation.
Interpretationissubjective:Itdependsentirelyonthelogicalmind,inductivereasoningskill,andobjectivityofthe
researcher.
ConsiderthelibraryofbooksthathavebeenwrittenontheassassinationofPresidentJohnF.Kennedy.Differenthistorians
havestudiedthesameevents:Onemayinterpretthemoneway,andanothermayarriveatanentirelydifferentconclusion.
Whichoneisright?Perhapstheybothare;perhapsneitheris.Bothmayhavemerelyposednewproblemsforother
historianstotrytoresolve.Differentmindsfrequentlyseedifferentmeaningsinthesamesetoffacts.Thisisanaxiomof
interpretationthatallresearchersmustrecognize.
Once,webelievedthatclocksmeasuredtimeandthatyardsticksmeasuredspace.Inonesense,theystilldo.Wefurther
assumedthattimeandspaceweretwodifferententities.Thencamerelativity,andtimeandspacebecamelockedintoone
concept:thetimespacecontinuum.Whatisthedifferencebetweentheoldconceptandthenew?Thewaywethinkabout
interpretthesameinformation.Therealitiesoftimeandspacehavenotchanged;thewayweinterpretthemhas.
Now,thinkofthewaythischapterbegan.Ioutlinedcertainactivitiesandindicatedthatnoneofthemcouldbeaccurately
calledresearch.Atthispoint,youcanunderstandwhy.Noneofthemdemandsthattheresearcherdrawanyconclusionsor
makeanyinterpretationofthedata.
8.Researchis,byitsnature,cyclical;ormoreexactly,helical.Theresearchprocessfollowsacycleandbeginssimply.It
followslogical,developmentalsteps:
a.Aquestioningmindobservesaparticularsituationandasks,Why?Whatcausedthat?Howcome?(Thisisthesubjective
originofresearch.)
b.Theanswertothosequestionsbecomesformallystatedasaproblem.(Thisistheovertbeginningofresearch.)
c.Dataaregatheredthatseemtobearontheproblem.
d.Thedataseemtopointtoatentativesolutionoftheproblem.Aguessismade;ahypothesisorguidingquestionis
formed.
e.Thequestformoredatacontinues.
f.Thebodyofdataisprocessedandinterpreted.
g.Adiscoveryismade;aconclusionisreached.
h.Thetentativehypothesisiseithersupportedbythedataorisnotsupported;thequestionispartially/completelyanswered
ornot.
i.Thecycleiscomplete.
Theresolutionoftheproblemorthetentativeanswertothequestioncompletesthecycle(see
FIGURE1.1

TheResearch
6

PracticalResearchPlanningandDesign,byPaulDLeedy,Chap1:WhatIsResearch
Cycle).Suchistheformatofallresearch.Differentacademicdisciplinesmerelyusedifferentroutestoarriveatthesame
destination.
Whatseemslikeaneatlyclosedcircleis,however,deceptive.Researchisneverconclusive.Inatruersense,the"circleof
research"mightbemoreaccuratelyconceivedofasahelix,orspiral,ofresearch.Inexploringanarea,onecomesacross
additionalproblemsthatneedresolving.Researchbegetsresearch.
Toviewresearchinthiswayistoinvestitwithadynamicqualitythatisitstruenatureafarcryfromtheconventional
view,whichseesresearchasaonetimeactstatic,selfcontained,anendinitself.Thatisanotherdifferencebetweenthe
socalledresearchexampleswithwhichthischapteropenedandtrueresearch.Everyresearchersoonlearnsthatgenuine
researchcreatesmoreproblemsthanitresolves.Suchisthenatureofthediscoveryofknowledge.

ResearchMethodology:ASummary
Thecoreconceptunderlyingallresearchisitsmethodology.Itisnotenoughtofollowtheresearchprocedureswithoutan
intimateunderstandingthatresearchmethodologydirectsthewholeendeavorwherecriticaldecisionsaremadeand
whereorganizing,planning,anddirectingthewholeprojecttakeplace.Themethodologycontrolsthestudy,dictatesthe
acquisitionofthedata,arrangestheminlogicalrelationships.setsupameansofrefiningtherawdata,contrivesan
approachsothatthemeaningsthatliebelowthesurfaceofthosedatabecomemanifest,andfinallyissuesaconclusionor
seriesofconclusionsthatleadtoanexpansionofknowledge.Theentireprocessisaunifiedeffortaswellasanappreciation
ofitscomponentparts.Thus,researchmethodologyhastwoprimaryfunctions:

1. Tocontrolanddictatetheacquisitionofdata

2. Tocorralthedataafteracquisitionandextractmeaningfulnessfromthem
That'swhatImeanbythephrase"theinterpretationofthedata."Itisasudden,enlighteningawarenessofwhatthedata
mean.And,unlessthereisadiscoveryofthemeaningofthedata,thereisnoresearch.

PracticalResearchPlanningandDesign,byPaulDLeedy,Chap1:WhatIsResearch

DISCOVERINGTHEDISCIPLINEOFRESEARCH
Imentionedearlierinthischaptertheapparentremotenessinpopularthinkingoftheroleandrelevanceofresearchand
researcherfromeverydayliving.Evengraduatestudentsworkingonthesesordissertationsmayfeelasenseofisolationand
considertheirtaskmereacademicbusyworkthathasnointimaterelationtotheworldoutsidethecampusprecincts.Thisis
simplynottrue.Theresearchdemandedintheproductionofanacceptablethesisordissertationisoneofthemostvaluable
educationalexperiencesapersoncanhave.Ithasanimmediateconnectionwiththeprofoundresearchactivityinthe
practicalworld,whichadvancesthewelfareandcomfortofallofusGreatdiscoveriesthatpushbackthefrontiersof
knowledgeandenhanceourwellbeingarecommonplaceannouncementsinthecontemporarymedia.Tomakethewhole
researchprocessmoreintimate,itmayhelpifyoucouldseeitsbenefitsandrealizethatwhatyouaredoingisbutalinkin
thatongoingendeavor.
Ifyouarenotawareoforacquaintedwiththe"dedicatedmenandwomenwhoattempttoknowtheunknownanddothe
undoable"youcanlearnofthetremendousresearchactivitythathasbeenreportedduringthelastyear.Thetotalofit
staggerstheimagination.Tofindthisinformationlookinthemajorindexesandreviewsofsomewellknownvolumesinthe
libraryorcomputerizedreferencesavailableonthelibrarysystem.Perhapstobegin,itmaybemorerewardingtogotothe
referencesectionofalibraryandgettheprintedcopiesofthevolumeslistedbelowthatreporttherecentresearchinyour
particularareaofinterest.
Browseinthesevolumesjusttogetacquaintedwiththem.Isuspectyoumaybeamazedatwhatyoudiscover.Abroad
spectrumofacademicdisciplinesisrepresentedinthefollowinglist.Gofirsttothosethattweakyourinterest.Then,get
acquaintedwithasmanyofthemaspossible.Competentresearchersshouldhavegeneralknowledgeofthesourcesavailable
intheirfield.
Obviously,listingallsuchindexesorreviewswouldrequireaseparatevolume.ThoseIpresentherearemerelyprincipaland
representativeones.

AmericanEducationalResearchJournal
AmericanJournalofDistanceEducation
CommunicationsResearch
DissertationAbstractsInternational
EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly
EducationalTechnologyResearchandDevelopment
EnvironmentalResearch
JournalofBusinessResearch
JournalofEducationalComputing
JournalofEducationalPsychology
JournalofLaborResearch
JournalofManagement
JournalofResearchonComputinginEducation
JournalofResearchonCrimeandDelinquency
JournalofSpeech,LanguageandHearingResearch
JournaloftheLearningSciences
NursingResearch
OrganizationalDynamics
PsychologicalAbstracts
PsychologicalBulletin
ResearchinCommunicationsScience
ResearchinNursingandHealth
ResearchinPhysicalEducation
8

PracticalResearchPlanningandDesign,byPaulDLeedy,Chap1:WhatIsResearch

ResearchReports(Economics)
SociologicalMethodsandResearch
SociologyandSocialResearch
TrainingandDevelopment

TheboxonUsingElectronicMailtoGetInformationandFeedbackisslightlydated,andhasbeenomittedfromhere.
Aimportantskillofaresearcheristheabilitytoreviewtheworkofothersandtograspwhatisbeingdescribed.Insome
cases,thisisquiteeasilyaccomplished;inothers,itismoredifficult.Byacquiringtheabilitytoevaluateothers'work,you
willbegintounderstandhowyourownworkcanbeimproved.Isuggestthatyoubegintodevelopyourevaluationskillsby
goingtothelibraryandfindingseveralarticlesfromthelistofjournalsprovidedorfromotherjournalsthatarerelevantto
yourinterests.Asyoureadandstudythearticles,considerthefollowingquestions.

PracticalResearchPlanningandDesign,byPaulDLeedy,Chap1:WhatIsResearch

CHECKLIST:
ReflectiveQuestionstoConsiderWhenEvaluatingResearch
Doesthearticlehaveastatedresearchquestionorproblem;thatis,couldyoudeterminethefocusofthisauthor'swork?
Isthisanarticlethatdescribesthecollectionofdata,ordoesitdescribeotherstudiesinwhichdatawerecollected?
Wasthearticleorganizedinamannerthatwaslogicalandeasytoofollow?Whatcouldhavebeendonetoimproveits
organization?
Didthearticlecontainasectionthatoutlinedandreviewedstudiesthathadpreviouslybeendoneonthistopic?Inwhat
wayswasthispreviousliteraturerelevant?
Iftheauthorexplainedproceduresthatwerefollowedinthestudy,weretheyclearenoughthatyoucouldrepeatthework
andgetsimilarresults?Whatadditionalinformationwouldhavebeenhelpfulorrequired?
Ifdatawerecollected,couldyoudescribehowtheywerecollectedandhowtheywereanalyzed?Doyouagreewithwhat
wasdone?Whatadditionalthingswouldyouhavecompleted?
Doyouagreewiththeinterpretationoftheresults?Whyorwhynot?
Finally,reflectovertheentirearticle.Whatwasmostimportanttoyou?Whatdidyoufindmostinteresting?Whatdoyou
thinkarethestrengthsandweaknessesofthisarticle?Willyourememberthisarticleinthefuture?Whyorwhynot?

Asyoubegintoevaluateselectedarticlesbyusingthesequestions,itmaybewisetoconsiderthreethings.First,itisoften
helpfultokeeparesearchjournal,writinglog,notebook,orannotatedbibliographyofthesearticlesandyourcomments.
Includethebibliographicinformationsuchas(a)author'sname;(b)articletitle;(c)nameofthejournal,year,volume,
number,month,andpages;and(d)keywordsthatcapturethefocusofthearticle.Eventhoughyouthinkthatyouwillnever
forgetthisarticleandthatyouwillalwaysbeabletorecallwhereitwasandwhatyougotoutofit,youwillforget.
Second,wheneveryoureviewsomeoneelse'swork,taketimetoconsiderhowyoucanimproveyourownbecauseofit.Ask
yourself,WhathaveIlearnedthatIwould(orwouldnot)wanttoincorporatewithinmyownresearch?Perhapsitisa
specifictypeofwritingstrategyoraparticularmethodofdataanalysisoraquestioningtechnique.Constantlyquestionand
reflectonwhatispresented.
Finally,don'tjustreadoneortwoarticlesandthinkthatyouaredone.Getusedtoreadingandevaluating;foraresearcher,
thisisalifelongpursuit.Alwayslookforadditionalthingsyoucanlearn.

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PracticalResearchPlanningandDesign,byPaulDLeedy,Chap1:WhatIsResearch

FORFURTHERREADING
WhatIsResearch?
Anglin,G.J.,Ross,S.M.,&Morrison,G.R.(1995).Inquiryininstructionaldesignandtechnology:Gettingstarred.InG.
Anglin(Ed.),Instructionaltechnology:Past,present,andfuture(pp.340347).Englewood,CO:LibrariesUnlimited.
Barzun,J.,&Graff,H.(1992).Themodernresearcher(5thed.).SanDiego:HarcourtBrace.
Bouma,G.D.(1994).Theresearchprocess.London,UK:OxfordUniversityPress.
Davitz,J.R.,&Davitz,L.L.(1995).Evaluatingresearchproposals:Aguideforthebehavioralsciences.UpperSaddle
River,NJ:PrenticeHall.
Driscoll,M.(1995).Paradigmsforresearchininstructionalsystems.InG.Anglin(Ed.),Instructionaltechnology:Past,
present,andfuture(pp.322327).Englewood,CO:LibrariesUnlimited.
Freed,M.,Hess,R.K.,&Ryan,J.M.(1989).Theeducator'sdeskreference.NewYork:AmericanCouncilonEducation.
Goodwin,C.J.(1995).Researchinpsychology:Methodsanddesign.NewYork:Wiley.
Howe,R.,&Lewis,R.(1994).Astudentguidetoresearchinsocialscience.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Husen,T.,&Postlethwaite,N.(1994).Internationalencyclopediaofeducation(Vols.112,2nded.).NewYork:Elsevier
Science.
Kane,F.(1985).Doingyourownresearch.NewYork:Scribner.
Kerlinger,F.(1986).Foundationsofbehavioralresearch(3rded.).SanDiego:HarcourtBrace.
Leedy,P(1981).Howtoreadresearchandunderstandit.NewYork:Macmillan.
Lewin,M.(1987).Understandingpsychologicalresearch.Melbourne,FL:Krieger.
LuczunFriedman,M.F.(1986).Introductiontoresearch:AbasicguidetoscientificinquiryJournalofPostAnesthetic
Nursing,1,6475.
McElroy,M.J.(1986).Startingyourownresearch.OhioNursesReview,61,1112.
Mitzel,H.F.(1982).Encyclopediaofeducationalresearch(Vols.14,5thed.).NewYork:Macmillan.
Mutchnick,R.J.,&Berg,B.L.(1995).Researchmethodsforthesocialsciences:Practiceandapplications.Needham
Heights,MA:Allyn&Bacon.
Priest,S.H.(1996).Doingmediaresearch:Anintroduction.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.
Rosnow,R.L.,&Rosenthal,R.(1995).Beginningbehavioralresearch:Aconceptualprimer.UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:
PrenticeHall.
Saslow,C.A.(1982).Basicresearchmethods.NewYork:RandomHouse.
Stacks,D.W,&Ghalfa,J.J.,Jr.(1981).Undergraduateresearchteam:Anappliedapproachtocommunicationeducation.
CommunicationEducation,30,180183.
EMail
Angell,D.(1994).Theelementsofemailstyle:Communicateeffectivelyviaelectronicmail.Reading,MA:Addison
Wesley.
Palme,J.(1995).ElectronicmailBoston:ArtechHouse.

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PracticalResearchPlanningandDesign,byPaulDLeedy,Chap1:WhatIsResearch
Pierce,J.W,Glass,G.V,&Byers,J.L.(1991).ComputernetworkingforeducationalresearchersonBITNET.Educational
Researcher20(1),2123.
Robinson,PR.(1992).Deliveringelectronicmail:Everythingyouneedtoknowaboutemail.SanMateo,CA:M&T
Books.

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