CHAPTER ONE: RESEARCH PROBLEM AND RESEARCH

QUESTIONS
1.0 Introduction
This chapter discusses the background information to the study, the statement of
the problem, the purpose of the study, the research questions and the
justification of the study.
1.1 Background
The 21st century is witnessing the ever-increasing role of science and
technology in all aspects of life as a result many countries introduced computer
studies in their schools to make their future citizens computer literate. The
Government of Malawi through the ministry of education in partnership with
British council, SchoolNet Malawi and other stakeholders introduced Computer
studies as an optional subject at senior secondary level that is form three and
four. SchoolNet Malawi sources second hand computers from various agencies
which are then refurbished and distributed to Malawian schools. It also conducts
training programmes for both teachers and students after each successful
distribution phase though in most cases this training is not conducted as it is
supposed to. The subject of Computer Studies was introduced in secondary
schools in 2001. At that time, it was not an examinable subject but just
knowledge base (Chikumba, 2011). However in 2007, having noted the
crucial role computers play in a countries development efforts were made to
equip secondary school students with computing skills and knowledge which
will help them to become important citizens of the nation who can
enthusiastically and skillfully help in the development of the country (Kaliati,
2007), the Government therefore decided to make this subject examinable at the
senior secondary school.

Since the introduction of computer studies in Malawi the Common Market for
East and Southern Africa(COMESA), in there Information and Communication
Technology policy Document,(2003,p19) observed that there is no specific
Information Technology (IT) awareness promotion programs in secondary
schools. In addition the organization noted that the majority of the Malawi
secondary schools do not have adequate trained computer studies teachers to
teach basic computing. They further emphasized on the need to put in place
specific government incentives to promote and encourage ICT education and
basic computing training in Malawian secondary schools.
Though the 21st century is witnessing the ever-increasing role of science and
technology in all aspects of life. It should be noted that the sciences were seen
as a masculine discipline and spent many years being male-dominated. Luckily
this view has changed significantly and women have successfully broken into
many traditionally male disciplines. While progress has been made in many
areas the computer studies field is still lacking female representation in other
words more men than women are actively involved with computers and many
believe that it is more natural for men to study computer science than women
(Calpin et al., 2002) in (Tsagala & Kordaki, 2007).
The study will therefore investigate the perceptions of girls towards computer
studies and the factors that Contribute to their low participation in this subject at
secondary school.

1.2 Problem statement

The government of Malawi through the Ministry of Education in partnership
with British Council, SchoolNet Malawi and other stake holders introduced
computer studies as an optional subject at senior secondary level that is form

three and four. The subject of computer studies was introduced in secondary
schools in 2001 but it was not an examinable subject. However in 2007 the
government decided to make the subject examinable. Chikumba (2011)
observed that from 2007 to 2009 participation of girls in this subject was
dominated by girls.
Research done in many countries further shows that although teenage girls are
now using computers and the Internet at rates similar to their male peers, they
are five times less likely to consider a technology-related career or plan on
taking post-secondary technology classes( Melymuka, 2001). Therefore this
study seeks to investigate the perceptions and factors that contribute to girls
low participation in computer studies in Blantyre west secondary schools where
computer studies are provided.
1.3 Objective
1.3.1 Main Objectives
The main objective of this study is to investigate girls perceptions towards
computer studies and the factors that contribute to their low participation in
this subject.
1.3.2 Specific objective
I
II

Find out the perceptions of girls towards computer studies.

Find out the factors that contribute to the low participation of girls in
computer studies as viewed by teachers and students

1.4 Research questions

I What are the perceptions of girls towards computer studies?
II What are the factors that contribute to the low participation of girls in
computer studies as viewed by teachers and students?

1.5 Justification of the study

Education is a key to national development and it is believed that if you educate
a girl child then you educate the whole nation. In other words Girls education is
an investment that serves as a way to achieve education for all children
(Maluwa-Banda & Kholowa, 2002).Therefore this study will be an eye opener
for parents, teachers, government and non governmental organizations on the
factors that contribute to girls low participation in computer studies, as the
understanding of the factors that cause girls to lowly participate in computer
studies is crucial in that it can provide guidance in finding ways of eliminating
them and at the same time reduce the gap that is there between females and
males in this field.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses the literature review of the research of what has been
found so far on the factors that contribute to women and girls low participation
in computer studies.
2.1 Definition of computer education
Computer education is the ability to make the generality of the people computer
literate

which

means

ability

to

understand

and

operate

computers

(Bada et al., 2009) in (Chikumba, 2011). The lack of women in technology and
ICT-related subjects and studies has been the focus of interest of the scientific
and educational communities during the last decades (Eccles, 1989; 1994; 2007;
Cohoon and Asprey, 2006; Margolis and Fisher, 2002; Simpkins et al., 2006;
Sinz, 2007; Zarrett and Malanchuk, 2005) in (Sainez, 2011).
Therefore this literature review tackles on the causes or factors that contribute to
the low participation of girls in computer studies. The factors are as follows:
2.1 Familiarization with computing
It has been noted that lack of opportunities for early familiarization with
computing in the home is one factor that causes girls underrepresentation in
computing. Pearl et al.,(1990) in (Tsagala &Kordaki, 2007) boys more than girls
find computer games fun as the content is a representative of their culture for
example guns, graphics, fights, vivid sound and male figures. As a result girls
who do not enjoy this kind of entertainment will not gain experience with
computers in their childhood and they will grow up with the belief that
computers are a boys thing (Balcita et al., 2000) in (Tsagala &Kordaki, 2007).
In the end many researchers claim that the fact that during their childhood and
school years girls do not gain as much experience with computers as boys do

then this becomes an important factor in discouraging them to decide on taking

computer science as their major.
2.3 Family influence
Parental encouragement is strongly and positively associated with young
peoples attitudes towards computing (Shashaani, 1994) in (Sainez, 2011). Girls
who express interest in computing are more likely to believe their familys
support in the choice of studying this subject and fathers in particular are the
key influence to their daughters choice of computing careers (Adya &Kaiser,
2005) in (Tsagala &Kordaki, 2007). Not only is parental support influential for
the ways in which young people use ICTs generally, but it has also been found
to be crucial in the decision-making process of choosing studies and
occupations and in shaping attitudes, habits and uses. For example kadzamira
(1986) in Munthali (2005) wrote that maths and sciences have been viewed as
masculine subjects and identified with the male role, therefore boys have
positive attitude and interest towards these subjects as opposed to females who
look at these subjects as incongruent with traditional roles. So girls whose
parents hold less traditional attitude about gender roles and careers are more
likely to pursue non-traditional careers like computing. So it can be seen that
family ,peers and teachers do play a powerful role as they can undermine girls
interest in computing careers by sending negative messages (Meszaros et al,
2007) in (Denner,2011).

2.4 Media influence

The media also contributes to the formation of computer studies stereotype
(Fisher & Margolis, 2002) in (Tsagala & Kordaki, 2007): in the media when
doing computer advertisements more men or boys are depicted as competent

users of computers while girls or women are passive observers or merely pose
next to the computer while looking pretty or provocative. Also a negative
impression is promoted through job advertisements where by the demands of a
job in computer science industry require to work long and stressful hours and
these are characteristics that women do not appreciate when choosing studies or
a career (Lazowk, 2002) in (Tsagala &Kordaki, 2007). In additional to this lack
of role models in this field makes girls to back down.
2.5 Lack of role models
One critical mass factor, which serves as both a cause and a consequence of it,
is the lack of female role models. The media coverage of information
technology (IT) industry moguls, like Bill Gates (former CEO of Microsoft) and
Steve Jobs (CEO of Apple), projects an image of a male-dominated profession
where women are either not present or their achievements are not significant
(Shaik,2007). For example the Science and Technology policy for Malawi
(2001) in Chidyaonnga (2003) acknowledges that although 52% of the Malawi
population is female the participation in and utilization of Science and
Technology by women has not received the attention it deserves. In other words
not many women are motivated to study Science and Technology and the
development and transfer of technology does not focus on women. In the end it
is less likely for girls to consider studying the sciences and computer studies as
there are no role models to encourage them. Also according to Cohoons (2001)
in (Shaik, 2007) survey, Computer Science departments with no females lost
female students at high rates relative to men. That is the presence of females in
Computer Science faculties is also an important source of mentoring; in other
words what a better example of successful women in Computer Science can be
served to female students than their Computer Science tutors? (Pratt & Misra,
2002) in (Shaik, 2007).

2.6 Lack of interest

Studies of adult programmers found that women express less interest than men
in learning new technologies or findings more about the technology they work
with (Burnett et al., 2010) in (Denner, 2011). In addition, womens negative
attitudes towards computers predict their lower interest in pursuing technology
and ICT-related studies (Creamer et al., 2006; Volman and van Eck, 2001;
Zarrett and Malanchuk, 2005) in (Sainez, 2011). Some authors even suggest that
a higher computer and ICT use is associated with young peoples higher
likelihood to pursue ICT-related studies. For this reason, young people who use
computers or ICTs frequently, and who hold positive attitudes towards
computers and ICTs, are more likely to pursue technology and ICT-related
occupations (Meszaros et al., 2007; Zarrett and Malanchuk, 2005) in
(Palmen,2011).
2.7 Lack of self confidence
Lack of self confidence in using computers is also another reason that causes
low participation of women in the computer field. Research shows that boys are
invariably self-confident with computers, while girls typically have a much
lower perception of their own computing abilities (Eccles, 1994; Sainzet al.,
2009; Sainz, 2011; Palmen, 2011; Gras-Velazquez et al., 2009) in
(Castano,2011).Usually low self confidence is caused in classroom where by
teachers rarely interact with female students for example a research done by
Female Education in Maths and Science in 2000 in Africa and Malawi
inclusive found out that girls low performance in science, maths and
technology studies was also contributed by the teachers. They found out that

teachers do not encourage girls in science, maths and technology subjects, one
way they do this is by directing simple recall type of questions and direct the in
more difficult reasoning type of questions to boys ( Munthali,2005). Lack of
encouragement in schools is also another factor and lastly the hostile and
uncomfortable atmosphere created by boys when they participate in computing
activities (Gurer & Camp, 2002) in (Tsagala &Kordaki, 2007).
2.8 Computer phobia
Dzama and Osborn (2004) after analyzing the results in the research they found
that less male students had computer phobia and performed significantly higher
than their female counterparts where more of them had computer phobia.
2.9 Gender roles and school subjects
Children start learning about gender and gender roles from an early age in their
families and communities because they are continuously exposed to
occupational images, and their interests are frequently elicited through constant
inquiries about their future aspirations (Low et al., 2005) in (Sainez, 2011) .The
assignment of different roles to men and women is associated with different
expectations about male and female academic performance and occupational
choices. In this sense, young men have traditionally been perceived as more
gifted in mathematics and technology-related domains than young women,
whilst young women have been thought to have more verbal abilities than
young men (Eccles et al., 1998) in (Sainez,2011). As a result of this, young
women have a lower self-concept of their competence in mathematical and
technological domains than young men (Sainz, 2007; Zarrett & Malanchuk,
2005), which also discourages them from pursuing mathematics and
technologyrelated studies (Creamer et al., 2006; Dickhuser and Stiensmeier-

Pelster, 2003; Eccles, 1989 and 2007; Sainz, 2007; Zarrett et al., 2007) in
Castano.
Chawanje( 1989) says that the task and roles in which boys and girls are
engaged in whilst young helps them to develop a critical mind, logical thinking
and problem solving capabilities. It has been argued that these skills are crucial
in the understanding of concepts used in science and technological subjects. She
also pointed out that in Malawian society for example, a girl is supposed to
cook, draw water, collect firewood and even look after her siblings, while boys
on the other hand are involved in the making and dismantling of toys and they
try to make improvements each time. The activities that boys do are more
science and technology related than those of girls. In the end boys develop a
critical mind, logical thinking and problem solving capabilities as they face new
challenges as opposed to girls as the activities they do, do not allow them to
develop this capabilities. It may be for this reason that girls lack confidence,
patience and perseverance when it comes to science and technical fields.

2.10 Conclusion
From the literature that has been reviewed though not consistent because it was
done outside Malawi it can be concluded that some of the factors that cause
girls not to participate in computer studies are lack of self confidence and lack
of interest, lack of opportunities for early familiarization with computing at
home and influence of the family and media. In other words all of these factors
play a big role in promoting gender gap in the study of computer.

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the research design and methodology that will be followed
in the study. This chapter starts with the research approach in this study
followed by population and sample size, then data collection methods. Data
processing and analysis, validation and reliability concerns and ethical
considerations are also discussed later in this chapter.
3.1 Research design/approach
Ragin (1994,p.191) in Flick (2007) defines research design as a plan for
collecting and analyzing evidence that will make it possible for the investigator
to answer whatever questions he or she posed. There are two approaches in
research namely qualitative and quantitative. This research will adopt a
qualitative approach. Qualitative research studies human experience and
situations. Data collected in qualitative research is based on participants
experiences and perspectives. The goal of qualitative research is a holistic
picture and depth of understanding rather than a numeric analysis of data
(Ary,Jacobs & Sorensen, 2010). Since this study is investigating the factors that
contribute to girls low participation in computer studies and their perceptions
towards this subject then the data needs to be qualitative as it is going to be
based on participants experiences and perspectives. The strategy that will be
used in this research is Case study.
3.2 Population and Sample size
3.2.1 Population
It is the larger group we wish to learn about (Borg &Gall, 1983). In this case the
population will be made up of students and teachers at OurLady of Wisdom.

3.2.2 Sample size

Sample size is a subset of the population, selected for study in some prescribed
manner (Devore &Peck, 2001).
3.2.3 Sampling
Sampling techniques are methods used in selecting a sample of the study out of
the population (Bluman & Allan, 2004). In this study two techniques will be
used in selecting the place of study and sample. These techniques are
convenient sampling and random sampling. Convenience sampling is choosing
a sample based on availability of time, location, or ease of access. So since the
research will be conducted during the period that the researcher will be during
her teaching practice then using convenience sampling the researcher will do
her research at OurLady of Wisdom which is the school that the researcher will
be doing her teaching practice. Also purposive sampling is going to be used in
this study. In purposive sampling the sample is chosen according to the purpose
of the study. Since the purpose of the study is to investigate factors that
contribute to the low participation of girls in computer studies then the
researcher so it fit to include computer teachers as participants of the study.
Since there are 3 computer teachers at OurLady of Wisdom then they will make
up the sample size of the study.
Random sampling will be used to select the sample size of students to
participate in the study. This is done in order to down size the number of
participants so as to have a manageable size for the study. 20 students will be
selected from form 4 because these students have rich experience with
computer.

3.3 Data collection methods

Data collection is the process of gathering data from the selected samples
(Devore & Peck, 2001). Several data collection methods will be used in order to
collect valid and reliable data which will be used in drawing conclusion for the
study problem. The methods that will be used to collect data for the study are
questionnaires and focus groups interviews.
3.3.1 Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and
other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents
(en.m.wikipidia.org/wiki/Questionnaire). Although questionnaires are often
designed for statistical analysis this is not always the case.
The questionnaire that will be used in this study will include both multiple
choice questions and open questions. In multiple choice questions the
respondent will be allowed to select from given options and in open questions
the respondent will be allowed to explain him or herself. The questionnaires will
be distributed to the students.
3.3.2 Focus Group Interviews
Interviews seek to elicit information about attitudes and opinions and
perspectives and meanings (www.edu.plymouth.ac.uk/resined/interviews/
inthome.htm). Interviews also allow immediate follow-up and clarification of
participants responses as opposed to questionnaires where a researcher can not
seek clarification on responses by the participants as a result interviews will also
be used to collect data. The interviews will be semi- structured and the data will
be collected through note taking. Depending on the number of computer
teachers available 1or 2 computer teachers will be interviewed.
3.4 Data analysis

The data that will be collected from the distributed questionnaires and recorded
interviews will be analyzed using thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is used
in qualitative research analysis and focuses on examining themes within data
(en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thematic _analysis). Themes are defined as units
derived from patterns such as conversation topics, vocabulary, recurring
activities,

meanings,

feelings,

folk

sayings

and

proverbs

(www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/BackIssues/QR2-1/aronson.html).
Furthermore excel will be used to come up with the descriptive statistics and
graphs or charts. The use of descriptive analysis does not necessarily mean that
the study will be quantitative but the researcher will need charts to show a few
variables.
3.5 Validity and Reliability
Validity refers to accurately portraying the meaning attached by participants to
what is being studied by the researcher and the degree to which the
participants viewpoints, thoughts, feelings, intentions, and experiences are
accurately understood and portrayed (Johnson & Christensen, 2000, p. 209).To
ensure that the data that will be collected is valid a pre-test on the questionnaires
will be conducted. Pre-testing will help the researcher to detect and refine
questions that participants will find ambiguous.
Reliability in qualitative research involves collecting data from different
participants while making sure that participants understanding of what is asked
of them is as close as possible to the researchers understanding, as well as being
as close as possible to other research participants(Lankshear & Knobel, 2004).
To ensure reliability an attempt will be made to talk to participants for example
read the questions to them and find out if they understand the question and if

they express ignorance to the questions addressed clarifications will be made to

them.
The other aspects of validity and reliability take the form of credibility and
trustworthiness of data. To check the trustworthiness of data in this study the
researcher will adopt the use of a number of data collection methods which are
questionnaires and interviews. The issues that will be addressed by data
collection tools are more or less similar. This is done so that it can act as some
kind of triangulation.
3.6 Ethical considerations
Ethical considerations are those factors which arise when we try to decide
between one course of action and another not in terms of efficiency but by
reference to standards of what is morally right or wrong (Barnes, 1979). Each
and every person has the freedom of expression and the right to privacy. So to
make sure that this is observed the researcher will ensure that participation of
the respondents in the research is at their own free will, that is they have the
right to participate or not. Also every respondents name will be protected by not
disclosing it for safety reasons.
Participants will also be made ware of the fact that the data collected will be
used for the intended purpose of the research only and that the data will be
viewed by the researcher and her supervisor.
3.7 Limitations
When interviewing in a group, individuals may consistently undermine each
other in other words dominating the conversation. This will be overcomed by
providing equal participation to all participants in the focus group.

3.8 Conclusion
This chapter discusses the research design, how data will be collected, sampling
and sample size, data analysis, validity and reliability, ethical considerations and
limitations of the study.

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Jill Denner (2011). What Predicts Middle School Girls Interest in Computing?
International Journal of Gender Science and Technology, 3(1), 53-69.
Evrikleia Tsagala & Maria Kordaki (2007). Critical Factors Influencing
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Borg,R.&Gall,D.(1983). Education Research Fourth Edition. Library Congress
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statistics

and

data

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Siraj Ahmed Shaikh( 2007-2008).Participation of Female Students in Computer

Science Education.Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, Issue 3.

Appendix A

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS

1. Have you ever used a computer before coming to secondary school?
Yes
No
2. What do you think about computer studies as a subject in secondary
school?

3. Is computer studies worth studying?

Yes
No
a) If yes to question 3 Why?

b) If no to question 3Why?

4. Do you believe that computer studies suits both men and women?
Yes
No
a) If no to question 4 who does it suit and why?

5. What are the factors that contribute to girls low participation in computer
studies? Briefly explain

6. Does your school give you motives or encourage you to take computer
studies?
Yes
No
a) If your answer is yes to question 6 list any activities or measures that are
being done at your school?

Appendix B
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR TEACHERS

1. What do you think about computer studies as a subject in secondary

school?

2. Do you believe that computer studies suits both men and women?
Yes
No
a) If no to question 2 who does it fit and why?

3. What are the factors that contribute to the low participation of girls in
computer studies? Briefly explain

4. Is their anything that is being done at your school that would encourage
girls to take computer studies?
Yes
No
b) If your answer is yes to question 5 list any activities or measures that are
being done at your school?