174

jelinek: top and bottom fermentation systems

They had carried out the triangular tastings twice

in the same hour, and the resulting answers showed

that there was a significant difference; the first

being better than the second.

Beer was usually drunk at about 64 F., and they
therefore thought it best, in the tests, to adopt the
normal temperature.
It was much easier, however,

[July-Aug., 1946

to perceive the differences in beer when the temper

ature was 08 F. or more. With regard to a
definition of good beer, he agreed with Mr. Scott
that it would be desirable if it was possible to draw
up such definitions of good beers, but he thought
before doing so more work on the subject should
be carried out.

MEETING OF THE MIDLAND COUNTIES SECTION, HELD AT THE MIDLAND

HOTEL, BIRMINGHAM, ON THURSDAY, 14th FEBRUARY. 1946
Mr. J. A. Lones in the chair

The following paper was read and discussed:

TOP AND BOTTOM FERMENTATION SYSTEMS AND THEIR

RESPECTIVE BEER CHARACTERISTICS

By Prof. B. Jelinek, D.Sc, M.D. (Brno.)
The fermentation of beer wort may be
divided into two systems, top, and bottom
fermentation. In the first case the yeast
after remaining mostly in the wort during
fermentation rises to the surface and forms
the skim-yeast, whereas in the Continental
breweries, the yeast sinks to the bottom of
the vessel. Top fermentation is conducted
at a higher temperature than bottom fermen
tation and consequently its duration is
shorter; this largely accounts for the differ
ence in flavour of the beers prepared by the
two methods.
While the difference in the behaviours of
the two types of yeast, top and bottom, is
clearly manifested during fermentation, there
is no marked morphological difference
between the two. There are, however,
many laboratory tests to distinguish between
them. The two yeasts when suspended in
water and certain solutions sink at different
rates, in most cases the bottom fermentation
yeast being the heavier. The well-known
distinction in their actions on rafnnose, top
yeasts acting only on one-third the amount,
whereas the bottom yeasts ferment com
pletely, is generally observed, although it has
been challenged in recent years. The
optimum pB for top-fermentation yeast
proteinases is about 4-7, and that for the
bottom-fermentation yeast about 5-0. There
is no doubt that the top-yeast is of a wilder
character with a tendency to form spores
easily, and this is probably also associated
with the greater endurance of top yeast
under unfavourable conditions such as the
influence of drying, autolysis, etc.

Beer has a history going back to ancient

times. Jugs containing beer residues have
been found in Thebes dating 2000 B.C. The
fermentation of wort must have been
spontaneous and caused by some variety of
wild yeast, presumably of the top-fermenta
tion type. In the Middle Ages too, and until
more recently, the fermentation of beer
was invariably top-fermentation. Bottomfermentation appears to be of recent origin,
achieved by the separation of yeast. Topfermentation originally was due to a mixture
of various strains of yeast, this condition is
still found in brewery fermentation in
England and accounts in large part for the
variety of flavours and properties of beer
made in different parts of England, as the
mixtures of different strains of yeast are
used which may vary considerably in
flocculating power. This quality is in inverse
relationship to the attenuative power as,
other things being equal, the yeast which is
longer in suspension causes more complete
fermentation. But, when the wort is allowed
to cleanse itself naturally, the fermentation
is rarely complete. On the other hand, when
different strains of yeast are shaken in
samples-of the same wort, the degree of
attenuation is nearly the same in all cases.
The limit of attenuation in fact depends more
on the composition of wort than on the
nature of yeast.
It is not definitely known how far the
degree of flocculation is dependent on the
racial characteristics of different yeasts or on
culture conditions, e.g., changes in pB value
of the wort, or secretion of certain substances

July-Aug., 1946]

jelinek: top and bottom fermentation systems

by yeast which act as flocculating agents.

But flocculation is a general property of
microorganisms. Even in top-fermentation,
a part of the yeast sinks down, and as this
sedimentary portion of the yeast has been
longer in suspension and is less flocculating,
it shows a greater attenuative power (i.e.,
allowing for the possible presence of non
living sedimentary matter). On the other
hand, in bottom fermentation, the portion
of yeast which settles down first is weakly
attenuating as it has been in suspension for

a comparatively shorter time and is more

has the same graphical representation, the

top and bottom fermentation also have their
respective typical graphical representations.
The following diagram shows the changes in
temperature, pK value and specific gravity
during fermentation in both systems, the
upper dotted curves referring to bottom, the

lower to top fermentation.

The changes of specific gravity, wort
solids, alcohol, temperature, pu value, show
three marked phases in course of time,
corresponding to the three phases of yeast
growth, namely, (1) the lag phase, before

pH

68

S9

15

SO

10

32

175

"A

to

7,f

.""

flocculating in type. By separating the

successive deposits different types of yeast
may be obtained. Bishop-and Whitley (this
Journ., 1938, 73) adopted a similar method
for the separation of strongly and weakly
attenuating top yeast. They also estimated
the quantities of strongly and weakly
attenuating yeasts in suspension at different
periods of fermentation. They found that in
the case of a weakly attenuating yeast
(from original gravity 1050-5 to final
gravity 1032) the maximum quantity of
yeast in suspension after 18 hours was
5-4 grms. per litre, but in the case of a
strongly attenuating yeast (from original
gravity 1050-50 to final gravity 1010) the
maximum after 30 hours was 10 grms.
The behaviour of different races of
yeast remains the same throughout many
successive fennentations as their biochemical
qualities (e.g., enzyme content, flocculating
character) are hereditary factors. Every
fermentation made under similar conditions

$ DAYS

the start of multiplication of cells; (2)

multiplication of cells during the logarithmic
phase of growth, i.e., the number of cells
doubling in equal intervals of time. This
lasts for about 24 hours; (3) phase of restricted
growth when growth is retarded by the
exhaustion of nutritive substances and the
accumulation of fermentation products.
If fresh pitching yeast is first added to
strong wort at about 70 F. to induce prefermentation, and then the whole added to
the main wort, there is no lag phase in the
growth of yeast and rapid fermentation
starts immediately. Also the growth of
other microorganisms which interfere with
fermentation is inhibited.
Yeast shows an
increased rate of fermentation if carried on
at this temperature which is close to the
optimum temperature of yeast growth. The
latter is 95 F. for top and 77 F. for bottom
yeast. But at such high temperatures
other factors come in which tend to cause
deterioration in the quality of the beer,

176

jelinek: top and bottom fermentation systems

especially its flavour, impair the vitality of

the yeast and encourage the development of
other microorganisms. On the other hand
low temperatures of fermentation may also
change the quality of beer. Therefore in
practice, a temperature between the two
extremes is adopted, namely, 68-70 F. for
top fermentation and 48-50 F. for bottom
fermentation.
Apart from the effects on the course of

fermentation due to the amount of yeast in

suspension in the wort and the range of
temperature employed, there is the influence
of the initial concentration of fermentable
sugars, but this is significant only when
in a very high proportion. In ordinary beer
fermentation the initial concentration of
sugar is about 7-12 -per cent., which has no
influence on the rate of fermentation.
Hopkins and Roberts (ibid., 1935, 303) have
shown that in concentrations of sugars from
1 to 10 per cent, there is no difference.
The presence of air is another factor which
governs the rate of growth of yeast cells.
It was observed by Slator {ibid., 1923, 804)
that the time required for the number of
cells to be doubled during the logarithmic
phase of growth is about 4-1 hrs. under
anerobic conditions, and 2-9 hrs. in presence
of air. Aeration or rousing of wort, besides
accelerating the growth of yeast, stirs the
medium and helps to maintain in suspension
yeast tending to accumulate at top or bottom
in either type of fermentation. It is obvious,
therefore, that the greater the tendency of
yeast to flocculate, the more intensive the
aeration or rousing necessary to keep it in
suspension. Insufficient aeration may lead
to a lower attenuation on account of incom
plete fermentation, with the result that the
presence of unfermented sugars in the finished
beer makes it unstable. The actual main
tenance of suspension of yeast appears to be
more important than the mere fact of aera
tion. But aeration must be done at the
proper time as late rousing may be harmful
because of the change of pn and formation
of acids by oxidation of alcohol. The effect
of oxygen on the total fermentative action
by aerobic yeast may be greater than in the
case of anaerobic. This is perhaps due to
the multiplication of aerobic yeast in the
presence of oxygen with consequent increase
in the number of fermenting cells although
their individual fermenting powers may
have been lowered.

[July-Aug., 1946

The pH value for a finished top fermenta

tion beer should be between 3-85 and 4-15.
As the value sinks during fermentation the
reaction becomes more acid, the isoelectric
points of certain proteins from yeast and
malt are approached. These bodies, being so
unstable in their hydrophylic character,
precipitate and accumulate in the scum.
Their incomplete precipitation gives rise to
the persistent danger of after-precipitation

in the beer, although on the other hand their

presence in beer is sometimes considered to
be an advantage in other respects. Among
the many factors which influence the pu
of wort are the inorganic salts, proteins,
amino acids and hop resins present and also
the presence of carbon dioxide produced by
yeast activity. The carbon dioxide goes into
solution and sometimes a greater concentra
tion of carbonic acid may be found in the
lower part of the vessel. Bishop and
WhiUey (ibid., 1938, 170) noticed this
condition and attributed it to supersaturation
of carbonic acid which is due to aggregation
of yeast cells in the lower part of the vessel
and also due to hydrostatic pressure of the
wort acting on it.
The proteins and hop resins of the wort
acting on carbonic acid form foci for the
accumulation of carbon dioxide gas which is
seen streaming up in bubbles. This stream
of bubbles is more vigorous in the case of top
than in bottom fermentation. Although a
top fermentation appears to be more vig
orous, it gives in fact lower attenuation than
if the gas had not escaped so freely. This
is due to the fact that CO2 bubbles carry
the yeast cells in suspension to the surface
of the wort where they are covered with a
skin layer of proteins. Yeast cells thus
continue to collect at the surface and in
course of time form a thick skin called
yeast-head. These yeast cells have been
thrown out of active fermentation and con
sequently the wort shows slower attenuation.

The coarse sediment in wort produces a

greater stream of carbon dioxide bubbles

than fine sediment and thus assists with the
help of this stream to throw up the yeast

cells settling on the bottom. The method

is sometimes adopted in practice of bringing
yeast cells into suspension or to the head and
to prevent them from settling on the bottom

by introducing coarse sediment into the

wort. This is termed "dressing" the fermen
tation, and the sediment is provided by the

July-Aug., 1946]

jelinek: top and bottom fermentation systems

addition of malt flour or a mixture of malt

flour and salt to the wort.

Changes often occur in yeast both in top

and bottom fermentation processes, due to
degeneration of cells. But in some British
breweries no such, change has been noticed
over a period of years. In lager breweries
having a constant supply of pure yeast the
yeast is generally changed after about nine
fermentations. This condition seems to
occur more usually in the case of top than in
bottom yeast, and it may be due to the
presence of a mixed strain of yeast in top
fermentation, the weaker strain being select
ively collected in skimming (Bishop and
Whitley). But, being pure culture, bottom
yeast is a purer strain in the microbiological
sense of the word. Fermenting yeasts in
general are mixtures of fast and slow or
flocculating types and this is more commonly
found in the case of top yeast.
Horace Brown {ibid., 1916, 267), in record
ing a number of experiments carried out
involving the use of pure yeast cultures in
beer
fermentations
at
Worthington's
Brewery, Burton-on-Trent, states:
"...after

due

consideration

of

the

results,

obtained during eight or nine years of such

work, there is no doubt left in my mind that
the pure yeast beers, on an average, did not

show any marked superiority over those

brewed with the ordinary yeast, as regards
flavour, brilliancy and general qualities.
In
fact in one respect, the advantage was with
the last mentioned, since the beers from the
pure yeast, unless stimulated by the addition
of a little diastatic malt extract at the time of
racking, were slower in conditioning than the
corresponding samples from the ordinary
yeast."

For these reasons, it appears that the use

of pure yeast for top fermentation has not
been adopted in the British breweries except
in a few cases. As a result of much discussion
on this point, brewers have come to the
conclusion that the use of pure yeast in top
fermentation is not really necessary to ensure
regular fermentation as it is in the case of
bottom or lager breweries. B. M. Brown
(ibid., 1934, 9) actually produces a mixture
of desired yeasts by a pure culture technique
for his fermentations.
In bottom fermentation the temperature
is generally so low that the lag phase (before
phase of active growth) is longer and so there
is a danger of infection by other micro
organisms, especially by wild yeast. How
ever, in bottom as also in top fermentation

177

this is to some extent offset by a sort of

natural selection exercised by the yeast in
its separation. The first layer of yeast to
rise and the last to settle are more apt to
contain foreign organisms than the middle

portions. The latter therefore are usually

segregated and preserved for use as pitching
yeast. Another reason for using only the
middle part of the layer is that the top
portion contains coloured matter with hop
resins, which when re-suspended in wort
impart a bitter flavour and taste.

Top Fermentation.Every brewery em

ploys its own detailed technique for top
fermentation and the difference lies mainly
in the method of keeping yeast in suspension
in the wort. There are two different types
of yeast in general use, namely, the fast and
slow yeast, e.g., "Burton-Union" yeast and
the "Yorkshire Stone Square" yeast respect
ively. Burton yeast is fast fermenting and
is usually non-flocculating, while the York
shire yeast ferments more slowly and requires
a good deal of rousing to keep it in suspension.
The flocculating yeast naturally requires
more rousing than the powdery or nonflocculating type. Strong flocculating yeast
is - used for beer with low attenuation
($-) while powdery yeast is used with high
attenuation beer which is more stable.
The expression "high attenuation" in this
paper means one that is relatively complete,
i.e., a low final gravity being attained.
The top fermentation breweries differ also
in the manner of their methods for the
separation of reproduced yeast from the
wort (cleansing) and the type of vessels
employed for fermentation.
The simplest method of top fermentation
is the well-known skimming systetn. Fer
mentation is carried out in one vessel, the
yeast at the top being skimmed off from the
surface and collected by means of (1)
parachute, (2) Griffin yeast slide, or (3)

suction.

In this system both fast fermenting

and flocculating yeasts are used. The range

of flocculation of the various skimming
yeasts is so wide that it is impossible to
prescribe a general method of rousing. This
must be decided by observations made in
each case. Attenuation should progress to 1/4
of the original gravity of the wort, although
1/5 is preferable for greater stability,
especially for bottled beer. The fermentation

178

jelinek: top and bottom fermentation systems

is completed within 72-96 hours. In this

procedure it is advisable to maintain the
temperature as low as possible and also to
remove the skim quickly so as to minimize
the excretion products of yeast which can
give the beer the harsh flavour called yeastbite.
In the Dropping system a slightly faster
yeast is usually employed.
For skimming,
the wort is run down into another vessel,
thus giving it a good rousing.
This,
however, involves a loss of carbon dioxide
which may influence adversely the condition
and stability of beer.
One of the oldest systems of fermentation
is the Burton Union system. The partly
fermented beer wort is run into and cleansed
in small casks using fast, non-flucculating
yeast. The details of the plant and tech
nique are complicated and much labour is
involved in cleaning the fermentation vessels.
This system is still in use in many parts,
e.g., Petermann in Louvain, the Lambic
Brewery of Brussels and other small

breweries.
In Yorkshire and Lancashire the "York
shire Stone Square" system is employed.
Here too the fermentation vessels are small
and are surmounted by a yeast-back. In
contrast to the "Burton Union" system, a
highly flocculating type of yeast is used
which necessitates frequent rousing by
pumping; usually for 20-30 minutes at
intervals of 2-3 hrs. If rousing is discon
tinued, fermentation may even stop with
consequent failure of attenuation, so that
pumping is continued until the desired
attenuation is reached. The final gravity
may be \ the original gravity more often

from i to J. A low residual maltose content

in beer is desirable for final stability. In
the case of the Yorkshire system and skim
ming systems using strongly flocculating

yeasts, the maltose may be controlled by

high mashing temperature and short "stand

on." But for non-flocculating yeast, a low
mashing temperature is used. Thus, the
mashing temperatures are linked up with the
quality of beer in different systems. Even
malt modification requirements may be
affected, a less fully modified malt being often
acceptable for stone square breweries, and
more fully-modified for Burton Union and
other non-flocculating yeast systems. The
final gravity also influences the flavour of
finished beer; the hop flavour, in particular.

[July-Aug.,

is more marked in strongly attenuated

beers.
The Burton Union and Stone Square
systems are used in spite of their laborious
procedures because they produce special

qualities of fairly strong beer. Closed vessels

during fermentation retain carbon dioxide
and volatile aromatic substances derived
from the hops. Burton Union beers possess
a characteristic flavour and are sometimes
conditioned in bottle. The beer from Stone
Square system is also highly flavoured but
may be relatively unstable because of its low
attenuation. The pumping gives it special
flavour much appreciated in the Northern
districts of England.
Top fermentation beers have been brewed
abroad also, for instance in Germany, the
Weissbier (white beer) being very common.
Berlin Weissbier is made from barley malt
in addition to wheat malt, and the mash is
acidified by lactic bacilli, the fermentation
being some kind of symbiosis between yeast
and bacilli. The original gravity is between
7-11 per cent. Balling (about 1028-1045).
In Harz districts (Goslar) the so-called
Gosse-beer was made with the addition of
salt. The Austrian Gratzer Bier is also well
known. One of the most interesting and
unique of top fermented beverages is Danziger
Jopen-bier ("Jopen" is derived primarily
from a word meaning a large mug out of
which beer is consumed). Here the original
gravity of wort after much concentration by
boiling (up to 10 hours) is between 45-55
per cent. Balling, the fermentation is spon
taneous and the final beer contains 2-5-7 per
cent, alcohol and acidity 1-2 per cent, (as
lactic acid).
While top fermentation brewing has ceased
to be of any significance in Germany there
are still several Belgian breweries employing
such processes, often traditional, and dating
back to ancient times and retaining largely
their primitive methods. Mention should be
made of Petermann's pale beer (brewed' for
summer months only) and Louvain Weiss
bier which are fermented with feebly ferment
ing top yeasts attenuating from 30 to 40
per cent. After this they are racked into
casks, or, in the case of Weissbier, bottled.
Petermann beer has a characteristic aroma,
and Louvain beer a high nutritive value.
Petermann beer is hopped at the rate of about
lib. per barrel and one or two hours' boil, its
original gravity being about 1036-1048.

s~

July-Aug., 1946]

jelinek: top and bottom fermentation systems

The Brussels beers, Lambic and Mars and

Faro, are somewhat similar, but are more
heavily hopped, Lambic (O.G. 1050-1060)
receiving up to 3 Ib. per barrel and boiled
for 5 or 6 hours, whilst Mars and Faro may
receive 5 Ib. and be boiled for 10-12 hours.
They are not top fermentation beers in the
strict sense of the term, but are allowed to
undergo spontaneous fermentation, their
production, including storage, lasting as
much as 1 to If years. The yeasts which
give rise to this spontaneous fermentation
include Cerevisiae forms, yeasts of Brettanomyces type which produce flavours and
aromas characteristic of Lambic beers, wild
yeasts, film yeasts and miscellaneous bac
teria. Grists for these beers include, besides
malt, up to 50 per cent, of raw grain, maize,
wheat and even oats.
In France worts up to 13 per cent. Balling
are used for top fermentation in several
breweries. It is the same in Sweden and
Norway. Russian kwass (ferment) is made
from malt and malted rye with the addition

of several ingredients such as peppermint,

etc. The microbial flora of these worts

consist of yeast, wild yeast and bacteria.
This beer is related to those of ancient
Egypt and Arabia.
Bottom fermentation.The fermentation
of bottom beer in lager breweries on the

Continent is for the most part carried on in

open vessels, less often closed tanks are
employed to collect the carbon dioxide.
The temperature during the main fermen
tation is about 8 C. (46 F.) but not more
than 10-12 C. (50-54 F.). The disadvant

age of lower temperatures is slower fermen

tation but the beer possesses full aroma.

There are many variations as to this point
in different breweries on the Continent and
as a general rule pale beers are fermented at
lower temperatures than dark beers. The
temperature of fermentation affects the
duration of fermentation and this varies
between 7-14 days. It also depends on the
original gravity of the wort. The pitching
rate for bottom fermentation is calculated
as about 1 litre of thick liquid yeast for
50 kgrms. of grist (6-7 Ib. per quarter), and
this is mixed with 10-15 times its volume
of fresh wort with simultaneous aeration.
As a consequence of the intensive aeration
of pitching yeast the fermentation starts
immediately and with full vigour. This prefermentation on the Continent is carried on

179

in special vessels emptied at the opportune

time by pressure into the main vessel which
has a capacity up to several hundred
hectolitres (one hectolitre equals just under
two-thirds of a barrel). On the first day it
is roused intensively by filtered air. Here,
as also in the case of top fermentation, an
excessive aeration may produce unfavourable
effects on the fermentative power of yeast.
In the beginning of fermentation the bubbles
of carbon dioxide can be observed rising with
yeast along with adsorption layers of protein
and resin-substances. At the surface a
cauliflower head is produced within the first
two days. This is the stage of so-called
"low Krausen" or low curls, which after
about a further 36 hrs. passes into the stage
of "high Krausen" or rocky heads. It
indicates the full fermentation of the wort
and maximum temperature so that decrease
of extract in unit of time is also maximal.
The pu in comparison with top fermentation
sinks regularly. The fermentation is checked
after 1-2 days by slow cooling; the complete
fermentation lasts 7-11 days, and is de
termined by original gravity and temperature.
The yeast crop is 3-4 times greater than the
pitching rate and is deposited on the bottom
of the vessel in three main layers from which
only the middle layer (Kern) is used in
subsequent fermentations. The final gravity
varies and in dark beers it is about higher
than in pale beers. Apparent attenuation at
the end of the primary fermentation is about
64 per cent, for pale beer and 55 per cent, for
dark.
When fermentation is finished the beer is
lagered from 1 or 2 up to 9 months and during
that period the beer undergoes the secondary
fermentation which is under pressure of the
evolving carbon dioxide and the beer is
therefore saturated. The beer at racking
usually contains some quantity of yeast
which starts this secondary fermentation; if
not, a quantity up to 5 per cent, of "low
Krausen" is added. This secondary fer
mentation is carried out at a much lower
temperature, namely, 0-5-2 C. (33-36 F.I.
Big wooden casks or tanks of aluminium or
ferroconcrete are in use for lagering. Usually
the beer from one brew is divided into several
vessels and completed by successive brews.
The main changes during the secondary

fermentation include the supersaturation of

the beer with carbon dioxide, the segregation
of resins and proteins, the deposition of

180

jelinek: top and bottom fermentation systems

yeast, changes in colloidal character of the

beer towards greater stability and, finally,

the improvement of flavour due to the for

mation during long periods of lagering of
certain organic compounds between alcohols
and acids. This maturation in bouquet also
takes place and more intensively in top
fermented beer as a result of intervention of
microorganisms other than Saccharomyces
cerevisiae. The presence of this infection on
the walls of vessels and in the air of plant is
even desired and is mentioned in literature
as a special feature of a particular locality.
A modification of bottom fermentation to
shorten the time is the use of higher tem
peratures

(e.g., in U.S.A.) which produces

fully attenuated and therefore stable beers;

another, consists in the use of closed vessels
for recovering the carbon dioxide. The
Nathan system of brewing bottom fermen
tation beers not only requires a small space
but also a short time of production. The
sterility of plant is assured by filtration of
air and the whole system is especially devised
for countries with a warm climate.
The layman might ask which kind of beer
is better, top or bottom fermented? But
this question must remain unanswered, as it
depends on individual and national taste.
It is mainly a matter of personal preference
and there is no scientific decision or explana
tion possible. The writer observed during
the 1937 International Exhibition in Paris
that when Pilsner beer was served, it was
not so much appreciated by the French
as it was in Czechoslovakia.
Both types of beer are about equally good
as regards digestibility and nutritive value.
In accessory food factors (vitamins) top may
be superior to bottom fermented beer as it
is fermented by means of mixed races which,
also because of their wilder character,
produce larger quantities of these substances.
Possibly Hopkins, Norris and Wiener in the
near future will give exact data in confirma
tion of this opinion.
It may be that top fermentation beer is
the more economical type to brew, largely
because of its higher fermentation and storage
temperatures, refrigeration expenses being
greatly reduced.
It is apparent that top fermentation,
although an old method, has passed down to.
the modern times almost unchanged and
offers a great variety of beers. In fact, the
lager beer has by comparison no variety, it is

[July-Aug., 1946

more uniform in character and also more

stable. But uniformity and stability are not
necessarily desirable.
Discussion

Mr. F. E. Lorenz said it was believed that

bottom fermentation yeast could only be used
nine or ten times, but during the war years such
yeast was unchanged and so far as he could see
without detriment to the quality of the beer.
Only now, when Copenhagen was open again, had
they changed their yeast.
He might mention that
for regenerating their yeast Pilscn brewers generally
made use of Munich yeast for their light beer.
Mr. H. J. Cox asked Mr. Lorenz if, in using
bottom fermentation yeast unchanged for 5 years,
there was any alteration in flavour of the beer.
Mr. Lorenz replied that in Mediterranean
breweries the same yeast had been used during the
whole of the war period, and the beer had not
altered.
.
Mr. Walter Scott said that in this country lager
beer did not go down very well, particularly with
the working man.
Reference had been made to
aeration and non-aeration in top fermentation, and
it was suggested that attenuation was less if air
was not used. He knew from practical experience
that it was possible to get low attenuation without
air. But there was not so much yeast produced
without air as with it, so that the limited number of
yeast cells did more work with less reproduction.
One of the slides showed eleven days for fermen
tation.
He was under the impression that lager

fermentation took rather longer than that.

Of

course, the lagering process took time, and the

turnover of beer would be drastically affected if

they had to keep it as long as he understood was

the case with the better class lagers. One advan
tage of Lager beer was that it seemed to stand
pasteurization better than English beer. He did not
know whether all lager was pasteurized, but it did
not seem to pick up flavours which they wanted to
avoid when English beer was pasteurized. In
Munich he understood that unless the beer was kept
absolutely cold and served properly on ice, it was
changed, almost like milk, every day. We had the
advantage in this country that beer would stand
normal temperatures for a considerable length

of time.

Mr. M. H. Homer thought it was remarkable that

the lager brewers, who took such care of their
yeasts, had to make a change every seven or eight
generations. He did not think any comparison
could be made between top fermentation beers
brewed either in America or on the Continent with
beer in this country, because they were not at all
like it.
Mention had been made of a process
whereby the beer was produced> from an extremely
concentrated wort, and it was said that fermentation
was spontaneous. He had always understood that
it was extremely difficult to start fermentation at
all with very high gravity worts. He would like
to know how there could be any control.
Mr. E. Rogers asked how the yeast was with
drawn from the vessel. How did they ignore- the '
top layer and the last layer and select the middle
layer.

Mr. A. Masarik said that the uppermost dark

layer was first scraped off exposing the middle

July-Aug., 1946]

WALLACE: MINERAL DEFICIENCIES OF PLANTS

layer of white yeast. The latter was then removed

leaving the bottom dark layer which was hard.
Prof. Hopkins said that on this interesting
question of Danzic Jopcr beer. Prof, Jclinek
informed him that the wort was made from malt
in more or less the usual way and concentrated
by a long boil, getting up to concentrations of the
order mentioned.
It was then run into wooden
fermenting vessels and the fermentation started
from a mixed microflora of moulds and yeasts
present in the wood. As fermentation progressed
other yeasts took part.
He added that some
yeasts tolerated very high sugar concentrations,
and it was well-known that honey and concentrated
syrups and even pickle brine would permit certain
yeasts to grow in them, but they were not yeasts

brewers normally encountered.

Mr. Lorenz, referring to Mr. Walter Scott's
remarks regarding the lagering of beer, said the
beer was generally stored in the fermentation cellar
for 8 to 12 days and in the lager cellar for 3, G or
9 months. From a point of view of capital it was
a loss of interest. Ordinary beer for the home
trade was in the lager cellar for 4 to 0 months, after
a fermentation of about 10 days. As to the high
percentage of extract of Munich beer, he had seen
the beer in the cellar and it fermented very well.

181

but a special yeast was used for the purpose.

Beer drunk in Czechoslovakia or Germanywith
the exception of that for railway dining carswas
not pasteurized. Only lager beer which was
expected to be long in the trade or on transport was
pasteurized.
Dr. R. G. Ault, alluding to yeasts which
flocculate early during fermentation, asked whether
this was a specific property of the particular strain
of yeast.
He believed it was possible with a
brewery yeast of this type to remove the agglut
inated portion which had separated early from the
fermentation, and by suitable treatment obtain
both a powdery form which did not flocculate
during fermentation and a flocculating type. This
rather suggested that flocculation was not an
inherent characteristic of a yeast, but was dependent,
rather, on other conditions, for example, the nature
of the medium.
Prof. Hopkins said it was generally accepted that
flocculating yeasts remained flocculating and the
powdery yeasts powdery, and his experience using
pure cultures agreed with this. He would like,
however, to carry out some methodical attempts to
fractionate a single cell culture into portions
possessing powdery and flocculating characters
respectively.

MEETING OF THE MIDLAND COUNTIES SECTION, HELD AT THE WHITE

HORSE HOTEL, CONGREVE ST., BIRMINGHAM, ON THURSDAY,
21st MARCH, 1946

Mr. J. A. Lones in the chair

The following paper was read and discussed:

MINERAL DEFICIENCIES OF PLANTS
By Prof. T. Wallace, M.C., D.Sc, F.R.I.C.
Director of the Research Station, Long Ashton, Bristol

The study of the mineral nutrition of

plants received its first great stimulus in
1840 with the enunciation by Liebig of his
theory of "Mineral Nutrition." As a coroll
ary to his theory Liebig advanced the view

that simple plant analysis would suffice to

provide the necessary data to determine the

manurial needs of crops. Thus to ensure the
adequate mineral nutrition of crops it would

only be necessary to analyze the ashes of

previous crops and to make good the amounts
of the various minerals removed by the
crops by means of chemical fertilizers.
Liebig's views were soon shown by Lawes
and Gilbert in their field experiments at
Rothamsted to be an over-simplification of
the problem and indeed in some respects to
be erroneous.
The remarkable success of Lawes

and

Gilbert's field trials naturally led to a wide

use of this method of studying the mineral
requirements of crops and a further outcome
of their work was the focussing of attention
on the nutrient supplying powers of soils
rather than on the mineral contents of the
crops themselves.
Concurrently with the development of the
field experiment method the methods of
solution and pot cultures received much
attention and proved of great value as means
of examining detailed points in mineral
nutrition and particularly in connection with
deficiency effects.
Of recent years attention has again been
turned to the mineral constituents of the
plants as providing an index of nutrient
status, and the modern view of mineral
problems is that they must be attacked from