Religion (1992) 22, 63-83

CONTEMPORARY THERAVADA AND

ZEN BUDDHIST ATTITUDES TO
HUMAN SEXUALITY : AN EXERCISE
IN COMPARATIVE ETHICS
Michel Clasquin
As in many other religions, the issue of the correct attitude towards human
sexual activity reflects the fundamental philosophical standpoints of the
various branches of the Buddhist religion . In this article, the Theravada
and Zen schools are examined, both in general terms and through an indepth examination of the opinions which some leading contemporary
Buddhist spokesmen of both groups hold on the matter . The Theravadin
stance is found to be that sexual activity is something to be ultimately
transcended in the attainment of Nibbana . This tallies with its conception
of Nibbana as fundamentally different from Samsara . As an interim
measure, the Theravadins maintain that a harmonious sexual existence
is best achieved by observing certain rules which define certain persons
as inadmissible sexual partners, and stress the necessity of approaching
those who transgress sexually in a compassionate manner . In the Zen
tradition, the Mahayana non-dualistic concept of Nirvana as not intrinsically
different from Samsara has led to the acceptance of sexuality as an integral
aspect of the religious life, albeit one which needs to be practised within
the context of the disciplined Zen life style .

INTRODUCTION
Our purpose here is to examine the attitudes towards human sexuality held
by two contemporary branches of the Buddhist religion, namely Theravada
and Zen . The issue of what the religious attitude towards sexuality should be
has proved to be a deeply divisive issue in many, if not all religious traditions,'
and Buddhism is no exception to this rule .
This study will not primarily concern itself with the historical Buddhist
sexual attitudes, though these will be initially described to serve as background
information . Nor will it concern itself with related issues such as the place of
women in Buddhist society and mythology, both of which subjects are
extensively covered elsewhere . 2 Rather will we concern ourselves here with
the contemporary stance towards the sexual relationship . Attention will also
be given to the various ways in which the spokesmen for the two traditions
under consideration justify their positions, for, as we shall see, widely different
methods ofjustification are used . This difference in justification largely follows

0048-721 X/92/010063 + 21$03 .00/0

1992 Academic Press Limited

64

M. Clasquin

sectarian lines, and some speculation as to the origin of this difference may well
be called for .
Our choice of Theravada and Zen for the two variations of Buddhism to be
compared stems partly from pragmatic reasons and partly from the nature of
the subject itself. One would have liked to include a much larger variety of
Buddhist sects for comparison, but, despite the sparseness of available literature
on this topic, limitations of space precluded such an approach, since it might
too easily have led to a superficial examination of the subject . In particular,
one would have liked to include Tibetan Buddhism, but its immense internal
diversity and the Tantric influence upon it justifies its having at least an article
to itself. 3
The two traditions which have been chosen, moreover, are not obscure sects
which hold little relevance for the wider religious world, but are both vital
faiths which have in recent years expanded their influence to the Western
world . This alone makes it important for us to examine their attitudes to
ethical matters even in a restricted area such as the one dealt with in this
article, as such an examination will not only enable us to ascertain the ethical
influence of these traditions on the inhabitants of those areas in which these
two types of Buddhism have traditionally existed, but also to gauge possible
future ethical developments arising from their spread into new territories . If
one considers Luckmann's influential thesis that sexuality is one of the key
factors in the new `invisible religion', 4 it becomes all the more vital to consider
how this aspect of human existence could interact with an influence such as
Buddhism . Furthermore, the traditionally Buddhist countries are themselves
being influenced by events and developments in the outside world, presumably
including changes in ethical and more specifically sexual attitudes, 5 and their
contemporary position on such matters may not necessarily be identical to
that found in the primordial form of their faith .
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Since its earliest beginnings, Buddhism has maintained a mainly negative

stance towards sex, in fact :
Sex was feared because it could be a rival to that calm and joy which the monk
sought by his way of self-denial . A lover would find peace and fulfilment in the
raptures of coition, which countered those of nirvana . 6
For monks, of course, sex was completely inadmissible ; sexual intercourse
with either a human being or an animal is one of only four offences in the
Patimokkha, the list of 227 rules which govern Buddhist monastic existence,
for which the punishment is expulsion from the order, and in the next category
of thirteen offences, no less than five deal with sex-related acts, such as `acting
as a go-between for any couple' .

Buddhist Attitudes to Human Sexuality

65

Furthermore, the monastic rules contain many lesser maxims, such as the
one which prevents the monk from sleeping under the same roof as a woman, 8
which are clearly designed to minimize the possibility of sexual contact .
Nor does the Rule apply only to association with women : `The Bhikkhu's
precepts do not allow him to sleep more than three nights with an unordained
male . . .' 9 Dhiravamsa, l0 however, notes that :
Physically (the monks) may be celibate due to the rule of refraining from sexuality,
but psychologically their desires for sex could be suppressed and diverted to
something else such as food or power, which is often found in those who live the
monastic life . This is because in the monastic system there are hierarchies with
rank and file so that any ordained man or woman may climb in order to become
more important in that institution . 11
It is interesting to note here the way in which the sublimation of sexual
desires is linked to a rise in interest in social competition-an almost Freudian
interpretation, one might say. Officially, a monk's standing in the monastic
hierarchy is solely dependent on the time elapsed since he was ordained, so
that a recently-ordained septuagenarian is junior to a teenager who was
ordained one day before him . Here we can perhaps see an intimation that this
neat and orderly scheme does not quite work out as it should, suggesting rich
possibilities for empirical research .
As the religion of renunciation, Buddhism had little to say about the
ideal family structure, and monogamy, polygyny and polyandry may all be
encountered in Buddhist countries as a result . 12 The Buddha recommended
chastity as the ideal, but was prepared to countenance marriage if fidelity
within it was maintained . 13 As we shall see, though, this precondition of
fidelity was more rigidly applied to women than to men, if not by the Buddha
himself, then by his followers .
A NOTE ON METHOD
In our discussion on the contemporary Buddhist attitude towards sexuality,
we shall focus on those sources in which leading figures in the Buddhist world
have commented on the subject in works the primary aims of which are the
instruction of the laity . This implies that we are here concerned with the
`official' Buddhist attitudes, rather than with the more diffuse stance which
is no doubt entertained by the laity before, or even despite, receiving such
instructions . Nor shall we directly deal with the fact, well-attested by research
in social psychology, that the relationship between attitudes and behaviour is
a complicated one, in which the specificity, strength and accessibility of
attitudes, as well as the level of self-attention, influence the degree to which
an attitude will direct actual behaviour . 14 The aim of this study will primarily
be an exploratory one, which attempts to present the data and show how they

66

M. Clasquin

function in their appropriate contexts without having a particular theoretical

axe to grind .
PAUCITY OF SOURCES
When we start to search for Buddhist pronouncements on sex, we soon come
to realize that this is not a subject with which Buddhist writers have felt
comfortable : the subject is generally dealt with only as a subdivision of ethics
in general, rather than as a worthwhile topic in its own right . The result of
this reticence is that very few sources dealing with the subject are available,
as some Buddhist writers have themselves recognized . 15 Campbell offers one
possible explanation for this situation :
Human emotion is not a subject dealt with at length in Zen . It was probably
suppressed in the Asian cultures that gave rise to Confucianism and placed the
greatest value on orderliness obtained through hierarchy . Sex and love are neglected
too, although shit-sticks and privies are explored at length . Clearly there are still
areas of human experience, taboo or unconscious to our Asian forefathers, where
the Dharma eye may be opened more fully : the subject perhaps of new koans for
our age. 16
Here we may beg to differ from Campbell : Buddhist reticence on sex is not
necessarily a product of Confucian influence, since not only is the Theravada
literature on the subject equally as sparse as that of Zen, but the former also
seems to lack the self-awareness of at least some of the latter's spokesmen that
this is in fact the case . An explanation of the scarcity of writings on sexual
topics in Buddhist literature must therefore be sought within the Buddhist
ethos itself.
Of those writers dealt with at length in this article who have written
extensively on sexual or sex-related topics, it is noteworthy that two are born
Westerners, while the remaining one, Dhiravamsa, has given much attention
to the integration of Buddhist and Western psychological theories . This
underscores the previously-mentioned assumption that sexual morality is a
key issue in the currently fast-changing Western society to an extent that it is
not in traditional Oriental culture.
To summarize, then, Buddhist documents dealing specifically and exclusively
with sex are extremely rare ; the more usual treatment of the subject being to
relegate it to a subsection of Ethics, which itself is not the major focus of
Buddhist attention . It appears that Buddhists are really much more interested
in writing books and articles on the minutiae of meditation, on which subject
there exists a truly vast literature, than on a down-to-Earth matter such as
sex . This need not dismay us, since it does allow us to conduct a more indepth study of those writings which have been produced than would otherwise
have been possible .

Buddhist Attitudes to Human Sexuality

67

THE THERA VADINS

The Theravadin attitude towards sexuality is mainly a negative one, in which

sex is regarded as a prime example of the craving which binds sentient beings
in samsaric existence . Since sexuality is eventually to be transcended in the
attainment of Nibbana, measures must be taken to prevent sexual activity in
full-time religious specialists -these are the Patimokkha prohibitions already
referred to . For both the layman and the monk, sexuality is not primarily to
be eliminated by a frontal assault, but through the more subtle mechanism of
a growing awareness of the dangers of sensual existence through increasing
meditative experience . Even here there are differences in emphasis : the
Theravada not being the monolithic institution it is sometimes made out to
be . The Venerable Saddhatissa, for example, advises us that :
To destroy abnormal sexuality" at the root, it is imperative that an individual
turns his mind from such thoughts the instant they present themselves . . . Those
in whom sensual thoughts arise should learn to control them by the practice of
mindfulness .' $
Ajahn Sumedho, abbot of Amaravati monastery in Britain, however, has
his doubts about such a procedure ;
You can't say `I won't have any more of that kind of desire . . .' Well, you can say
it but you still do! If you're a monk and you think you shouldn't have anything
like that then you become a very frightened and repressed kind of monk . . . Don't
make a problem out of it. We all have nasty thoughts going through our minds
when we're in these robes, just like anybody else . But we train ourselves not to
speak or act upon them . . . we accept these things, recognize them, are fully
conscious of them, let them go- and they cease . 19
This difference should be understood as a divergence of emphasis rather
than a clear-cut dichotomy : both Saddhatissa and Sumedho hold to the
desirability of mental control over sexual desires, but the latter tends to a more
gentle, gradualistic approach . It is noteworthy that even the more liberal
Ajahn Sumedho refers to sexual urges as `nasty thoughts' . Clearly, the
unspoken assumption here is that sexuality is something to be discarded, an
unwanted intrusion into the equanimous tenor of monastic existence . Eventually,
it is held, it will be transcended altogether, at least by the monastic individual .
In the meanwhile, though, interim measures must be taken to facilitate the
existence of a harmonious society conducive to Buddhist ideals, in sexual as well
as in other terms . One of the most important of such measures in the Theravada
is the restriction of sexual partners for the layman . Bhikkhu Bodhi, quoting
the Majjhima Nikaya Atthakatha, enumerates the following types of women
with which it is inadmissible for the Buddhist layman to have sexual relations :

68

M. Clasquin

(1) A woman who is under the protection of elders or other authorities . . .

(2) A woman who is prohibited by convention, that is, close relatives forbidden
under family tradition, nuns and other women vowed to observe celibacy . . . and
those forbidden as partners under the law of the land .
(3) A woman who is married or engaged to another man, even one bound to
another man only by a temporary agreement .20
It is noticeable that the permissible sexual partners are here only defined
from a masculine perspective, but in a later publication, Bodhi, though
admitting that the canonical literature uses this perspective only, uses later
sources to extend the prohibition to include two types of men who are not
permissible as sexual partners to women :
(1) Any man other than her husband is out of bounds for a married woman . . . .
(2) Any man forbidden by convention, such as close relatives and those under a
vow of celibacy .21
Clearly, there is double standard at work here . Despite calls for marital
fidelity from both partners, 22 the restrictions on possible sexual partners, read
quite literally, are more restrictive on women than on men -it is not, after all,
explicitly stated that for the married man, no woman but his wife is permissible .
Such a perspective would hardly be acceptable in a modern society where the
equality of the sexes is accepted, if only in principle .
The restrictions do not quite end here . Bodhi 23 also mentions that sexual
activity which is obtained through violent or coercive means is not permissible
to the Buddhist . This is not merely an injunction against rape, although that
is obviously one important aspect of such a prohibition : it is also a ban on the
use of `psychological pressure' to obtain sexual favours . This would imply that
sexual victimization or harassment of, for instance, employees by their employers
is condemned by the Buddhist religion .
M. 0'C. WALSHE

Walshe, in his booklet on `Buddhism and Sex' 24 closely follows the orthodox
Theravadin approach to sexuality . After describing the monastic rules pertaining
to sexual activity, which we have discussed above, he describes the ethical
environment in the Buddha's time as one in which concubinage and polygamy
were common, and in which `it was not expected that young men would lead
a life of much restraint . . .' . 25 He then reiterates the restrictions on possible
sexual partners which we have observed above, noting that these restrictions
could be seen as a realistic and even liberal injunction, given the prevailing
sexual norms .
What, exactly, is the position which the precept concerning `abstinence
from unlawful sensuality' has in the larger scheme of Theravada ethics?
According to Walshe :

Buddhist Attitudes to Human Sexuality

69

For the average lay person, the third Precept is on exactly the same footing as the
other four. There is, in the Buddhist view, nothing uniquely wicked about sexual
offences or failings . Those inclined to develop a guilt-complex about their sex-life
should realise that failure in this respect is neither more, nor on the other hand
less, serious than failure to live up to any other precept .26
After discussing his understanding of the traditional Western (and therefore
Christian) attitude towards sex, which he typifies as being a grudging acceptance
of sex within marriage, coupled with an implied denigration of sexuality in
general, Walshe describes `The inevitable reaction', which is an attitude of
extreme permissiveness . He then states that neither attitude is satisfactory to
the Buddhist: `What we have to do-what Buddhism in fact teaches us to Bois to map out a sane course between the two (extreme views)' . 27 The remainder
of his booklet may be seen as an attempt to do just that .
Walshe points out that the fundamental problem is not the brute fact of
sexual activity, but rather the attachment to it . 28 He freely admits that ` . . . it
is rather difficult . . . to experience pleasure of any sort without feeling
attached to it' . 29 Nevertheless, attachment is unskilful kamma, which will
have an effect in the future, and this process 'must be counteracted . Returning
to the dispute between the puritans and the permissivists, he suggests that his
sympathies lie closer to the former :
Sexual indulgence . i s not wicked, but it may be in some degree inadvisable . Most
people will not feel able to refrain altogether (nor are they being urged to), but
there is merit in moderation . 30
Having pointed out that marriage is not a sacrament in Buddhism, at least
not in its classical forms, and that no bhikkhu has the right to officiate as a
marriage officer or to protest at a marriage's dissolution, 31 Walshe proceeds
to discuss extramarital sex :
. . . quite obviously, this is something to be avoided . But the point should be made
that Buddhism does not regard this, or any other sexual irregularities and
deviations, as somehow uniquely wicked . In countries nominally Christian the
special kind of horror with which such things are, or recently were, regarded can
be pushed to grotesque extremes . Not many years ago a certain politician was
solemnly declared by some to be unfit to become Prime Minister because he had
been the innocent partner in a divorce case! More recently still, another politician
was hounded from office because of acts of adultery for which his wife forgave
him! Yet many politicians in all countries have got away with far worse things of
a non-sexual character without a word being said . Buddhists should try to behave
themselves sexually, as in other respects, to the best of their ability-but they
should learn to exercise the maximum of charity towards the lapses of others .32

70

M. Clasquin

Walshe does not give precise references as to which two politicians he has
in mind here, but these anecdotes are hardly unbelievable . Since Walshe wrote
this article, for instance, American presidential candidate Gary Hart was
forced to renounce his candidature on very similar grounds .
It is clear that Walshe is writing primarily for a Western Buddhist audience
here, since his recurrent references to the prevailing Christian influence on
sexual morality would hardly be necessary in a publication directed at
members of a predominantly Buddhist culture . This makes his book valuable
from the point of view of understanding the impact Buddhism might have on
Western morality (and vice versa), rather than on furthering our anthropological
knowledge of sexual morality in other societies .
On the subject of premarital sex, Walshe takes the pragmatic attitude that
this is not something that can be wished away . He acknowledges that :
Nowadays there is pretty frank acceptance of what has always been the case, that
a lot of people in fact have sexual intercourse without going through the formality
of getting married . . . . This is a simple statement of fact, not of what ought or
ought not to be the case . . . . In any case, we may as well accept the fact that . . .
preaching by the older generation will . . . have precious little effect on the young . 33
While he is not totally opposed to `experimentation', considering the high
failure rate of early marriages, 34 he does consider self-restraint to be a superior
option, considering the dangers of venereal disease, 35 the possible side-effects
of contraceptives, and emotional disturbances . 36 He does not name unwanted
pregnancies as one of the disadvantages of unrestrained sexual activity .
Clearly, his fundamental standpoint is one of refusing to condemn the faults
of others, preferring rather to treat them empathetically . Although such a
perspective has much to recommend it, it cannot be denied that Walshe
supports the orthodox Theravadin view of sex as an evil which is only regarded
as `necessary' by the unenlightened, and which is to be transcended .
The remainder of Walshe's booklet is concerned with explicating further
the way in which sexuality is interpreted in the Theravada tradition as a form
of tanhd (craving) . He points out that in the traditional Buddhist soteriological
scheme, when one attains the stage of Andgamin (Non-Returner), the desire
for existence in the sensual world drops away completely . This, he maintains,
is proof that it is possible to transcend sexuality in this life, although this is
hardly a straightforward matter, necessitating deep meditative attainments . 37
To the modern, scientific mentality this is doubtful ; the question could well
be asked whether the ancient systems of classification corresponded to empirical
reality, especially if such a reality were viewed from within a Freudian
perspective. From such a viewpoint, it could be countered that a monk might
well have erased all sexual desires from the conscious mind, only to have them
resurface from the unconscious level, possibly in an altered form . It is precisely

Buddhist Attitudes to Human Sexuality

71

such a process that we have already encountered above, where the possibility
that sexual repression might lead to social competition within monastic circles
was raised . 38
Furthermore, it might be asked how completely the desire for sensual
pleasure can be erased from one's mental make-up . This is not a new question
in the Buddhist environment : precisely such a question was raised when the
first known schism of the Sangha, that between the Mahasanghikas and the
Sthaviras, occurred (approximately 340 B.c .E .), when one of the five points
raised against the Arhat as representing the perfected human being was that
`They could, among other things, have seminal emissions in their sleep . . . '39
To return to Walshe, he does accept the traditional scheme in which sexual
desire disappears at a given stage in the yogi's meditative career . From this we
can deduce that, in Walshe's view, all the advice given previously really has
only the status of an interim measure ; eventually, at the individual level,
sexuality is something to be abandoned . Given that Buddhism is a religion
which regards its message as being of universal import, this would logically
imply that the ideal society, in which every member had attained enlightenment,
would be a totally asexual one . Walshe's perspective, although advocating a
maximum possible amount of compassion in its application, is true to the
ultimately negative Theravadin attitude towards sexuality : in theory, if not
in practice, precisely the stance for which he lambasts traditional Christianity .
V. R . DHIRAVAMSA

Dhiravamsa is another of the few Theravadin writers who has written an

article dealing extensively with sex and marriage . He starts by giving
us a two-fold definition of marriage, one being a `marriage' of a person by
`surrendering himself to an IDEAL such as God . . . or the ideal of celibacy'
the other the conventional form of marriage between a man and a woman . 40
His article deals mainly with the second type, but, as we shall see, in a way
that leads inexorably to the first .
He continues by saying that the Buddha did not deny the worth of human
relationships, but encouraged his monks to interact in a friendly and compassionate way both among themselves and in their contact with non-monastics .
He then states that this principle applies equally well to the married life, in
that it can create an opportunity for both partners to grow towards a greater
maturity . The key question, though, is this : `how is it possible for a husband
and wife to be free from attachment if they have to love and be faithful to each
other?' 41 Dhiravamsa, like Walshe, is concerned with the Theravada understanding of all attachment as unskilful kamma ..What he seems to be pointing
towards is the paradox of a person attempting to eradicate all attachment from
his or her life, as required by Theravada doctrine, while engaged in a
relationship of which attachment is almost a defining characteristic .

72

M. Clasquin

After dwelling further on the Buddhist conception of the ideal marriage, 42

Dhiravamsa discusses the issue of sexual relations between marriage partners :
It is quite true to say that sex with love is the greatest pleasure and the sexual act
can bring about ecstacy and self-abandonment, leading up to the experience of
living fully in the present without the interference of thoughts . . 43
Even allowing for poetic licence this is quite a startling statement coming
from a Theravadin, as Dhiravamsa here uses terminology which would
traditionally be used to describe advanced meditative states . Dhiravamsa
therefore seems to concede that sexuality is a powerful force in human affairs,
possibly for the good . In a sense, his words echo those of Parrinder, cited
above, insofar as he corroborates the latter's opinion that sexual ecstasy might
rival and perhaps even supplant the bliss of advanced meditative states . 44
He continues :
. . . we should consider the sexual relationship in married life and in the lives of
unmarried people . . . . Generally speaking, it is quite open to a married couple to
have sexual relations at any time they wish . . . . A . . . problem concerns the
freedom of having a sexual relation with someone while still married (to another
person) . As to this, I think we must ask ourselves whether we look for a new
sensation, a longing for more satisfaction or more experience . If so, surely we are
enslaved by desire and do not understand the meaning of marriage . We should
think very carefully and objectively why we lay so strong an emphasis on sex . Do
we just regard it as a physical need and not a psychological one? If we do there
is no problem, but if we cannot, we should consider more deeply what is the real
benefit we gain from sexuality . When this is recognized we can be content with
our normal sexual relationship, because we understand that any sensation is never
new but always old, and that any satisfaction will again become unsatisfactory
according to its nature . 45
The question to be asked here is why, if all sensations turn out to be old
ones, one should bother with them at all, and this is precisely the point of
Buddhist renunciation, to which Dhiravamsa is leading his readers in a quite
subtle way . He appears to suggest an involvement in sexuality as a preliminary
stage to its abandonment, since, although he employs this argument only
when referring to extra-marital sexual activity, the same logic would of
necessity apply to sex within marriage . Here too, the understanding of any
experience as being `never new but always old' would tend to lead to a
rejection of the search for such experiences . The question that would then
arise is how such a view could be reconciled with Dhiravamsa's previouslystated assertion that' . . . Buddhism regards the family life as sacred, holy in
its true sense of wholeness . . . . It is the holy conduct that leads up to the
completion of the Eightfold Path . . .' . 66 W The answer will become apparent
only at the very end of his article .

Buddhist Attitudes to Human Sexuality

73

Another feature of the above quotation is Dhiravamsa's assertion that

sexuality which is only the satisfaction of a physical need, rather than also of
a psychological one, does not constitute a problem . Perhaps what he has in
mind here is that an honest assessment of the situation would inevitably
produce the answer that psychological needs would inevitably be involved in
any situation containing human agents . If this is his intended interpretation,
it is quite acceptable to orthodox Buddhism, which has never accepted a rigid
division between the material and the psychological aspects of human existence .
If, on the other hand, he does recognize the existence of a purely physical
sexuality as an autonomous mode of behaviour, traditional Buddhism would
be bound to point out that all sexual activity, apart from masturbation,
involves another sentient being, and since most of us have no access to the
abhinnas or `higher knowledges', we cannot assert with any confidence that
our sexual partner is experiencing the occasion as being an expression only
of a `physical need and not a psychological one' .
Having dealt with sexuality within marriage, Dhiravamsa examines the
issue of sexual relations by and between unmarried people :
Of the five precepts the third one is concerned with misconduct in sexuality, which
seems to be a taboo to freedom in sexual life . But in Mangalatthadipani, pages
211-212, the Venerable Sirimangalacarya made it clear that the banned persons
for this are married women and women under protection . . . . But a grown-up
woman free from any obligations and not under the legal protection of anybody
. . . is free to go with any man who has no wife, because she is the master of her
sex life . . . . More than that, a woman living with an unmarried man by her own
wish is recognized as a wife and she is protected by the third precept . This category
of wife is called in Pali `Chandavasini' . So people who live together without
making contracts according to conventional marriage are in complete harmony
with the Buddhist teaching (see Mangalatthadipani pp . 361-4) . 47
Against this, one should consider that in the type of society in which
Buddhism was to be found until quite recently, a woman not under the legal
protection of some or other male was quite a rarity . Women were `never fit
for independence' .` A girl would pass from the protection of her father to that
of her husband, and in some societies might even end up subservient to her
son . 49 In such a society, only an exceptionally strong-willed woman, or one
in an anomalous social situation such as a war-disrupted society, would be in
a position to choose her own partner .
Only by ignoring this historical context does Dhiravamsa manage to apply
this category to modern women, who might never have been married before,
living with the male companions of their choice without being formally and
legally married . It is also notable that a masculine bias has crept into the
analysis again ; the unspoken assumption here seems to be that a special
justification for female sexuality is required, while male sexual activity is taken

74

M. Clasquin

for granted . Needless to say, such presuppositions are untenable in the

modern age .
Furthermore, Parrinder, who also mentions this class of wife, finds her listed
along with nine other categories, which include the likes of `those who were
bought for money' ; `those to be enjoyed or used occasionally' ; and `those who
were prisoners ofwar'.50 One can hardly imagine that Dhiravamsa would care
to offer a rationalization for the retention of these other categories as well .
Still, what is the role of sex in the final analysis? Dhiravamsa, despite his
liberal stance on specific sexual issues, reveals himself as agreeing with the
generally negative Theravadin stance toward sexuality when he concludes his
article by recommending celibacy, with the proviso that this should arise
naturally, even within the married state . -51 His endorsement of marriage,
therefore, is primarily based on the companionship it provides, rather than
on a sexual basis . Although he has admitted the immense power of sexual
ecstasy, even likening it to the most advanced meditative attainments, in the
end, he views it as an unskilful life-style which will have to be transcended .
SUMMARY AND EVALUATION OF THERAVADINATTITUDES

In the final analysis, the Theravadin attitude towards human sexuality is

profoundly negative. Sexual desires are regarded as a prime example of the
craving that binds sentient beings to incarnate existence . The goal, therefore,
is to move towards the cessation of the sexual impulses . This does not imply
that the Theravada advocates a severe repression of all things sexual . Rather
do we see its spokesmen as coming out in favour of a moderate approach, in
which the sexual impulses are allowed to cease of their own accord as
meditative techniques lessen one's attachment to sensual pleasures . The
Theravada goal, implicit though it may be, is a completely sexless society,
although its adherents are sufficiently realistic to be aware that such a goal is
not immediately within their grasp . As an interim measure, the main mechanism
through which a harmonious socio-sexual environment may be brought about
is the list of persons with whom one is not allowed to have sexual relations .
This negative attitude, we may speculate, is attributable to the fundamental
Theravadin philosophical presuppositions . Judged from the Mahayana perspective, Theravada Buddhism shows a dualistic streak, not in the usual
Western sense of a dichotomy between mind and matter, but in what is in
Mahayana Buddhist eyes perhaps an even more serious matter, namely in
assuming a radical discontinuity between Nirvana and Samsara, respectively
the enlightened and unenlightened states of existence . 52 If one is to accept
such a dichotomy, and furthermore to conclude that Nirvana is to be attained
by rejecting all aspects of Samsara, then it stands to reason that sexuality, the
process which more than any other exemplifies the `round-of-birth-and-death'
through its close connections to childbirth, should come under special scrutiny

Buddhist Attitudes to Human Sexuality

75

and singled out for rejection to a greater degree than, say, the process of
breathing .
The surprise here is not so much that the Theravada attitude towards sex
is ultimately negative, but rather that the practical effects of this stance have
not been much more severe . The fact that leading Theravadins have expressed
the need for a sensitive and compassionate approach to non-celibate
life indicates the presence of counterbalancing factors within Theravadin
philosophy . While space precludes a detailed examination of these factors, we
could briefly mention some of the more likely candidates here ; the importance
of karuna (compassion) and the Brahma-viharas generally, the Buddha's
characterization of his teachings as the `Middle Way' between extremes,
which in the Theravadin context might be taken to imply a tendency to refrain
from excessively criticizing other life-styles for fear of lapsing into the opposite
extreme, and lastly the stress placed on the process of samsaric rebirth itself,
among the implications of which is the assurance that no action is ultimately
irreversible, since the celibate life-style can be adopted in a future existence .
One could also consider non-philosophical factors, such as the monks' dependence on the non-celibate laity for support, in this context .
ZEN

Generally speaking, the Zen approach to human sexuality is less legalistic

than that of the Theravada . Nowhere in Zen do we encounter elaborate lists
of people with whom sexual activity is proscribed -though it might well be
argued that such lists are implicit in the social contexts in which Zen is
practised . The Zen attitude tends towards a full acceptance of sex as an
important aspect of human existence . Even in the monasteries, a less rigid
adherence to celibacy seems to be upheld; in his autobiographical account of
his residency in a Japanese Zen temple, Van de Wetering recounts the
following conversation :
Well, . . . here in the monastery we have no girls, so it can't be done . I suppose
some of the monks may have homosexual relations-It's much more accepted
here than in the West anyway. But with the training and continuous discipline,
there isn't much time or opportunity for sex . . . . When I run into it, I won't shy
away . . . but I haven't got much time to look for it either . . . . No, I have to wait
till it comes my way ; it has happened, and it will come again . I am always prepared
for it. 53
While it is difficult to judge how typical this monk's experiences were (he
was in fact not Japanese, but a Western convert), the mere fact that he
described the restrictions on sexual activity as being primarily attributable to
logistical restrictions, rather than to behavioural proscriptions, shows that the
Zen attitude to sexual behaviour is based on quite different criteria than that
of the Theravada . If so, this should apply to an even greater extent to the laity .

76

M. Clasquin

For instance, let us look at Christmas Humphrey's correspondence with the

members of his Zen class : to a student upset over a classmate's promiscuity,
he writes :
Your remarks about (Sally) sound like a Victorian school-maam . Supposing she
has `boy-friends' . Surely that is her affair, not yours . I know about them and it
does not worry me. Her sex-life is her own affair and not (thank Karma) any of
mine. Or yours . 54
On a more general level, he writes :
If the act is mere self-indulgence, as excessive smoking, or even drinking, it may
be lamentable from several points of view, but it does not immediately increase
the sense of separation which is our basic illusion ; the same may apply to fun and
games on the sexual plane between those free to indulge . This is not `right' in the
sense that it is ideal or even the best we can do on the Way ; but from the Zen
point of view it is not actively harming another form of life .'
The phrase `those who are free to indulge' is the last vague remnant oaf the
Theravada list of persons disallowed as sexual partners, . Clearly, the Zen
attitude towards sex, at least as Humphreys sees it, is much less negative than
the Theravadins' . This does not imply that Zen favours the practice of
indiscriminate promiscuity, but rather that sexuality, like any other aspect of
human nature, should be experienced as a free, spontaneous expression within
the context of the tightly self-controlled Zen life-style . Thus, the question
`what is correct sexuality?' cannot be answered merely by looking up the
answer in a book, even a holy book, but by responding to the unique
particularity of each situation and acting in concert with the prime directive
of Mahayana Buddhism ; compassion . The crux of any action is whether it
involves . . . actively harming another form of life' .
The directive to search for ethical directives within one's innate enlightenment
is nowhere more clearly stated than in the following statement by the female
Korean Zen master, Ji Kwang Dae Poep Sa Nim :
Sex is beautiful and wonderful, but if you don't have true love sex is only wasting
your energy . . . . Just perceive ; `Is this a correct situation? Is this a correct
relationship? Is this correct function?' If these three things do not exist, it is only
desire sex [sic] to please this bag of flesh . If your mind and your body are not
clear and you have sex you are only giving negative energy to the person . . . But
if you are clear and one with universal energy you are ready to give to others . You
can share this energy through the body .'
Yamada Mumon Roshi, too, regards it as a necessary aspect of human
nature and a certain expression of the essential unity of the world as seen
through enlightened eyes . He writes :

Buddhist Attitudes to Human Sexuality

77

Loving affection between a man and a woman may be a passion, a foolish passion .
But the extermination of this amorous passion would mean the simultaneous
drying up of humanity . (Similarly, anger at injustice brings about social progress,
and craving for `truth, good and beauty' establishes human culture, MC .) These
three `poisonous passions' should be affirmed, be given aufheben, and purified ; they
should not be negated or eradicated . On getting awakened, one realises passions
are originally Awakening . 57
ROBERT AITKEN ROSHI
The context of Aitken's discussion of sexual matters is the difference between
the traditional Japanese Zen temple, in which a strict separation of the sexes
is observed, and the Western Zen centre, which is almost universally coeducational . 58 He freely admits that both types of ecclesiastical organization cause
tensions, 59 in other words, he does not idealize the celibate state in quite the
same way as do the Theravadins . He does not extensively discuss sexual
situations outside the formal Zen atmosphere . Nevertheless, a close study of
his comments can shed much light on the Zen attitude towards sexuality in
general .
Fundamentally, Aitken propagates an acceptance of sexuality as an integral
part of human existence :
Certainly we cannot justify rejecting sex and accepting the other human drives
and emotions, such as anger, fear, hunger, and the need for sleep . . . . For all its
ecstatic nature, for all its power, sex is just another human drive . If we avoid it
just because it is more difficult to integrate than anger or fear, then we are simply
saying that when the chips are down we cannot follow our own p ractice . so
This statement is quite closely related to Walshe's assertion that Buddhism
does not regard sexual transgressions as being `uniquely wicked' . Like Walshe,
Aitken here establishes the status of sexual activity vis-a-vis other human
activities and finds it to be an emotional and volitional activity which is not
in principle qualitatively different from any other . Unlike Walshe, as we shall
see, he does not advocate its ultimate rejection . He does, however, reject sexual
activity that is not within an atmosphere of mutual affection . In another work
he writes :
Sex is sharing, but when it becomes using, it is perverted -a violation not only of
this precept, but of the earlier two precepts ('no killing' & `no stealing', MC) as
well, for it involves the brutalizing and taking things of others . . . . Another kind
of casual sex rises from a lack of confidence in the self as agent of the Dharma ; it
is a kind of false sharing, a prostitution . 61
While stressing that celibacy is the preferred state for some Zen practitioners, 62
Aitken does not imply that it is a required state for Zen practice at any stage
along the path

78

M. Clasquin

` . . . freedom within a publicly expressed commitment, and of such expressions,

marriage provides the safest environment . Without marriage, there still can
be an agreement to establish a relationship and to work on it' . 63
Aitken's acceptance of sexuality is therefore not a licence to promiscuity,
but rather an exhortation to his students to behave in a responsible way in
their sexual conduct . Viewed in the correct light, sexual activity is not
necessarily a negative, un-Buddhist action : in keeping with the Zen principle
that `the ordinary mind is enlightenment', when that ordinary mind is directed
towards dharma, 64 Zen does not restrict religious activity to certain narrowly
circumscribed circumstances, but attempts to sacralize all of human existence .
Thus sex, when approached from the correct angle, can be a Bodhisattvic act :
Saving all beings is our practice, and in the home this can be just the simple act
of doing the dishes or helping with homework-or it can be having a party when
the kids are in bed . The dance of sex, the dance of life in all circumstances requires
forgetting the self and giving over to the dance . Sexual intercourse is the dancing
nucleus of our homes, generating all beings at climax, bringing rest and renewal . 6
Like Dhiravamsa, Aitken regards sexual activity, in the right circumstances,
as a form of meditation . The difference between them is that Aitken's
fundamental philosophy makes it far easier for him to do so . In fact, as I shall
argue below, the Mahayana principles underlying Zen makes it logically
impossible for him not to take this attitude .
SUMMARY AND EVALUATION OF ZEN ATTITUDES
The Zen attitude towards human sexuality is a cautiously positive one .
Certainly, celibacy is recommended as a device which may be helpful in
spiritual growth for those who are naturally drawn to it, but it is not a sine
qua non for spiritual progress, as it ultimately is for the Theravada . Sex, like
any other human drive, is neither to be wildly indulged in nor denied and
repressed . It can be misused, like any human action can, but at its best it can
be an expression of the essential unity of creation, and therefore a form of
'meditation' . 66
This positive evaluation of sexuality in Zen does not lead to the establishment
of orgiastic religious rituals, 67 precisely because Zen stresses the ultimacy of
ordinary experience . As is well-known, the professed aim of Zen is `when
eating, just eat : when sleeping, just sleep' or as Yi-hsuan put it, `Only do
ordinary things with no special effort : relieve your bowels, pass water, wear
your clothes, eat your food, and, when tired, lie down! 68 It is in the `beginner's
mind' or `ordinary mind', in the crdinariness of everyday life, that ultimate
meaning is to be realized . Applying this principle to one's sex-life, the endresult is not all that different from that of the Theravadins : a `Middle Way'

Buddhist Attitudes to Human Sexuality

79

between repressive denial (though celibacy is highly recommended to those

for whom it comes easily) and irresponsible promiscuity .
But, if the results are similar, the methods used for its justification differ
considerably . Zen does not attempt to legislate sexual mores with precise rules
as to whom one may or may not have intercourse with . Nor does it postulate
a necessary spiritual progression towards celibacy . In its acceptance of
sexuality as a normal expression of human nature (which, of course, is
ultimately coterminous with Buddha-nature), Zen's attitude towards sex
seems more integrated into its total theological (dharmological?) structure
than that of the Theravada, whose pronouncements on the subject have
something of the appearance of an afterthought .
The implication of this is that no pre-defined list of `correct' and `incorrect'
sexual actions can ever do justice to the vast multiplicity of possible situations,
nor to their essential unity . Only in the light of increasing spiritual sophistication
can the correct response to a sexual situation be discerned . The Zen practitioner
is thrown back on his own resources : he (or she) alone can decide what the
suchness of the moment demands . As far as the sexual activity of others is
concerned, Zen goes beyond the tolerant approach of the Theravada : not only
does it refuse to judge and treat those who disagree with its sexual ethic
harshly, as the Theravada likewise refuses to do, but it remains true to its own
philosophical basis of non-duality by refusing to recognize a distinction between
enlightened and ignorant action, Nirvana and Samsara, celibacy and sexuality .
Here the Zen tradition seems to support the Mahayana tradition of two
levels of truth ; on the relative level, it can fairly be said that certain forms of
sexuality are unskilful and not conducive to the attainment of enlightenment,
but from the level of absolute truth, the all-encompassing nature of suchness
(tathata) does not allow anyone to judge one action as `evil' and another as
`good' . These two terms are human mental constructions like any other, and
have no essential reality of their own apart from the total pattern of events
leading up to their conception .
It can be observed, therefore, that the Zen sexual ethic is directly attributable
to the Mahayana metaphysic of non-dualism to which it subscribes . Given
this metaphysic, in fact, it is hard to discern an alternative : it would be
logically untenable for the Mahayanists to proclaim the innate purity of all
existence on the one hand and then single out one particular activity as
innately impure on the other . For this reason, sexuality is not regarded by Zen
as intrinsically `wrong' any more than meditation is intrinsically `right' . Both
these actions are freely chosen expressions of the suchness of a given moment :
either can lead one into greater delusion or toward greater clarity .
Still, the more advanced practitioners can and do suggest the more productive
avenues for channelling sexual energy . Marriage, constituting as it does
freedom within a publicly expressed commitment . . . ', 69 is one such

80

M. Clasquin

preferred avenue, and does appear to be highly regarded, but this remains a
judgement on the relative level of truth and may be disregarded if the situation
demands it .

CONCLUSION

As we have seen, the Theravada and Zen attitudes towards human sexuality
differ considerably . The Theravadins have mostly retained the negative
attitude that typified early Buddhism, while Zen has adopted a more positive
stance . In each case, the sexual ethic of the school under consideration can be
traced back to the fundamental presuppositions underlying its philosophy .
Returning to one of the key issues raised at the beginning of this paper,
considering the more relaxed attitude towards sexuality that has emerged in
Western society in recent decades, the Zen attitude is more likely to appeal
to Occidentals dissatisfied with the mores of their own traditional faiths .
Space precludes a thorough examination of issues closely related to this one ;
issues such as homosexuality, contraception, abortion, prostitution etc . I hope
to address these issues in either a series of follow-up articles or a full-scale
monograph .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank the Dharma Centre, Somerset West and the Buddhist
Retreat Centre, Ixopo for the use of their library facilities, without which this article
could not have been produced .
NOTES

Viz . P . M . Cooey, `Eros and intimacy in Edwards', Journal of Religion 69 :4

(October 1989), pp . 484-501, who, on p . 486, writes that `Scholars across
disciplines . . . debate whether religion represents a repression or a celebration
of eros' (emphasis in original) .
For the social position of women in Buddhist societies, see A . Boer and S . Colijn,
'Bezetenheid : een Kwelling, een Gave', in D . Dijk, W . Haan, M. Meerburg and
A . W . Westra (eds), Vrouw-Religie-Macht, Delft, Meinema 1985 and the relevant
articles in N . A . Falk and R. M . Gross (eds), Unspoken Worlds : Women's Religious
Lives in Non-Western Cultures, San Francisco, CA, Harper & Row 1980; D . L .
Carmody, Women & World Religions, Nashville, TN, Abingdon 1979 ; and Y . Y .
Haddad and E . B . Findly (eds), Women, Religion and Social Change, New York,
State University of New York Press 1985 . A comprehensive account of the way
in which the feminine was portrayed in Buddhist Mythology can be found in
D . Y . Paul, Women in Buddhism . Images of the Feminine in Mahayana Tradition,
London, University of Los Angeles Press 1985 .
Some preliminary indications of the tantric influence on the Vayrayana attitude
towards sex may be obtained from A . J . Fasano, The Religious Structure of Tantric
Buddhism, Ann Arbor, MI, University Microfilms International 1981 ; Kalu
Rinpoche, The Dharma That Illuminates All Beings Impartially Like the Light ofthe Sun

Buddhist Attitudes to Human Sexuality

4
5

6
7
8
9

10
11
12

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

81

and the Moon, Albany, NY, State University of New York Press 1986, pp . 77-9;
and G . Samuel, `The body in Buddhist and Hindu tantra: some notes', Religion
19 :3 (July 1989), pp . 197-210 .
T . Luckmann, The Invisible Religion, New York, Macmillan 1967, pp . 111-3 .
An example of such influence may be seen in the attendance of bhikkhus at
weddings, which R . Gomrich and G . Obeyesekere, Buddhism Transformed: Religious
Change in Sri Lanka, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press 1988, p . 228, call
a `startling innovation' and of which they say that `The gradual Buddhicization
of the Sinhala wedding has come hard on the heels of its westernization, and
indeed the two trends appeal to the same social strata' . As we shall see below,
authors such as Walshe also deny that the Buddhist monk should be involved in
marriage ceremonies, as these are considered a purely secular matter .
G . Parrinder, Sex in the World's Religions, London, Sheldon 1980, p . 45 .
Spiro, pp . 292-3 .
Ibid ., p . 298 .
Anonymous pamphlet (s .a.), A-Lay Buddhist's Guide to the Monk's Code of Conduct,
Reading, Amaravati Monastery, p . 4 . The term `sleeping with' should here be
understood quite literally, and not, as in the modern sense, as a euphemism for
`having sex with' .
V . R . Dhiravamsa, `The Place of Marriage in Buddhism', The Middle Way 48 :3
(November 1973), pp . 123-7 .
Ibid ., pp . 123-4 .
Gombrich & Obeyesekere, p, 256 . c Parrinder, p . 55 . S . Tachibana, The Ethics
of Buddhism, London, Curzon 1981, pp . 155-7, however, believes that there is
evidence that the Buddha did prefer monogamy .
Parridner, pp . 55-6 .
R . A. Baron, and D . Byrne, Social Psychology : Understanding Human Interaction,
Boston, MA, Allyn and Bacon 1987, pp . 140-4 .
R . Aitken, The Mind of Clover, San Francisco, CA, North Point 1984, pp . 37-8 .
L . Campbell, `On cutting off your arm', Blind Donkey 10:3 & 4 (Summer/Fall
1988), pp . 57-9, this reference p. 58 .
It is noteworthy that Saddhatissa does not adequately define `abnormal' sexuality
here .
H . Saddhatissa, Buddhist Ethics- The Path to Nirvana, London, Wisdom Publications
1987, pp . 91-2.
Sumedho, pp . 25-6 .
Bhikkhu Bodhi, Goingfor Refuge/Taking the Precepts, Kandy, Buddhist Publication
Society 1981, pp . 65-6 .
Bhikkhu Bodhi, The Noble Eightfold Path, Kandy, Buddhist Publication Society
1984, p . 63 . Bodhi only makes a slight reference to this in Bodhi, 1981, p. 66 .
E .g . Bodhi, 1984, p . 64 .
Bodhi, 1984, p . 64 ; Bodhi, 1981, p . 66 .
M . O'C . Walshe, Buddhism and Sex, Kandy, Buddhist Publication Society 1975 .
Ibid ., pp . 1-3 .
Ibid ., p . 3 .
Ibid ., p . 5 .
Ibid ., p. 7 .
Ibid ., pp . 7-8 .
Ibid ., p . 8 .
Ibid ., p . 9 . See also note 5 .

82 M. Clasquin

32
33
34
35

Ibid ., p . 10 . Emphasis in original.

Ibid ., pp . 11-2 .
Ibid ., p . 14 .
It should be kept in mind that this booklet was written in the pre-AIDS era, and
that this warning is doubly relevant today .
36
Ibid ., p . 15 .
37
Ibid ., pp . 18-26.
38
Viz. note 10 .
39
E . Conze, A Short History of Buddhism, Hemel Hempstead, Unwin Paperbacks
1982, pp. 33-4 .
40
Dhiravamsa, p . 123 .
41
Ibid ., p . 124 .
42
On p . 127, he picks up this theme again and warns against any pretensions on
the part of either partner that it owns the other, stressing that ` . . . marriage is
not ownership, but union and companionship brought into being through free
agreement and understanding between the two partners' .
43
Ibid ., p . 125 .
44
cf. Parrinder, p . 45 . Dhiravamsa is, in fact, a somewhat heterodox Theravadin,
who has experimented with the integration of Theravada and Western psychotherapeutic techniques, see J . Snelling, The Buddhist Handbook, London, Century
1987, p . 311 . His work on spontaneous physical expression in meditation, see The
Dynamic Way ofMeditation, Wellingborough, Turnstone 1982, also reveals possible
Tantric influences on his thought .
45
Dhiravamsa, p . 125 .
46
Ibid ., p . 124 . One could also contrast this with Walshe's previously-cited
statement that `marriage is not a sacrament in Buddhism' .
47
Ibid ., p . 127 ; cf. Bodhi, 1984, p . 64 .
48
Parrinder, p . 55 .
49
Viz . C . F . Keyes, `Ambiguous gender : male initiation in a northern Thai
Buddhist society', in C . W . Bynum, S . Harrell and P . Richman, Gender and
Religion: On the Complexity of Symbols, Boston, MA, Beacon 1986, pp . 71-2 ;
Parrinder, 1980, pp . 53-5 . See S . C . Crawford, The Evolution of Hindu Ethical Ideas,
Honolulu, University Press of Hawaii 1982, pp . 12-3, 28-31, 44-6, 65-70, 1067, 137, for the Indian background to the social position of Buddhist women . Tibet
appears to have been an exception to the rule of male dominance in social affairs,
according to B . D . Miller, `Views of women's roles in Buddhist Tibet', in A . K .
Narain (ed .), Studies in History of Buddhism, Delhi, BR Publishing Corporation
1980 .
50
Parrinder, p . 55 .
51
Dhiravamsa, p . 127 . cf. Sumedho, p . 25 .
52
Viz . D . T . Suzuki, Essays in Zen Buddhism . (First Series), London, Rider 1985, pp .
39ff.
53
J .-W . Van de Wetering, The Empty Mirror, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul
1973, pp . 61-2 .
54 C . Humphreys, Zen Comes West, London, George Allen & Unwin 1960, p . 60.
55
Ibid ., p . 114 .
56
Ji Kwang Dae Poep Sa Nim, One Dust Particle Swallows Heaven and Earth, Paris,
Dharmah Sah Publications 1988, pp . 190-1 .
57
In G . Tokiwa, 'Yamada Mumon Roshi 1900-1988', Eastern Buddhist-New Series
22 :2 (Autumn 1989), pp . 136-44 . This quotation p . 142 .

Buddhist Attitudes to Human Sexuality 83

58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66

67
68
69

Aitken, 1984, pp . 39-40 .

Ibid ., p . 41 .
Ibid ., pp . 41-2 .
Aitken, Taking the Path of Zen, San Francisco, CA, North Point Press 1982, pp . 82-3 .
Aitken, 1984, p . 43 .
Ibid ., p . 46 .
Viz . D . T . Suzuki, Essays in Zen Buddhism . (Second Series), London, Rider 1980,
p . 333 .
Aitken, R. 1984, p . 47 . cf. Aitken, R. 1982, p . 83 .
This is by no means an uncontroversial interpretation : Master Seung Sahn
writes : `This Zen master said that during sex you lose your Small I . This may
be true . But outside conditions are taking away the Small I . When the outside
conditions change, you again become Small I' . See S . Mitchell (ed .), Dropping
Ashes on the Buddha- The Teaching of Zen Master Seung Sahn, New York, Grove 1976,
p . 153 . Here the objection seems to be that any possible spiritual effects of sexual
activity, even if genuine, are too temporary to be considered of any importance .
When he continues by saying that `All these actions are attachment actions . They
come from desire and end in suffering' (p . 154), he shows himself more closely
allied to the Theravada position .
But cf. Van de Wetering, pp . 99-101, for a possibly apocryphal account of Boboroshi, a Zen monk who seems to have done precisely this .
In Conze, p . 93 . cf. Suzuki, 1985, pp . 24-5, 264-5 .
Aitken, 1984, p . 46 .

MICHEL CLASQUIN teaches at the Department of Science of Religion,

University of South Africa . Among his previous publications on Buddhism is
`Paradoxical intention and Zen : new light on an old technique?' Journal for the

Study of Religion 2 :2 1989 .

Department of Science of Religion, University of South Africa, P.O . Box 392, 0001
Pretoria, South Africa .