Low Cost Adsorbents

See
discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248944639
Low Cost Adsorbents: Growing Approach to

Wastewater TreatmentA Review
ARTICLE in CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OCTOBER 2009
Impact Factor: 3.47 DOI: 10.1080/10643380801977610
CITATIONS
READS
433
551
4 AUTHORS:
Vinod K Gupta
Peter Carrott
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Universidade de vora
640 PUBLICATIONS 33,084 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE
M. M. L Ribeiro Carrott
Dr Suhas
Universidade de vora
Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE
Available from: Peter Carrott

Retrieved on: 21 March 2016
This article was downloaded by: [B-on Consortium - 2007]

On: 14 October 2009
Access details: Access Details: [subscription number 908038079]
Publisher Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713606375
Low-Cost Adsorbents: Growing Approach to Wastewater Treatmenta Review

V. K. Gupta a; P. J. M. Carrott b; M.M.L. Ribeiro Carrott b; Suhas b
a
Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India b Centro de Qumica de
vora and Departmento de Quimica, Universidade de vora, Colgio Lus Antnio Verney, vora, Portugal
Online Publication Date: 01 October 2009
To cite this Article Gupta, V. K., Carrott, P. J. M., Ribeiro Carrott, M.M.L. and Suhas(2009)'Low-Cost Adsorbents: Growing Approach to
Wastewater Treatmenta Review',Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology,39:10,783 842

To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/10643380801977610
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10643380801977610
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf
This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or
systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or
distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents
will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses
should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss,
actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly
or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 39:783842, 2009

Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1064-3389 print / 1547-6537 online
DOI: 10.1080/10643380801977610
Low-Cost Adsorbents: Growing Approach

to Wastewater Treatmenta Review
V. K. GUPTA,1 P.J.M. CARROTT,2 M.M.L. RIBEIRO CARROTT,2
and SUHAS2
1
Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009
Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247 667, India
Centro de Qumica de Evora

and Departmento de Quimica, Universidade de Evora,
Colegio
Lus Antonio Verney, 7000-671 Evora, Portugal
Industrial, agricultural, and domestic activities of humans have

affected the environmental system, resulting in drastic problems
such as global warming and the generation of wastewater containing high levels of pollutants. As water of good quality is a precious commodity and available in limited amounts, it has become
highly imperative to treat wastewater for removal of pollutants. In
addition, the rapid modernization of society has also led to the
generation of huge amount of materials of little value that have no
fruitful use. Such materials are generally considered as waste, and
their disposal is a problem. Also, there are some materials that are
available in nature that have little or no use. The utilization of all
such materials as low-cost adsorbents for the treatment of wastewater may make them of some value. An effort has been made to
give a brief idea of an approach to wastewater treatment, particularly discussing and highlighting in brief the low-cost alternative
adsorbents with a view to utilizing these waste/low-cost materials.
KEY WORDS: activated carbon, adsorption, low-cost adsorbents,
pollutants, wastewater treatment
INTRODUCTION
Nature has provided plenty of resources that are used to sustain and develop
life on the planet. One of the most important resources available to us is
Address correspondence to V. K. Gupta, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of

Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, 247667, India; Tel.: +91-1332-285801; Fax: +91-1332-273560;
E-mail: vinodfcy@iitr.ernet.in
783
784
V. K. Gupta et al.
FIGURE 1. (a) Water distribution1 on earth and (b) fresh water consumption3 in various
activities (b).
water, which was present long before the evolution of life and without
which life is not possible. The available water is distributed in an uneven
manner (see Figure 1). According to a World Health Organization fact sheet
and other sources,1,2 of the total amount of water present on the earth,
97.5% is salt water and cannot be used without treatment. The remaining
water (2.5%) is generally fresh but most of it (70%) is locked in polar ice
caps and glaciers, and the rest is mostly present as soil moisture or lies in
underground aquifers. Overall, the fresh water that is available for use is 1%
or 0.007% of the total water on earth, which is really very little. The search for
clean, fresh, and potable water has always been one of mankinds priorities.
In olden times, when there was no industrial activity, the water available
from lakes, rivers and underground reservoirs was pure and suitable for
human life. However, with rapid industrialization and modern methods of
agricultural and domestic activities, the demand for water3 (see Figure 1)
has increased tremendously, and this has resulted in the generation of large
amounts of wastewater46 containing a number of pollutants that are harmful
to both human and animal life. According to the United Nations World Water
Development Report,7 some 2 million tons of waste per day are disposed of
within receiving waters, including industrial wastes and chemicals, human
waste, and agricultural wastes (fertilizers, pesticides, and pesticide residues).
In addition, according to the World Water Council and the World Health
Organization,1,8 there is already more wastewater generated and dispersed
today than at any other time in the history of our planet, and more than
one out of six people lack access to safe drinking water. Also, according
to a WHO report,9 there were an estimated 2.6 billion people in the world
without proper sanitation facilities, representing close to 42% of the worlds
population, and approximately 1.1 billion people did not have access to
any type of improved drinking water facility. It is also estimated that by the
middle of this century, at worst 7 billion people in sixty countries and at best
2 billion people in forty-eight countries will be water-scarce.7
Low-Cost Adsorbents
785
The UN policy on sustainable development, established by Agenda 2110

and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development,11 is based on
the synergy between economic development, social development, and environmental protection. The use of low-cost adsorbents, particularly if they
are based on local natural materials or rural or industrial waste products,
for pollution control and management and for securing potable water supplies, can make a significant contribution towards achieving the objectives
of Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration.
POLLUTANTS
The term pollutant, in a broad sense, refers to a substance/material that
changes the natural quality of the environment by physical, chemical, or
biological means. Thus, we may have pollution in air, water, and soil. As
this review article deals with ther removal of pollutants from wastewater, only
pollutants generally present in effluents are described here. The three main
activities that mankind indulges in are domestic, agricultural, and industrial.
In all of these activities, a large amount of fresh water is used, which is
discharged as wastewater containing different pollutants depending on the
type of activity. These may be various inorganic and organic chemicals1214
and biological agents as well as heat and radiations. Some of the important
pollutants are discussed below.
Biological Agents
A number of biologically active agents,14 such as Vibrio comma, Salmonella
typhosa, Yersinia enterocolitica, Escherichia coli, and Shigella dysenteriae,
may be present in domestic effluent and sewage water and need to be
removed. Some of the important waterborne diseases caused by biological
agents are cholera, typhoid, dysentery, gastroenteritis, and jaundice.
Heat
Ideally, the temperature of water should be constant or undergo minimum variation. Because of its high heat capacity, water is used as a cooling medium. Thus, many industrial plants discharge water carrying away
waste heat.15 The high temperature of this wastewater not only affects
aquatic life but is known to cause many chemical and bacteriological reactions, such as formation of trihalomethane (THM) and higher corrosion
activity.
786
V. K. Gupta et al.
Dissolved and Non-Dissolved Chemicals
During the course of domestic, industrial, and agricultural operations, a number of chemicals are used or produced and often get mixed up with fresh
water, which is then discharged as wastewater. The chemicals present in
wastewater may be in a dissolved or non-dissolved state. Non-dissolved
substances are generally present as suspended solids in a dispersed form.
The suspended solids make the water turbid and sometimes they may also
slowly settle down with the formation of silt. The presence of suspended
solids clogs waterways, fills up dams, and is harmful to aquatic life in many
ways.16 The most common chemicals14 found in wastewater in a dissolved
state and considered as potential pollutants are heavy metals, dyes, phenols,
detergents, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and a host of other
inorganic and organic substances.
HEAVY METALS
The wastewater generated from many industries may contain a number of
heavy metals which have significant toxic effects17,18 and they are therefore
considered as pollutants19,20 requiring removal. The various industries that
generate such water include the tanning, battery, glassware, ceramics, electroplating, mining, paints, and photographic industries. These wastewaters
contain heavy metals such as chromium, lead, cadmium, arsenic, copper,
iron, manganese, vanadium, nickel, mercury, cobalt, molybdenum, and bismuth, among others. The amount and the number of metals present in any
wastewater is related directly to the operations carried out in an industry. For
example, tanneries discharge chromium in wastewater; copper, chromium,
zinc, and cadmium are widely generated from metal plating; the production
of electrical equipment and mining, smelting, and fossil fuel combustion
contribute to mercury pollution; and lead is generated from a number of industrial and mining sources. In most wastewaters, the concentration of heavy
metals present is much larger than the safe permissible limits and, therefore,
they need to be removed.
DYES
Dyes are important materials that are currently in use both for domestic and
industrial purposes. Since the invention of synthetic dyes21 in 1856, several
forms of dyes are now available, and more than 8000 dyes are being manufactured and consequently used for specific purposes. The dyes in use are
both water soluble and insoluble. The big consumers of dyes are textile,
dyeing, paper and pulp, tannery, and paint industries. Hence, the effluents
of these industries as well as those from plants manufacturing dyes tend to
contain dyes in sufficient quantities for them to be considered an objectionable type of pollutant for two reasons: they impart color to water, which is
Low-Cost Adsorbents
787
not acceptable on aesthetic grounds, and they are toxic and adversely affect
life.2224
PHENOLS
Like dyes and metals, phenols are also considered priority pollutants,25,26
as they impart bad taste and odor to water and are also toxic,2729 even at
low concentrations. The determination and removal of phenols from water is
therefore important. Phenols present in wastewater are generated from paper
and pulp, chemical, paint, resin, pesticides, gas and coke manufacture, and
dyeing industries.
MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES
A wide variety of other substances generated from different industries may
also be present in wastewaters in dissolved or non-dissolved forms. Some of
them are summarized here:
r Radioactive substances. Radioactive substances14 should be handled with

considerable precaution in view of the harmful nature of the radiations
emitted by them. In spite of this, radioactive materials are often found
in effluents coming from research laboratories, hospitals, nuclear power
plants, and ore processing industries.
r Detergents. Synthetic and natural detergents are widely used for cleaning
and emulsification purposes. Thus, domestic wastewater and effluents of
pharmaceutical and other industries may contain them.14
r PCBs. One class of organic water pollutants of considerable interest is
the family of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). PCBs are made by substituting 1 to 10 hydrogen atoms of biphenyl with chlorine atoms. They
show high chemical, thermal, and biological stability, as well as low vapor
pressure and high dielectric constants. They do not cause a biochemical
oxygen demand problem in aquatic ecosystems but are extremely toxic.16
PCBs are generated in a variety of manufacturing processes, which include the manufacture of brake linings, glass ceramics, grinding wheels,
various types of coatings, flame proof paints, varnishes, sealants, electrical
equipments, and plastic coatings, etc.
r Pesticides. Whereas many other pollutants are only important in the urban
setting, pesticides are preeminently a problem arising from rural activities.
Depending on their function, pesticides30 are subclassified as insecticides,
molluscides, nematicides, rodenticides, avicides, piscides, fungicides, bactericides, slimcides, algicides, and herbicides. Among these, insecticides
and fungicides are important pesticides with respect to human exposure
in food because they are applied shortly before or even after harvesting.
Herbicide production has increased significantly, as chemicals are being
increasingly used during the cultivation of land for controlling weeds and
now accounts for the majority of agricultural pesticides. Although DDT has
788
V. K. Gupta et al.
been banned, various substitutes such as toxaphene, lindane, parathion,

malathion, heptachlor, and endrin can also cause environmental pollution. The problem of pesticide pollution arises not only due to agricultural
operations but also from pesticide manufacturing plants.
r Other organic chemicals. A host of other organic chemicals may also be
present in effluents generated from different industries. These include:
trihalomethanes, such as chloroform and bromoform; trichloroethylene;
tetrachloroethylene; aromatic hydrocarbons, such as benzene, toluene,
xylene, and biphenyls; halogenated aromatics, such as cholorobenzene, dicholorobenzene, cholorotoluene, and chloroxylene; halogenated
aliphatic compounds, including bromocholoromethane, dibromomethane,
and tetrachloromethane; halogenated ethers; polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, such as naphthalene, acenaphthene, fluorene, and phenantherene; aldehydes; esters; alicyclic hydrocarbons; and ketones.
Most of the chemicals present in wastewater are toxic above certain concentration levels and are therefore considered as pollutants. The toxic effects
of the pollutants are well documented in the literature.17,18,2224,2730 In view
of the general awareness created by modern methods of communication and
information, it has become an imperative for governments, industries, and
municipal authorities to work out methods for pollution control. A number of methods are of course available, but sometimes cost factors are of
overriding importance in the choice of the pollution control methods to be
implemented. Hence, the search for cost-effective technology for the safe
and effective treatment of wastewater is always on.
METHODOLOGIES FOR POLLUTION CONTROL

In order to meet the growing demand for potable water and water of good
quality for industrial use, it has become necessary to treat wastewaters for
renovation, reuse, and pollutant removal before mixing with natural water bodies containing good quality water. The methods that are adopted to
treat wastewater for pollution control can be broadly classified in four categories: physicochemical processes, biological processes, nuclear treatment,
and acoustical, electrical, and electromagnetic processes.
The various useful methodologies adopted under these are filtration31 ;
ultrafiltration and dialysis32 ; reverse osmosis33,34 ; ion exchange35 ; solvent extraction36 ; oxidation37,38 using chlorine, ozone, hydrogen peroxide,
and chlorine dioxide; evaporation39 ; adsorption40,41 ; coagulation42 ; foam
flotation43 and photochemical reactions44 ; activated sludge45 ; aerobic and
anaerobic treatment4648 ; microbial reduction49 ; bacterial treatment50 ; irradiation by nuclear radiations51,52 and electrodialysis53 ; electrolysis54 ; ultrasonic
treatment55 ; and magnetic separation.56
Low-Cost Adsorbents
789
Many of the listed methods are employed for the control of specific pollutants. On the other hand, adsorption processes are generally non-specific
and can be used to remove or minimize a wide variety of pollutants. They
are also among the most effective and easy to operate and thus show wider
applicability.
ADSORPTION AND ION EXCHANGE

The versatility and wide applicability of adsorption in pollution control has
been recognized.40,5762 The importance of adsorption6265 in the chemical,
food, petroleum, and pharmaceutical industries is also well established.
The term adsorption refers to a process wherein a material is concentrated at a solid surface from its liquid or gaseous surroundings. The
phenomenon of adsorption65,66 was observed by C. W. Scheele in 1773
for gases exposed to carbon. This was followed by observations made by
Lowitz in 1785 of the reversible removal of color- and odor- producing compounds from water by wood charcoal. Larvitz in 1792 and Kehl in 1793
observed similar phenomenon with vegetable and animal charcoals, respectively. However, it was Kayser who introduced for the first time in 1881 the
term adsorption to differentiate surface accumulation from intermolecular
penetration. He postulated that the basic feature of an adsorption process
is surface accumulation of material. It is now customary to differentiate between two types of adsorption. If the attraction between the solid surface and
the adsorbed molecules is physical in nature, the adsorption is referred to as
physical adsorption. Generally, in physical adsorption, the attractive forces
are van der Waals forces, and as they are weak, the resulting adsorption
is reversible in nature. On the other hand, if the attraction forces between
adsorbed molecules and the solid surface arise due to chemical bonding, the
adsorption process is called chemisorption. In view of the higher strength of
the bonding in chemisorption, it is difficult to remove chemisorbed species
from the solid surface.
Along with adsorption, ion exchange67 shares various common features
in regard to application in batch and fixed-bed processes, and they can be
grouped together as sorption processes for a unified treatment to have
high water quality. Thus, it is appropriate to also refer to ion exchange in
this review. Ion exchange is basically a reversible chemical process wherein
an ion from solution is exchanged for a similarly charged ion attached to an
immobile solid particle. By far the largest application of ion exchange68 to
drinking water treatment is in the area of softening, that is, the removal of
calcium, magnesium, and other polyvalent cations in exchange for sodium.
Both adsorption and ion exchange involve the transfer and resulting
equilibrium distribution of one or more solutes between a fluid phase and
solid particles. In most cases, adsorption and ion exchange are modeled and
790
V. K. Gupta et al.
discussed using similar equations, which bring up a mixture of concepts.

However, it is also worthwhile noting that ion exchange is a stoichiometric
reaction whereas adsorption is a non-stoichiometric phenomenon.
A variety of solid adsorbents have been developed and used for removing solutes from solution by adsorption or ion exchange and also for the
adsorption of gases. Some of these are discussed here.
ADSORBENTS
The most important property that a good adsorbent66,69 should possess is a
porous structure resulting in high surface area. In addition, the time taken for
adsorption equilibrium to be established should be as small as possible so
that it can be used to remove contaminants in lesser time. Thus, for removal
of pollutants, one looks to adsorbents with high surface area and porosity
and showing fast adsorption kinetics. Some of the important adsorbents
which are generally used in industry and for pollution control are discussed
now.
Alumina and Bauxite

Alumina is a synthetic porous crystalline gel, which is available in the form
of granules of different sizes. It is found to have a surface area70 ranging
from 200300 m2 g1 and is used in industries requiring the removal of water
from gas streams, decolorization, and refining of petroleum oils and waxes.
On the other hand, bauxite is a naturally occurring porous crystalline alumina contaminated with kaolinite and iron oxides in varying proportions,
depending on the place of origin. It is widely used in place of alumina, and
it has been experimentally demonstrated that it removes most aerobic and
anaerobic bacteria. Its surface area65 ranges from 25 to 250 m2 g1 .
Silica Gel
It is prepared by the coagulation of colloidal silicic acid, which results in the
formation of porous and noncrystalline granules of different sizes. It shows
a higher surface area70 as compared to alumina, which ranges from 250 to
900 m2 g1 . The gel is considered a good adsorbent and is used in many
industries for drying of gases and liquids, purifying of hydrocarbons, etc.71,72
Zeolites and Ion Exchange Resin

Zeolites are important microporous adsorbents that occur naturally and
are also prepared synthetically. They are also considered to be selective
Low-Cost Adsorbents
791
adsorbents and show ion exchange property7375 as well as molecular

adsorption.73,76,77 Zeolites are crystalline tectosilicates capable of undergoing
reversible base-exchange reactions. Earlier zeolites were formed by fusing
weighed amounts of feldspar, clay, and soda ash. Later on, synthetic zeolites
obtained from mixtures of caustic soda, sodium silicate, and bauxite were
also developed. Natural zeolites generally show low surface area; however,
the apparent surface area78 of some synthetic zeolites can be as high as 700
m2 g1 . The textural characterization78 of zeolites is usually carried out by
measuring surface area, pore volume, and pore size distribution by low temperature N2 adsorption and applying various techniques such as X-ray and
neutron diffraction, IR, Raman, NMR, and scanning electron microscopy. A
number of zeolites have been used for the removal of pollutants as well.7981
Besides zeolites, it was shown in 1934 by Adams and Holmes that
phenol-formaldehyde resins exhibit cation exchange properties. This led
to the development of a different type of resin that is used as adsorbents through a cation or anion exchange mechanism. Cation exchange
resins67 generally contain bound sulfonic acid groups or, less commonly,
carboxylic, phosphonic, or phosphinic groups. Examples are polystirene
sulfonate, sulfonated phenolic resin, phenolic resin, polystirene phosphonate, and polystirene amidoxime. Anionic resins,67 on the other hand, generally have quaternary ammonium groups (strongly basic) or other amino
groups (weakly basic) and include polystirene-based trimethyl benzyl ammonium, epoxy-polyamine, and aminopolystirene. A number of exchange
resins has been used quite efficiently for the removal of specific organic
compounds.35,82
Although the first ion exchangers used to soften water on a commercial scale were the natural zeolites, the most common ion exchangers used
presently on a large scale are based on synthetic resins due to their faster
exchange rates, longer life, and higher capacity.
Activated Carbon
Activated carbon83 is the oldest adsorbent known and is usually prepared
from source material, such as coal, coconut shells, lignite, and wood, using
one of two basic activation methods:
1) Physical activation. This is a process in which the precursor is developed
into activated carbons8386 using gases. The precursor is usually subjected
to carbonization followed by activation or using either. Carbonization
is the first stage where the precursor is pyrolyzed in the temperature
range 600900 C, in an inert atmosphere (nitrogen, argon) resulting in
the formation of char, which is normally non-porous. The activation is
the process in which the material is exposed to oxidizing atmospheres
792
V. K. Gupta et al.
(carbon dioxide, oxygen, or steam) usually in the temperature range 600

1200 C, which results in the removal of the more disorganized carbon
and the formation of a well-developed porous structure, leading to high
surface area.
2) Chemical activation. This is the other method used for the preparation
of activated carbons83,84,86,87 and involves impregnation with chemicals
such as H3 PO4 , KOH, or NaOH, followed by heating under a gas (usually nitrogen) flow in the temperature range 450 to 900 C. It is believed
that carbonization and activation steps proceed simultaneously in chemical activation. Generally, chemical activation is preferred over physical
activation owing to the lower temperature and shorter time needed for
activating the material.
The product formed by either of the methods is known as activated

carbon and generally has a very porous structure with a large surface area
ranging from 500 to 2000 m2 g1 .88 It has been found that adsorption on
activated carbon is not usually selective, as it occurs through van der Waals
forces. The ability of charcoal to remove odor and taste was recorded centuries ago. The literature66,89 shows that according to a Sanskrit manuscript
from circa 200 BC, it is good to keep water in copper vessels, to expose it
in sunlight and to filter it through charcoal.
The credit of developing commercial activated carbon,90 however, goes
to Raphael von Ostrejko, whose inventions were patented in 1900 and 1901.
Hassler84 has summarized in his book the successful application of activated
carbon in providing potable water. In the United States, for the first time
in 1928, activated carbon was used for the water supplies, and within ten
years, the number of plants treating water with activated carbon increased to
the thousand mark. The applicability of activated carbon for water treatment
has been demonstrated by Weber et al.91 In his article, Stenzel92 describes
adsorption with granular activated carbon to be a proven technology for
water purification. Besides these and other workers, Bansal and Goyal62
have also discussed activated carbon and its applications in their book.
Activated carbon for water treatment is available in two main forms:
powdered activated carbon (PAC) and granular activated carbon (GAC). Most
of the work on the removal of pollutants from water has been on GAC, due to
the fact that the granular form is more adaptable to continuous contacting,
and there is no need to separate the carbon from the bulk fluid. On the
other hand, the use of PAC presents some practical problems because of the
requirement to separate the adsorbent from the fluid after use. However, in
spite of these problems, PAC is also used for wastewater treatment due to
low capital cost and lesser contact time requirement.93
Activated carbon is used for wastewater treatment because of its
ability to adsorb different types of pollutants such as metal ions,9498
Low-Cost Adsorbents
793
phenols,25,99102 dyes,103106 pesticides,59,107,108 chlorinated hydrocarbons,109

humic substances,110 PCBs,111 detergents,112,113 organic compounds
that cause taste and odor,114,115 and many other chemicals and
organisms.60,116122 Activated carbons are not low-cost materials; hence, in
spite of their good efficiency and applicability for adsorbing a wide variety of materials, their use can sometimes be restricted due to economic
considerations
REGENERATION
OF
SPENT ACTIVATED CARBON
Activated carbons are generally used to purify water, and this is mostly done
with column or fixed bed operations using GAC. After use, the columns are
exhausted and are no longer capable of further adsorbing pollutants. Once
the GAC has been exhausted, it has to be regenerated for further use in
purifying water. A number of methods are used for this purpose. The most
common technique practiced in regeneration is thermal.89,123 Besides this,
chemical regeneration of spent activated carbon has also been tried. Martin
and Ng124 used acetic acid and formic acid to regenerate carbon exhausted
by adsorption of commercial humic acid and reported high regeneration
efficiencies. The regeneration of exhausted carbon has been reported by
using NaOH by Newcombe and Drikas,125 acetone by Kilduff and King,126
methanol by Rollar and coworkers,127 and through oxidation by Notthakum
et al.128 The regeneration of exhausted activated carbon using electrochemical techniques has also been investigated by various workers.129131 They
also reported good regeneration efficiency for activated carbons.
It should be pointed out that the regeneration of activated carbon is often
carried out in installations belonging to the manufacturer or distributor of
the activated carbon, and this can obviously create serious logistic problems
if the end-user is localized at a significant distance from the regeneration
facility. Furthermore, any regeneration process results in a loss of carbon
and the regenerated product may have a slightly lower adsorption capacity
in comparison with the virgin activated carbon. For this reason, activated
carbon producers add about 10% of virgin carbon (paid for by the enduser) to the regenerated product in order to maintain the product within its
specification.
Low-Cost Alternative Adsorbents

Activated carbon remains the most widely studied adsorbent, and it has been
found to adsorb a variety of materials such as metals, dyes, phenols, and a
host of other organic compounds and bio-organisms, and is therefore used
for the removal of pollutants from wastewaters by adsorption. The design
and operation of the process is convenient and can be handled easily, and
the operational costs are therefore comparatively low. As a result, the cost
794
V. K. Gupta et al.
of the adsorbent, and the additional costs of regeneration if required, can

be a significant fraction of the overall process costs. Attempts have therefore
been made by many research workers132 in the field of waste management
and pollution control to look for alternative adsorbents that are cheaper than
activated carbons. The materials that have been investigated for this purpose
include both natural materials and wastes and byproducts generated from
many industries. These materials have been used as such and sometimes
after some minor treatment, and are widely known as low-cost adsorbents
(LCAs). A schematic diagram showing solid liquid pollutant generation and
utilization of low-cost adsorbents is shown in Figure 2. In addition, from
the numerous studies already carried out, a protocol for the development,
utilization, and application of low-cost adsorbents generally adopted by researchers has been suggested and is given in Figure 3. It is worthwhile
noting here that these materials are usually called substitutes for activated
carbons because of their wide use and especially for their application in
treating wastewater, which is usually done by activated carbons; however,
in a broad and clearer way, they are basically substitutes for all expensive
adsorbents. These low-cost alternative adsorbents may be classified in two
ways, either on basis of their availability (i.e., natural materials such as wood,
peat, coal, lignite, etc.; industrial/agricultural/domestic wastes or byproducts
such as slag, sludge, fly ash, bagasse flyash, red mud, etc.; and synthesized
products) or depending on their nature (i.e., inorganic and organic). Though
both classifications are good, we are adopting the first for discussing the materials in brief. It is important to point out that some materials may lie in two
as well as all three categories we are discussing. Though some review articles
discussing low-cost alternatives133143 are already available, they are generally either adsorbate-specific (metals, dyes, etc.) or are adsorbent-specific.
For example, Bailey et al.135 presented a nice review of the removal of metals by low-cost adsorbents; similarly, an overview of low-cost adsorbents
for heavy metal removal has been presented by Babel and Kurniawan.136
Heavy metal removal by metabolically inactive non-living biomass of microbial or plant origin has been reviewed by Ahluwalia and Goyal137 ; the
application of biosorption using fungi, yeasts, and bacteria for the removal
of organic pollutants has been reviewed by Aksu143 ; Crini138 reviewed the
feasibility of various non-conventional low-cost adsorbents for removal of
dyes; chromium removal by various low-cost adsorbents has been discussed
by Mohan and Pittman139 ; the possible use of sawdust for removal of various
contaminants such as dyes and metals has been discussed by Shukla et al.140 ;
the use of polysaccharide-based materials as adsorbents have been reviewed
by Crini141 ; and application of chitosan for metal removal has been discussed
by Gerente et al.142
Without going into too much detail, a summary of some relevant published data with some of the latest important results and giving a source
of up-to-date literature on the adsorption properties of some alternative
795
Dissolved and nondissolved chemicals
Pollutant/pollution
Liquid pollutants/
by products
Heat
Biological agents
Treatment
methodology
Acoustical, electrical
and electromagnetic
processes
Nuclear treatment
Biological processes
Physicochemical
processes
FIGURE 2. Schematic diagram of solid liquid pollutant generation and their removal.
Source
Industrial, agricultural
and domestic activities
Solid pollutants,
by products
Adsorption
Filtration
Ultrafiltration and dialysis
Reverse osmosis
Ion exchange
Solvent extraction
Oxidation using chlorine,
ozone, hydrogen peroxide,
chlorine dioxide,
Evaporation
Coagulation, foam floatation
Photochemical reactions
One of the utilization methods
Alumina and bauxite

Silica gel
Zeolites and ion exchange
resin
Activated carbon
Low-cost alternative
adsorbents
796
V. K. Gupta et al.
Industrial, agricultural,
and domestic activities
Organic precursors
Inorganic precursors
Physical activation
Chemical activation
Carbonization
Mixing precursor with

chemical
Chemical treatment
Activation
Activation
Washing and drying
Washing and drying
Washing and drying
Sieving and storage
Sieving and storage
Sieving and storage
Characterization of
adsorbent
Adsorption and testing of

adsorbent by batch process
Removal of pollutants by
small scale column
Removal of pollutants by
large scale column
FIGURE 3. Protocol for development of low-cost adsorbents and their utilization for wastewater treatment.
adsorbents is presented in Table 1, and some of the results are discussed here. It is worthwhile mentioning here that a critical direct
comparison135,136,138,139 of adsorbents is difficult because of the many inconsistencies in data presentation, and also (mainly) due to the different laboratory conditions, materials, and methodologies (which includes
different concentrations, pH, temperature, adsorbent dose, particle size, gas
797
72 h
50 mgL1
13.28, 51.54, 50
mgg1
6.4, 4.1, 2.04 mgg1
Peat
Peat
Fe (II), Mn (II), Fe
(III)
Astrazone blue
Pb
Lignite
34.22, 25.84, 11.90

mgg1
0.430.91 gg1
27106 mgg1
Cu (II), Pb (II), Ni (II) 18.9, 68.5, 12.0

mgg1
Cu (II), Pb (II), Ni (II) 17.8, 56.7, 13.0

mgg1
24 h
80 min
520 mgL1
250 mgL1
10 mgL1
5 days
4h
200 mgdm3
100500 mgdm3
4070 min for Cu

(II), Ni (II), 1030
min for Pb (II)
4070 min for Cu
(II), Ni (II), 1030
min for Pb (II)
48 h
Contact
time
60 min
24 h
400mgL1
0.149, 0.126, 0.107

mmolg1
9.77 mgg1
45 mgg1
0.7691 mgg1
Cu (II), Cd (II), Ni
(II)
Cr (III)
Cr (VI)
Metomega chrome
orange (MCO)
Phenol,
p-nitrophenol,
p-chlorophenol
Direct brown
2h
30 min
2h
Concentration
range
5400 mgL1
7.011.6 mgg1
100.1 mgg1
24.828.3 molg1
5.389.58 mgg1
Adsorption
capacity
Telon blue
Astrazone blue
Cd (II)
Hg (II)
Adsorbates
Lignite-Beysehir
Charfines, lignite
coal, bituminous
coal
Lignite-Ilgn
Samla coal
Pinus sylvestris bark

Eucalyptus bark
Coal
Wood
Wood
Juniper wood
Hardwickia binata
bark
Pink bark
Material
TABLE 1. Reported adsorption capacities and other parameters for different adsorbents
60%
67%
97.66%
278
277
277
147
276
165
274
275
273
144
145
271
272
Reference
279
280
(Continued on next page)
Percentage
adsorption
798
Adsorbates
Ganoderma
luciduna
R. arrhizus and C.
vulgaris
D. potatorum
Anodonta shell
Sepia pens
Chitosan bead
(chemically
crosslinked)
Chitosan bead
(chemically
crosslinked)
Starch graft
copolymer
Squid pens
Chitin
Chitosan
Chitosan bead
(chemically
crosslinked)
Concentration
range
0.21 mM
1996.2, 387 mgL1
39.8, 4.83 mgg1

3.46, 56.0 mgg1
0.436, 11.3 mgg1
0.383 mmolg1
612.2, 387 mgg1
1.30, 1.12 mmolg1
Reactive green 12,

direct green 26
Reactive green 12,
direct green 26
Reactive green 12,
direct green 26
Cu (II)
Iron (III)-cyanide
complex
Cu, Cd
2.12, 2.09 mmol g1
Cu (II), Pb (II)
60 min
15 days
15 days
15 days
2h
5 days
Percentage
adsorption
92, 90%
5 days
5 days
Contact
time
24.6, 14.3, 7.5 mgg1 35210,

25200,10100
mgL1
100 mgg1
430 mgg1
2498, 2422, 2436,
1911 mgg1
Adsorption
capacity
Hg
Hg
Reactive blue 2,
reactive red 2,
reactive yellow 2,
reactive yellow 86
Acid orange 12, acid 1954, 1940, 1940
red 14, acid orange
mgg1
7
Direct red 81
2383 mgg1
Sphagnum peat moss Pb, Cu, Ni
Material
TABLE 1. Reported adsorption capacities and other parameters for different adsorbents (Continued)
287
286
285
155
155
155
180
284
284
282
283
284
281
Reference
799
Kaolinite
Bentonite
Bentonite
Bentonite
Alunite
Diatomite
Jordanian pottery
Peanut hull carbon
Peanut hull carbon
Peanut hull carbon
Peanut hull
Kaolnite
R. nigricans biomass
Modified mycelium
Montmorillonite
Kaolnite
Natural clay
Heat-treated
bentonite
Acid-treated
bentonite
Activated clay
Spent activated clay
Bentonite
Wollastonite
0.108 meq g1
4.75 mgg1
1667 mgg1
274 mgg1
132.4 mgg1
198 mgg1
7.55 mgg1
109.89 mgg1
89.29 mgg1
210.53 mgg1
30, 8, 6, 9 mgg1
0.628.27 mmoL1
100 gml1
1001000 mgL1
50450 mgL1
100400 mgdm3
50500 ppm
1020 mgL1
20 mgL1
1050 mgL1
1000 mgL1
10 mgL1
3.0 105 M
10 mgL1
585, 488.4 mgg1

10.9 mgg1
0.512, 6.0 mgg1
0.6957 mgg 1
BB69, BR22
Cu (II)
Cr (VI), Pb
Metomega chrome
orange
Metomega chrome
orange
Cr (III)
Cu (II)
Methylene blue
Basic red 2
Phosphate
Methylene blue
Cu (II)
Hg (II)
Cd (II)
Pb (II)
Pb (II), Cu (II), Cd
(II), Zn (II)
1
4.11 mgg1
Cd
0.6506 mgg
1001000 mgL1
200800 mgL1
4 104 9 103 M
4 104 9 103 M
1050 ppm
74.68 mgg1
260 mgg1
0.34, 0.36 meqg1
0.06, 0.16 meqg1
12.5 mgg1
16.50 mgg1
Pb
Ni (II)
Pb, Cd
Pb, Cd
Ni (II)
Cd
180 min
60 min
60 min
60 min
48 h
5180 min
60 min
80 min
4h
120 min
60 min
150 min
2h
5h
24 h
24 h
45 min
294
295
296
297
298
170
299
182
183
184
186
293
291
173
292
293
174
288
166
289
289
290
174
85%
100%
98%
84.23%
90.23, 61.78%
73.04%
800
Sunflower seed
shells, mandarin
peelings
Orange peel
Alkali-treated straw
Insoluble straw
xanthate
Sunflower stalk
Saw dust: pitch pine
Saw dust: oak
Saw dust: cherry
Hazelnut shell
activated carbon
Saw dust: walnut
Hazelnut shell
Hazelnut shell
Peanut pellets
Material
5.75711.640 mgg1
5.42, 1.78, 3.08, 3.99

gKg1
76.9, 60.2 mgg1
30, 10, 6, 9 mgg1
Adsorption
capacity
3.91 mgg1
1.88 mgg1
Methylene blue,
basic red 9, congo
red, direct blue
Reactive black 5
Direct red 23, direct

red 80
15 min
10.72, 21.05 mgg1
85, 71%
210 min
60 min
60 min
60180 min
60180 min
60180 min
60180 min
80%
50500
50500
50500
50500
180 min
92.4, 87.9, 94.6, and

97.8
Percentage
adsorption
5 days
501000,
mgL1
501000,
mgL1
501000,
mgL1
501000,
mgL1
Contact
time
60180 min
5h
0.12.0 mmoL1
501000, 50500
mgL1
4h
1000 mgL1
Concentration
range
205, 317, 37.78, 26.84 1002000, 1002000,

mgg1
501000, 501000
mgL1
50 mgL1
blue, acid 27.78, 26.19 mgg1
blue, acid 29.94, 27.85 mgg1
blue, acid 39.84, 31.98 mgg1
Methylene
blue 25
Methylene
blue 25
Methylene
blue 25
Methylene
blue 25
Cr (III)
Cr (III)
blue, acid 59.17, 36.98 mgg1
(II), Zn (II)
Cd2+ , Zn2+ , Cr (III),
Cr (IV)
Methylene blue, acid
blue 25
Ni (II)
Adsorbates
304
303
192
302
302
187
187
187
187
301
187
300
186
Reference
801
(II), Zn (II), Ni (II)
Cu (II)
Cu (II)
Cu (II)
Pb (II), Cd (II)
Pb (II), Cd (II)
Cu (II), Cd (II)
Direct red 80, direct
red 81, acid blue
92, acid red 14
Astrazone blue
Cu (II)
Cr (VI)
Cr (VI)
Methylene blue, red

basic 22
Methylene blue
Lignin
Organosolv lignin
Kraft lignin
Straw lignin
Lignin: beech
Lignin: poplar
Kraft lignin
Soy meal hull
Cedar sawdust,
crushed brick
Hardwood sawdust
Sawdust
Sawdust
Polyacrylamidegrafted
sawdust
Beech sawdust
Corncob
Acid blue 25, acid

red 114
Cu (II)
Maize cob
3h
60 min
4575 min
4h
200 mgdm3
150 mgL1
50 mgdm3
1001000 mgL1
9.78, 20.2 mgg1

142.36, 96.41 mgg1
5h
14 days
40 min
3h
60 min
45 h
45 h
48 h
24 h
5200 mgL1
1 105 5 103 M
50150 mgL1
0.432, 0.360, 0.226,

0.172, 0.102
mmol/g
1.7 mgg1
3.38 mgg1
4.2 mgg1
8.2, 6.7 mgg1
9.0, 7.5 mgg1
137, 87 mgg1
178.57, 120.48,
114.94, 109.89
mgg1
82.2105.7 mgg1
4.400.16 mgg1
4.44 mgg1
12.4 mgg1
6.0 103 0.5 104 15 min1 h

molL1
0.22.5 mM
24 h
0.3441 mmolg1
5 days
0.05 dm3
41.4, 47.7 mgg1
313
200
309
310
311
312
194
195
196
197
197
198
308
307
306
305
91%
40.74%
802
12.82, 11.56, 15.95
mgg1
19.86 mmolg1
Co (II), Cr (III), Ni
(II)
Pb
Hg (II)
10.88, 4.05
Cr (VI)
Rice husk ash
1100 mgL1
12.23 mgg1
Cr (III)
2.36.8 mgg1
10.2 gKg1
10 ppm
50600 mgL1
10.8, 36.2 mgg1

158.65 mgg1
Cu (II)
As (III)
Hg (II)
101000 mgL1
101000 mgL1
32.2 mgg1
68.6 mgg1
Cu (II)
Cu (II)
Contact
time
60, 90, 90 min
180
48 h
24 h
5h
2.5 h
2.5 h
2h
9.65 105 4.82

10 min
105 moldm3
1.3 104 6.5 103 5 min
mol L1
4.0364.0 mgL1
3h
201000 mgL1
Concentration
range
41.15, 33.44, 15.82,

21.50, 10.62, 7.08,
6.78 mgg1
Adsorption
capacity
Cr (VI)
Adsorbates
Rice husk
Rice husk
Wool, olive cake,

sawdust, pine
needles, almond
shells, cactus
leaves, and
charcoal
Pinh
ao wastes
Pinh
ao wastes
(loaded with congo
red)
Apple waste
Coconut husk
(copper
impregnated)
Coconut shell fibers
(acid-treated and
activated)
Coconut shell
charcoal oxidized
with nitric acid,
sulfuric acid
Coir pith
Material
98%
98%
91.2%
81%
Percentage
adsorption
321
320
319
203
318
317
315
316
314
314
251
Reference
803
5 mgL1
0.10.8 mM
0.49 103 M
0.49 103 M
68h
7.64 104 3.04
103 , 4.44
104 8.89 104 M
68h
1.57 103 7.87
103 , 1.70
103 4.25 103 M
2h
10100 mgL1
12.0 mgL1
30 min
19.7 mgg1
17.08
230, 71.68 mgg1
33, 31 mgg1
17.66, 18.72 mgg1
Cd (II)
Cu (II)
Pb, Cd
Pb, Cd
Zn, Cd
Cu, Ni
Ni (II)
Malachite green,
crystal violet,
methylene blue,
rhodamine B
Acid red 114, acid
blue 25, BB69,
BR22
Slag
Steel converter slag

Sugarcane dust
Bagasse pith
40200 mgL1
92.59 mgg1
Cu (II)
22.9, 21.7, 157.4, 76.6 200 mgdm3

mgg1
3.999, 3.798, 3.745,

3.240 mgg1
30.0, 29.35 mgg1
25200 mgL1
50125 mgL1
48, 65 mgg1
2.846.24 mgg1
Cu (II), Pb (II)
Acid brown dye
5 days
58 h
24 h
24 h
24 h
150 min
90 min
60 min
1h
100 mgL1
Malachite green
5h
7.01 mgg1
Groundnut husk
carbon
Waste material from
paper industry,
pine bark
Tea waste
Leather industry
waste (buffing
dust)
Fe (III)/Cr (III)
hydroxide
Waste shot blast fines
Waste iron oxide
Hydrous iron oxide
Hydrous aluminum
oxide
Slag
Cr (VI)
333
331
332
78%
83.32, 79.13, 78.02,
67.50%
215
330
327
328
329
329
326
324
325
323
322
9075%
98, 98%
90%
98.5, 69.3%
804
Carbonaceous
material
Carbonaceous
material
75.08 mgg
8.0 104 molg1
2,4 dinitrophenol
1090 mgL1
1 104 1 103 M
7.08 mgg1
8.0, 5.32, 4.57, 3.38
molg1
Congo red
2,4,6-tri nitrophenol,
4- nitrophenol,
4-chlorophenol,
1,3-dihydroxy
benzene.
Malachite green
104 103 M
10 h
1 104 1 103 M 68 h
90 min
24 h
10 h
60 min
5200 mgL1
5250 mgL1
4.127 mgg1
5.858, 1.859 mgg1
Phenol
Nitrate
10080%
10066%
34 h
0.67194.4 M
6.0814.43 molg1
As (V)
Fluoride
Activated red mud,

original red mud
Seawater neutralized
red mud
Neutralised red mud
Activated red mud,
original red mud
Activated red mud
Carbonaceous
material
Pb, Cr
Red mud
120 min
Phenol
Ni, Zn, Cu, Cd
Spent oil shale

Red mud
60100 %
Cd, Pb
Cd (II), Pb (II)
62, 84%
Percentage
adsorption
68 h
60 min
5 min
Contact
time
100, 56, 68%
Concentration
range
48 h
Adsorption
capacity
6.2, 8.5 mequivg1
104 M
0.479, 0.204 mmolg1 0.5600, 5.0600
mgL1
1 mgg1
10200 ppm
2502000 mg L1
10.95, 12.59, 19.73,
10.57 mgg1
4.80 104 4.83
64.79, 35.66 mgg1
103 , 9.60 104
9.60 103 M
1
1001000 mgL1
0.331, 0.164 mmolg
Adsorbates
Bagasse pith
Grape bagasse
Material
340
339
234
239
234
233
230
231
338
336
337
334
335
Reference
805
Cu (II), phenol, VOC

(acetone and
toluene)
Acid red, basic
fuchsin
Sewage sludge
Sewage sludge
Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn
Sewage sludge
Coal fly ash., fly ash

(acid treated), fly
ash (water washed)
High lime fly ash
Reactive black 5
PET carbon
Methylene blue
Sewage sludge
Cd, Zn, Ni
Disperse blue,
disperse red
137
Ce,90 Sr
Metomega chrome
orange
Methylene blue
Fly ash
Fly ash, unburned

carbon
Palm oil ash
As (V)
Methylene blue
Fly ash
Fly ash
4h
60 min
2h
1 106 1 105 M
5100 mgL1
10, 50, 100 mgL1
575 ppm
49.5, 61.35 mgg1

0.91 102 , 1.08
103 mmolg1 1.64,
1.89 mmolg1
7.184 mgg1
33.4 mgg1
36.54, 25.63, 21.66
mgg1
39.3, 13.8, 19.3, 10.9
mgg1
77-83, 41-53, 12-54
mgg1
3573, 70127 mgg1 101000 mgL1
72 h
60 min
100, 400 h
110 min
0.02, 0.025 mmolg1
0.7428 mgg1
72 h
72 h
50 mgL1
2.675 105 2.675
105 M
10 mg L1
30 mgg1
0.0021 mmolg1
8090%
92.25%
80%
350
249
349
346
347
348
345
344
343
293
341
342
806
V. K. Gupta et al.
flow rates, heating rates). However, a broad view of what is currently available is presented.
NATURAL MATERIALS
Materials occurring in nature and used as such or with minor treatment and
having little or no use falls in this category. Some of the materials used are
as follows:
r Wood. In an attempt to overcome the economic disadvantages of activated carbon, Poots et al.144 investigated wood as an adsorbent for the
removal of telon blue. The adsorbent was studied without any pretreatment and was sieved into different size ranges prior to use. The kinetics of the process was found to be dependent on the particle size, being minimum (>3h) for small particle size (150250 m) and maximum
(>6h) for large particle sizes (7101000 m). The monolayer coverage
of dye on wood varied from 6.95 to 11.56 mgg1 for particle sizes ranging from 7101000 and 150250 m, respectively. It was suggested that
because of its low cost, the wood adsorbent does not need to be regenerated after use and may be disposed off by burning, and the heat
so evolved can be used for generating steam. One of the drawbacks according to the author of the study was long contact time (8 h) and also
low adsorption capacity of the adsorbent. They145 further used the same
wood adsorbent for the removal of another dye (basic), astrazone blue,
but found for this system lower contact time (2 h) for equilibrium adsorption and a higher adsorption capacity of 100.1 mgg1 for particles
of size 150250 m. The failure of the BDST model in explaining the
fixed bed results and analysis of rate data suggested that the adsorption
mechanism is complex.
r Coal. Natural coal was studied as an adsorbent for the removal of dyes
by Mittal et al.146 The coal was not used as adsorbent as such but sulfonated and heated in a water bath. Sorption and desorption of two basic
dyes, rhodamine B and methylene blue, and the acidic dye sandola rhodine were studied. The desorption studies indicated that methylene blue
and rhodamine B sorption is not physisorption, whereas that of sandola
rhodine is. Coal-based sorbents, namely charfines, lignite coal, and bituminous coal, have been used by Venkata Mohan et al.,147 who presented
results on the adsorption of color removal of the trisazo direct dye C.I.
Direct brown 1:1 by adsorption onto these adsorbents, and compared the
results with activated carbon (Filtrasorb-400). The coal-based adsorbents
were found to achieve equilibrium in a short time (60 min) compared to
activated carbon (400 min), which was suggested to be due to the presence of acidic groups (carboxyl and hydroxyl) present on the coal-based
adsorbents and which also resulted in a chemisorption mechanism. The
sorption interaction of the direct dye onto the coal-based sorbents obeyed
Low-Cost Adsorbents
807
a first-order irreversible rate equation, suggesting a chemisorption mechanism, while on activated carbon, the data fitted a first-order reversible rate
equation indicating physisorption. The potential of brown young coals Ilgin and Beysehir lignite to remove copper (Cu2+ ), lead (Pb2+ ), and nickel
(Ni2+ ) from aqueous solutions was studied as a function of pH, contact
time, metal concentration, and temperature by Pehlivan and Arsalan.148
Equilibrium was achieved between 4070 min for all cations studied except for Pb2+ , which was between 1030 min. The effective removal of
metal ions was achieved at pH values of 3.85.5, and the Langmuir adsorption isotherm was used to describe the observed sorption phenomena.
The authors suggested that the mechanism for cation removal by the lignite includes ion exchange, complexation, and sorption, and the process
is very efficient, especially at low concentrations of pollutants.
r Peat. This is one of the natural materials most widely studied as an alternative adsorbent by a number of researchers. Poots et al.149 used peat
as an adsorbent without any pretreatment and studied the adsorption of
telon blue on it. They found that the performance of peat was significantly
better than that of wood, referred to above, and achieved an equilibrium
adsorption capacity of 16.3 mgg1 for particles of size 150250 m and
with a contact time of 2 h. Like wood, the exhausted peat adsorbent may
be disposed off by burning, and the heat used for steam generation. The
same adsorbent-adsorbate system was also studied by Mckay and Allen150
for assessing parameters influencing the surface mass transfer coefficients
during the adsorption process. A number of other workers have also used
peat for adsorbing metals and dyes and explained its use in wastewater
treatment.151153
r Chitin and chitosan. Chitin and chitosan are mechanically tough polysaccharides with chemical structures similar to cellulose. Chitin is a fairly
abundant natural biopolymer and is generally found in the exoskeletons
of crabs and other arthropods and also in the cell wall of some fungi,
whereas chitosan or glucosamine is a deacetylated derivative of chitin and
can be chemically prepared from it. Both chitin and chitosan are being
used as an attractive source of adsorbents, especially for metal removal. In
a study of removal and recovery of Cu (II), Cr (III), and Ni (II) from solutions, Chui et al.154 utilized crude shrimp chitin packed in small columns.
Shrimp shell wastes from Penaeus marginatus were demineralized by
dilute HCl in small columns to yield shrimp chitin. 96% of the calcium
was efficiently removed by this column method without removal of proteins. Further, it was found that an actual wastewater of electroplating
bath rinsing waters having Cu (II) gave encouraging results. The shrimp
chitin removed 9296% Cu (II) from copper pyrophosphate and acid copper bath rinsing water. In the search for alternatives to activated carbon,
Figueiredo et al.155,156 studied squid, sepia pens, and anodonta shells containing chitin as adsorbents for color removal from textile wastewaters.
808
V. K. Gupta et al.
The materials were studied with and without chemical treatment, either
by demineralization followed by deproteination, or only by one of the two
steps. It was reported by these authors that chemical treatment of the materials under investigation enhanced their adsorption capacity, which was
most probably due to an increase in the relative chitin content. However,
they suggested that the dye removal was better in continuous operation
in a packed column mainly because of biodegradation. Jha et al.157 studied chitosan for Cd (II) removal and reported an adsorption capacity of
5.93 mgg1 at a pH range of 4.08.3. It was observed that the presence
of ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) significantly decreased the
cadmium removal. The adsorption of some metal ions on chitosan was
also investigated by McKay et al.,158 who found the adsorption capacity
of chitosan for removal of Hg2+ , Cu2+ , Ni2+ , and Zn2+ as 815, 222, 164,
and 75 mgg1 , respectively. A similar high adsorption capacity (273 mg/g)
for Cr (VI), while studying the interaction between chitosan and hexavalent chromium, was observed at pH of 4.0 by Udaybhaskar et al.159 More
about the application of chitosan for the removal of metals from wastewater can be found in a recent review.142 Besides metals, the adsorption
of reactive dyes in neutral solutions using chitosan160 also showed large
adsorption capacities (10001100 mg/g). Removal of metal ions and dyes
using chitosan have also been explored by other workers161,162 as well.
r Biomass. Biomass of nonliving dried roots of water hyacinth (without
any pretreatment) was explored by Low et al.163 as an adsorbent for the
removal of methylene blue and victoria blue, and the authors found that it
possessed good adsorptive capacity128.9 and 145.4mgg1 for methylene
blue and victoria blue, respectively. Besides these materials, natural and
copper-coated moss and pinus sylvestris bark have been studied by Lee
et al.164 and Margarida Alves et al.,165 respectively, as adsorbents. An
adsorbent by a simple amine modification on mycelium from biomass
of penicillin fermentation was prepared by Tan and Su166 . It was found
that after modification, the maximum adsorption capacity for Ni (II) could
reach 260 mgg1 . Besides this, the mechanical strength of the adsorbent
was also found to improve after modification, and it could even be reused
for at least 10 cycles without losing its uptake.
r Clays. Clays138 are well known and familiar to mankind from the earliest days of civilization. Owing to their low cost, abundance, high sorption properties and potential for ion-exchange, clay materials are a strong
candidate as adsorbents.138 There are various type of clays such as ball
clay, bentonite, common clay, fire clay, Fullers earth (attapulgite and
montmorillonite varieties), and kaolin. World production of bentonite
was approximately 11.7 Mt, and Fullers earth production was estimated
to be 5.61 Mt.167 Sales reported by producers for absorbent uses were
3.92 Mt in 2005, and Fullers earth (montmorillonite type) accounted for
68% of the clay used for absorbents, followed by bentonite and a small
Low-Cost Adsorbents
809
amount of kaolin.158 The adsorption capabilities of clays138 generally result from a net negative charge on the structure of minerals. This negative
charge gives clay the capability to adsorb positively charged species. In
recent years, there has been an increasing interest in utilizing clay minerals such as bentonite, kaolinite, diatomite, and Fullers earth as such
and in modified form to adsorb not only inorganic but also organic
molecules.
McKay et al.168 reported the adsorption capacity of Fullers earth for
basic and acid blue to be 220 and 120 mg g1 , respectively, and thus proposed the adsorbent for the treatment of textile effluents. The adsorption
capabilities of clay are suggested to be due to a net negative charge on
the structure of fine grain silicate minerals. This negative charge is neutralized by the adsorption of positively charged cations, such as heavy metals,
dyes, etc. Besides this, clays also possess large surface areas ranging up
to 800 m2 g1 , which contributes to their high adsorption capacity.169 AlGhouti et al.170 investigated the removal of the problematic reactive dyes as
well as basic dyes from textile wastewater by diatomite. The adsorption of
dye onto diatomite was suggested to be dependent on electrostatic interactions (depending on the pH used). The authors suggested that due to the
pH, the adsorption capacity increased with an increase in pH in the case
of cationic dyes, while an opposite effect was observed for anionic dyes.
Furthermore, in a study to compare the adsorption capacity of clays with
activated carbon, Espantaleon et al.171 studied the removal of the anionic
dyes acid yellow 194, acid blue 349, and acid red 423 on natural bentonite
and sepiolite and compared it with activated carbon. The adsorption on sepiolite (98.6, 99.9, and 95.2 mg/g for acid yellow 194, acid blue 349, and
acid red 423, respectively) was found to be higher than on activated carbon (49.2, 68.2, and 26.3 mg/g) but comparable to that on natural bentonite
(24.9, 92.7, and 29.1 mg/g). High adsorptive capacity (300 mgg1 ) for the
removal of dyes (methylene blue) by clay has been observed by other workers too.172 Spent activated clay (SAC) also called spent bleaching earth, a
waste produced from an edible oil refinery company has been studied by
Weng et al.173 for adsorption studies of Cu (II). The adsorption was found
to be pseudo-second-order with fast adsorption rate, as more than 90% of
Cu adsorption occurred within 5 min and obeyed the Langmuir adsorption
isotherm. Values of G (5.73 to 7.26 kcalmol1 ) suggested the process
to be spontaneous and mainly governed by a specific surface interaction
mechanism.
Like other materials, clays can be modified too to improve their sorption capacity. Cadena et al.169 modified bentonite by replacing the natural
exchangeable cations present in the clay by the organophilic cation, teramethyl ammonium (TMA+ ). Pradas et al.174 tried heat treatments and acid
810
V. K. Gupta et al.
treatments of natural bentonite for the adsorption of Cd (II) and Zn (II). Results revealed that the adsorption capacity of natural bentonite is improved
by heat treatment, while the acid treatment decreased the same. However,
improved adsorption capacities by acid treatment of clays have been reported too.171 It is worthwhile noting that the adsorption capacities after
acid treatment were even higher than those of the activated carbon, thereby
making them promising materials. Lee et al.175 used organically modified
montmorillonite and investigated the removal of three toxic organic phenols
(i.e., 2-chlorophenol, 3-cynophenol, and 4-nitrophenol) in a batch reactor.
This modification results in a change in the surface character of montmorillonite from hydrophilic to organophilic. Similar findings were reported by
Kim et al.176 Wu and coworkers177 studied the adsorption of phenol by both
inorganic and organic-pillared montmorillonites. The authors suggested that
the adsorbing capacity of modified clays depends not only on surface area,
but mainly on micropore structure and surface components. The modified
organic-pillared montmorillonites with surfactant were found to improve adsorbing capacity greatly. Ozdemir et al.178 investigated modified sepiolite
as an adsorbent for a variety of azo-reactive dyes and suggested that the
adsorption capacities can be improved upon modifying their surfaces with
quaternary amines. Clay (montmorillonite) coupled with chitosanthereby
forming biopolymer chitosan/montmorillonite nanocompositeswas used
by Wang and Wang179 to study adsorption characteristic of congo red. The
authors suggested that compared with chitosan, the nanocomposite had good
flocculation ability in aqueous solution, with comparative low cost (thereby
overcoming the high cost of chitosan) and relatively high adsorption capacity
in comparison to pure montmorillonite, which was in the order 81.23, 12.70,
and 54.52 mg/g for chitosan, chitosan/montmorillonite nanocomposites, and
montmorillonite, respectively.
Besides these various other natural materials, starch,180,181 which is also
one of the most abundant biopolymers on earth, has also been studied for
the removal of toxic substances and reviewed141 as well.
INDUSTRIAL/AGRICULTURAL/DOMESTIC WASTES
OR
BYPRODUCTS
In addition to the above-discussed natural materials, a number of agricultural

wastes/byproducts has also been investigated as adsorbents for the removal
of pollutants by a number of workers:
r Peanut hull. Namasivayam and Periasamy182 converted peanut hull into

an adsorbent peanut hull carbon (PHC) by treating it with concentrated
sulfuric acid, then carbonizing in air atmosphere and further treating with
1% sodium bicarbonate overnight. The treated material was used as an
adsorbent for the removal of Hg (II) from aqueous solutions. The adsorption conformed to both Freundlich and Langmuir isotherms. The authors observed much superior adsorption capacity (109.89 mgg1 ) for the
Low-Cost Adsorbents
811
bicarbonate treated peanut hull compared to a commercial granular activated carbon (12.38 mgg1 ), which was suggested to be due to higher
porosity and the moderate ion exchange capacity of the bicarbonate
treated peanut hull compared to the activated carbon. The same adsorbent (PHC) was also used for Cd (II) adsorption, and the authors183 found
that the process conformed better to the Freundlich rather than the Langmuir model. However, in the case of Pb (II) adsorption184 on PHC, the
process was found to obey the Langmuir model. In all the cases (i.e.,
Hg (II), Cd (II), and Pb (II)), the adsorption kinetics was found to be up
to five times faster than that found with a commercial granular activated
carbon, and the adsorption capacity was 9 to 32 times higher. Peanut shell
has also been used by Chamarthy et al.,185 who prepared adsorbents by
heat treatment in the presence of phosphoric or citric acid and used it
for the adsorption of Cd2+ , Cu2+ , Ni2+ , Pb2+ , and Zn2+ . Their investigations showed that phosphoric acid-modified shells adsorbed metal ions in
larger amounts compared to citric acid modified shells. Besides them, the
potential of peanut hull pellets to capture metal ions Cu2+ , Cd2+ , Zn2+ ,
and Pb2+ from wastewater and their performance comparison to that of
raw peanut hulls and a commercial grade ion-exchange resin has been
carried out by Brown et al.186 as well. A simple cost analysis done by the
workers has shown that the peanut hulls and hull pellets outperform the
resin in terms of gram metal removed per media cost.
r Hazelnut shells. Batch and column adsorption studies of methylene blue
and acid blue 25 onto ground hazelnut shells and sawdust of four wood
speciesnamely, walnut, cherry, oak, and pitch-pinewere carried out
by Ferrero187 in order to explore the potential use of these materials as lowcost adsorbents for dye removal from dye house effluents. The adsorption
kinetics with all adsorbents was found to fit a second-order rate equation
better than Lagergrens first-order model. Further, the equilibrium data
agreed well with Langmuirs model, and higher adsorption capacity (given
for mean particle diameter 125 m in Table 1) was observed for hazelnut
shells in comparison to wood sawdust for both dyes. The adsorption
capacity for methylene blue was even higher (due to the presence of polar
functional groups) than that for activated carbon from the same material
due to the fact that thermal activation develops a highly microporous
structure, which is inaccessible to large dye molecules and conversely
destroys the functional groups on the surface that are involved in the
adsorption mechanism.
r Almond shell, olive stones, peach stones, apricot stone shells, pinhao. Almond shell, olive stones, and peach stones were studied as adsorbents
after processing for the removal of Zn2+ , Cd2+ , and Cu2+ from aqueous
solutions by Ferro-Garcia et al.,188 which were found to have appreciable
surface areas of 876, 1103, and 1316 m2 g1 , respectively. Apricot stone
shells have been studied using chemical treatment and low activation by
812
V. K. Gupta et al.
Daifullah and Girgis189 for the removal of substituted phenols, who suggested that the adsorption of phenols on these adsorbents was inversely
proportional to their solubility. Wastes of Araucaria angustifolia190 (also
named pinh
ao) in its natural state and loaded with Congo red were tested
as low-cost adsorbents for Cu (II) removal from aqueous solutions. Optimization was carried out in order to reduce the total number of experiments and to achieve the best conditions for the batch adsorption
procedure. It was found that the pinh
ao wastes with Congo red increased
the amount of Cu (II) uptake by more than two times using the Langmuir
maximum adsorption or more than three times using the Freundlich maximum capacity. It was suggested that the presence of amino and azo groups
on congo red, which is loaded on pinh
ao wastes, should be responsible
for the enhancement in adsorption capacity.
r Sunflower stalks, maize cob. The feasibility of utilizing sunflower stalks,
a renewable agricultural waste available at low cost, was explored by
Sun and Shi.191 The source material was sieved, and adsorption of Cu2+ ,
Zn2+ , Cd2+ and Cr3+ was studied. The adsorption was found to be physical with an adsorption capacity of 29.3, 30.73, 42.18, and 25.07 mgg1
for Cu2+ , Zn2+ , Cd2+ , and Cr3+ , respectively. Sunflower stalks were also
studied as adsorbents192 for basic and direct dyes in aqueous solutions
with equilibrium isotherms and kinetic adsorptions. The authors observed
high adsorption capacities (see Table 1) for basic dyes as compared to
direct dyes. The authors suggested that because sunflower stalks consist
of cellulose, it is the polyol structure of cellulose-based materials that has
relatively strong chemical adsorption of cations such as metal ions and
organic bases as well as physical adsorption of other materials such as
acidic and anionic compounds. Also, the greater affinities of basic dyes
for sunflower stalks than that of anionic dyes can be attributed to the cellulosic structure of the materials. The coulombic forces between dye species
and negatively charged cellulose in water are the major interactions that
affect the adsorption of dyes on the materials. El-Geundi193 studied maize
cob, an agricultural waste, without any pretreatment for the removal of
two basic dyes (astrazone blue and maxilon red) and two acid dyes (telon
blue and erinoyl red). The agricultural waste was found to have high adsorption capacities of 160 and 94.5 mgg1 for astrozone blue and maxilon
red and low capacities of 47.7 and 41.4 mgg1 for erinoyl red and telon
blue, respectively.
r Lignin. Lignin is the second most abundant natural raw material and natures most abundant aromatic (phenolic) polymer, and is generally obtained from black liquor, a waste discharged from paper mills in large
quantities. It has been used in its raw state as well as modified for removal of contaminants by researchers. Acemiolu et al.194 used organosolv
lignin as sorbent for the removal of copper (II). It was suggested that
organosolv lignin, which is produced through the delignification of wood
Low-Cost Adsorbents
813
and other lignocellulosics in organic solvents such as methanol, butanol,

and ethanol, has been found to be quite similar to natural lignin but more
attractive because it does not contain sulfur. However, the adsorption of
Cu (II) was found to increase with concentration and pH and decrease
with temperature. Cu (II) was studied by Sciban and Klasnja195 and Merdy
et al.196 The removal of the toxic metals Pb (II) and Cd (II)) onto modified lignin from beech and poplar woods by alkali glycerol delignification
was studied by Demirbas,197 who found the adsorption process to be
endothermic in nature and followed the Langmuir model. The maximum
adsorption capacities of 8.29.0 and 6.77.5 mgg1 of the modified lignin
for Pb (II) and Cd (II), respectively, were reported. Kraft lignin was studied for removal of Cu (II) and Cd (II) by Mohan et al.,198 and adsorption
capacities of 87.05 and 137.14 mgg1 were reported for Cu (II) and Cd (II),
respectively. Both Langmuir and Freundlich models were applied; however, similar to the investigations of Demirbas,197 the adsorption process
was found to follow the Langmuir model and was endothermic in nature,
with pseudo second-order kinetics. The utilization of lignin as a sorbent
and activated carbon is also presented in a review by Suhas et al.199
r Beech saw dust, coir pith, saw dust, corncob waste. In order to evaluate
the potential of a beech saw dust as low-cost adsorbent, the removal of
methylene blue and basic red 22 was tested by Batzias and Sidiras.200 The
authors also tested the potential of the adsorbent by treating it with CaCl200
2
and using mild acid hydrolysis,201 and found it to increase the adsorption
capacity. In addition, the simulation studies for effect of pH were also
carried out by Batzias and Sidiras.202 The authors determined the point
of zero charge p.z.c. (5.2) of the sawdust and suggested that increase
of the pH enhances the adsorption behavior. The lower adsorption of
methylene blue at acidic pH was suggested to be due to the presence of
excess H+ ions that compete with the dye cation for adsorption sites. With
the increase of the pH of the system, the number of positively charged
sites decreases while the number of the negatively charged sites increases.
It was also suggested that the negatively charged sites favor the adsorption
of dye (cationic like methylene blue) due to electrostatic attraction. The
efficiency of the coir pith has been investigated by Parab et al.,203 who
studied the adsorption efficiency of the material for the removal of Co
(II), Cr (III), and Ni (II) using a batch adsorption technique from synthetic
nuclear power plant coolant water. Different experimental conditions
namely, solution pH, initial metal-ion concentration, and contact time
were studied, and the adsorption process was found to be pseudo secondorder obeying the Langmuir adsorption model. The authors noted that
even though the adsorptive capacity of coir pith is not excessively high
for cobalt, chromium, and nickel, the low cost of the material together with
its adsorptive ability could offer a promising procedure for the treatment of
industrial wastewaters. Saw dust, corncob waste, coir pith, and agricultural
814
V. K. Gupta et al.
wastes have been investigated as adsorbents for metals and dyes by Ajmal
et al.,204 Wu et al.,205 and Namasivayam et al.,206 respectively. Corn cob as
a low-cost adsorbent has also been used for making microporous activated
carbon using zinc chloride by Tsai et al.207
r Wool carbonizing waste, rubber seed coat. Wool carbonizing waste, obtained as a result of processing of wool, was investigated by Perineau
et al.208 for the adsorption of dyes. They reported that the surface properties of the material are such that it tends to adsorb solutes of ionic nature.
They further observed that adsorption of basic dyes is 610 times higher
than that of acid dyes. Rengaraj et al.209 attempted to develop activated
carbon from rubber seed coat for the removal of phenols using batch and
column operations. They suggested that the adsorbed phenol can be desorbed by sodium hydroxide. The adsorption process was found to follow
first-order kinetics and the isotherm fitted the Freundlich equation.
So far, we have discussed in brief the utilization of natural materials
and/or materials obtained as agricultural wastes as alternative adsorbents
for the removal of inorganic and organic pollutants. In addition to these, a
number of wastes/byproducts are generated by many industries, such as the
steel and metal, sugar, and fertilizer industries, and are used as adsorbents
by various workers for removal of toxic materials. Some of them in brief are
as follows:
r Blast furnace slag and sludge. Blast furnace slag, soft granulated and
hard granulated, was used by Yamada et al.210 for suppressing phosphate
liberation from sediment by adsorption. They reported that soft granulated
slag adsorbs phosphate more than hard granulated slag and explained
it on the basis of porosity of the adsorbent. Dimitrova211 investigated
the removal of Cu2+ , Ni2+ , and Zn2+ ions from aqueous solution using
ungranulated blast furnace slag. The adsorption studies were carried out
in the concentration range 1 104 1 103 M, and it was suggested that
the slag alkalizing activity creates conditions for adsorption through the
formation of hydroxocomplexes and colloidal particles of silicic acid. The
worker in collaboration with a coworker212 also studied granulated slag for
Pb2+ removal from aqueous solution. Johansson and Gustafsson213 used
slag and opoka for increasing abiotic sorption efficiency of an on-site water
treatment system. These materials were used to retain phosphorous in the
plant, and they reported through sorption experiments that some slags are
efficient retainers for phosphorous. Blast furnace slag has been used by
others workers too.214216 In addition to blast furnace slag, another waste
material generated in steel plants is blast furnace sludge, which is obtained
while removing dust load from the exhaust flue gas of the blast furnace
through water scrubbers. This blast furnace sludge was used by Jallan
Low-Cost Adsorbents
815
and Pandey217 as an adsorbent without any treatment for the removal

of toxic Pb2+ , Ni2+ , Cd2+ , Cu2+ , Zn2+ , and CN ions. They reported that
sludge has a good adsorptive property for metal ions as well as cyanide. In
case of Zn2+ adsorption, however, the maximum adsorption was poor (9
mgg1 ). The sorption of some heavy metals on sludge was also examined
by Lopez-Delgado et al.,218 who reported that metal ions are adsorbed
in the order of Pb2+ > Ni2+ > Cd2+ > Cu2+ > Zn2+ . The process was
found to be endothermic and the adsorption data fitted both Freundlich
and Langmuir isotherms. Blast furnace sludge has also been utilized for
the removal of dyes and phenols by Jain et al.216,219
r Bagasse, bagasse pith, bagasse flyash. Raw bagasse is a waste from sugar
mills and has been used as a low-cost adsorbent for the removal of
chromium and nickel from aqueous solution by Rao et al.,220 who studied
the effect of hydrogen ion concentration, contact time, sorbent dose, initial concentrations of adsorptive and adsorbent and particle size in batch
experiments. The efficiency of the material for the removal of Cr (VI) at
pH 6 and Ni (II) at pH 8, with a sorbate concentration 100 mg/L, contact
time 90 min, adsorbent particle size 75 m, and adsorbent dose 3.5g/L,
was found to be 91 and 85.6%, respectively. The efficiency of bagasse
was suggested to be comparable to costlier conventional powdered activated carbon. Further, bagasse pith from the sugarcane industry has been
studied by McKay et al.221 without any pretreatment for the removal of
two basic dyes, basic blue 69 and basic red 22, and two acidic dyes, acid
blue 25 and acid red 114, from aqueous solutions. High adsorptive capacity was observed for the adsorption of the basic dyes, 158 mgg1 for
basic blue 69 and 77 mgg1 for basic red 22, while lower capacities of
23 mgg1 and 22 mgg1 were observed for acid red 114 and acid blue
25, respectively. The same material was also used by Al-Duri et al.222
for developing a mass transfer model, based on external mass transport,
and macropore and micropore diffusion to predict concentration versus
time decay plots of adsorption. Srivastava et al.223,224 converted bagasse
flyash into a low-cost adsorbent for the removal of substituted phenols.
The authors compared the uptake of trinitrophenol on the bagasse flyash
with other commercially available adsorbents.223 It was suggested that the
developed bagasse flyash adsorbent is considerably effective and cheap.
The removal of dinitrophenol has also been observed,224 and the cost
estimation of bagasse flyash indicated that the waste bagasse flyash is
available for 60 Indian Rs ton1 (1.3 US $ ton1 ) and considering the
cost of transport, chemicals, and electrical energy used in the process,
the finished product would cost approximately 400 Indian Rs ton1 (8.9
US $ ton1 ). The cost analysis suggested that the adsorbent may be a
good replacement for commercially available carbon due to its comparable efficiency and a significantly lower cost. The results showed that
86% of dinitrophenol can be removed using 10 g L1 of activated bagasse
816
V. K. Gupta et al.
flyash. Bagasse flyash has also been used for the removal of phenol and
p-nitrophenol from wastewater obtained from a coal gasification plant by
Gupta et al.225 Batch studies showed that 95% of phenol and 100% of
p-nitrophenol can be removed by using 10 gdm3 of adsorbent at pH 4.0.
It was found that the adsorption capacity KF is less for the phenol-bagasse
flyash system than that for the p-nitrophenol-bagasse flyash system. The
Langmuir constant Q0 decreases with an increase in temperature, thereby
indicating the process to be exothermic in nature. Furthermore, studies
were also performed to assess the practical utility of the adsorbent column. Desorption of the materials adsorbed was tried with a number of
eluting agents and almost complete desorption (98%) of phenol could
be achieved with only 8% NaOH. Regeneration of the spent column was
carried out with 1M HNO3 . A sample of actual wastewater from a coal
gasification plant having phenols (2800 mgdm3 ) was successfully treated
on the columns of this adsorbent material. Almost complete removal of
phenol from 50 cm3 of wastewater at pH 4.0 was possible with the column of bagasse flyash. In addition, Gupta et al.226 used bagasse flyash for
the removal of the pesticides lindane and malathion from wastewater as
well. The authors reported a maximum uptake of 9798% at pH6 and a
dose of 5 g/L, and the process was analyzed using the Langmuir and Freundlich models. Thermodynamic parameters were also calculated, and the
adsorption was suggested to be exothermic in nature.
r Palm oil ash, shale oil ash. The possibility of using palm oil ash as a
low-cost adsorbent for the removal of the dyes disperse blue and disperse
red from aqueous solution has been explored by Isa el al.227 Both batch
as well as continuous flow experiments were performed, and the effects
of different system variables, including pH, initial dye concentration, and
agitation time, were studied in the batch tests. It was suggested that acidic
pH favored dye removal, and the optimum pH and agitation time for the
removal of the two dyes were found to be 2 and 60 min, respectively.
In addition, the authors also suggested that ash can be used in its natural
form in batch processes, while pelletisation, due to cost implications, is
not recommendable for industrial application. Shale oil ash, an inorganic
residue, obtained after the combustion of shale oil was used as adsorbent by Al-Qodah228 for dyes. The author has reported that the material,
which is obtained after a high-temperature process, possesses good porosity and suggested that it can have good adsorptive behavior for both organic and inorganic pollutants. A two-resistance mass transfer model based
on the film resistance and homogeneous solid phase diffusion was also
developed.
r Red mud. Red mud is a waste from the aluminum industry and has also
been investigated as an adsorbent by Shiao and Akashi.229 The mud was
treated with acid and activated at various temperatures, and its capacity
was found to be equivalent to that of alumina. Red mud treated with
Low-Cost Adsorbents
817
seawater has been used as an adsorbent for arsenate removal from water
by Genc et al. 230 The adsorption was found to follow the Langmuir model
and increased with decreasing pH, higher adsorbent dosages, and lower
initial arsenate concentrations. Furthermore, the red mud231234 has also
been used for the removal of fluoride, phenol, nitrate, and congo red.
r Straw, used tires. Straw and used rubber tires were investigated by Streat
et al.235 for the sorption of phenol and p-chlorophenol from water. The
source material was carbonized in a tube furnace in a stream of oxygen
free nitrogen and followed by activation using a stream of moisture-laden
nitrogen. Pseudo equilibrium sorption of phenol and p-chlorophenol
obeyed a Freundlich type adsorption isotherm, and the sorption half-times
were found to be 2.1 and 2.5 min for phenol sorption on tire and straw,
respectively. Waste tire rubber was also used by San Miguel et al.236 for
the adsorption of organic compounds viz. phenol, methylene blue, and
textile dyes.
r Fertilizer industry waste. A waste carbon slurry generated during liquid
fuel combustion in fertilizer plants has been converted into an inexpensive
carbonaceous adsorbent by Srivastava et al.237 The material was converted
into adsorbent by treating first with hydrogen peroxide and further activating it in air at 450 C, resulting in an adsorbent having a surface area
of 630 m2 g1 . The material so prepared was utilized for the removal of
Cr (VI), Hg (II), Pb (II), Cu (II), and Mo (II) from metallurgical and electroplating wastewaters. The same product also exhibited good adsorption
potential for substituted phenols.238,239 A similar carbonaceous adsorbent
was investigated by Jain et al.,216,219 who utilized it for the removal of
dyes and phenols. The authors compared the efficiencies of the carbonaceous adsorbent with blast furnace slag, dust, and sludge (steel industry
waste) and found the carbonaceous adsorbent to be best among them.
Further, a comparison of the carbonaceous adsorbent with an activated
carbon showed it to be 45% efficient as activated carbon. Carbonaceous
adsorbent has also been used for the removal of pesticides by Gupta
et al.240
r Fly ash. Fly ash is another waste/byproduct material that is produced in
huge amount in thermal power plants based on coal firing. The fly ash is
almost available free of cost and may be used in construction of roads,
bricks, and cement, etc. The availability of fly ash is so high that at many
places its disposal is a problem. As such, a number of workers have attempted to use it as an adsorbent in pollution control. Panday et al.241 used
fly ash without any pretreatment for the removal of Cu2+ and found that
the adsorption data conform to the Langmuir adsorption. The suitability
of fly ash for the removal of phenol and chlorophenols was also investigated by Haribabu et al.242 They found adsorption to be endothermic
and a first-order process. Fly ash has also been used by Viraraghavan and
Ramakrishna243 to remove both cationic and anionic dyes. They reported
818
V. K. Gupta et al.
that the dye adsorption process on fly ash is of first order, and the adsorption data follow both Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. The results
of all these studies on fly ash have shown that the adsorption capacity
of fly ash is poor and, therefore, its efficiency in comparison to activated
carbon is low. The fly ash has also been used in conjunction with other
materials. Panday et al.244 used a mixture of fly ash and wollastonite for
Cr (VI) removal, and Gupta et al.245 used fly ash and coal mixtures for dye
removal from aqueous solutions. Even for these mixtures the adsorptive
capacities were found to be on the low side. In a separate study, two fly
ashes from different power plants fueled with different brown coals were
tested as potential low-cost sorbents for the removal of synthetic dyes
(basic as well as acidic) from waters by Janos et al.246 The adsorption
capacities were determined from the parameters of adsorption isotherms
and were found to be in the range of 101 103 mmolg1 and did not
differ significantly for basic and acid dyes. The adsorption was described
well by the multi-site Langmuir isotherm. Factors affecting sorption, such
as pH, the presence of organic solvents, inorganic salts, and surfactants,
were also investigated. The authors found that the sorption of basic dyes
increased at high pH values, whereas the opposite was found for acid
dyes. The dye sorption decreased in the presence of organic solvents
(methanol, acetone), whereas inorganic salts exhibited only a minor effect on the dye sorption. The presence of oppositely charged surfactants
showed a pronounced effect on the dye sorption and low concentrations
of the surfactant-enhanced sorption, whereas high concentrations solubilized the dyes and kept them in solution. Further, the authors suggested
that the coal fly ashes can be used for the sorption of both basic as well as
acid dyes from aqueous solutions without any expensive pre-treatment.
r Waste paper. Waste newsprint paper has also been put to use for preparing
alternative adsorbents. Shimada et al.247 used newspaper as raw material
for the production of activated carbon. Waste newsprint paper was mixed
with 8% phenol resin, and the material was heated at 150 C for 10 min
and was further carbonized at 800 C for 2h under nitrogen gas followed
by the activation at 900 C for 1h under CO2 atmosphere to get activated
carbon. The activated carbon so produced possessed good surface area
(1000 m2 g1 ) and the yield was 40%. In view of its high surface area,
this product functioned as a good adsorbent, as evidenced by high iodine
(1310 mgg1 ) and methylene blue number (326 mgg1 ).
r Sewage sludge. Sewage sludge with additive coconut husk has been used
by Tay et al.248 for preparation of activated carbons using ZnCl2 activation.
It was suggested that low concentration of ZnCl2 tends to improve microporosity, and 5 M ZnCl2 was found to give the best activated sample with
867.61 m2 g1 surface area with 57.99% phenol removal capacity. Sewage
sludge has also been used to prepare carbonaceous materials using chemical activation by Rio et al.249 Carbonaceous sorbents so developed from
819
Low-Cost Adsorbents
sludge were used to remove copper ion, phenol, and dyes (acid red 18
and basic violet 4) from aqueous solution as well as VOC from the gas
phase. Two experimental conditions were suggested by the authors but
in order to have a high mass yield and to reduce the energetic cost of the
process, the optimal condition having 1.5 g of H2 SO4 g1 of sludge; 700 C
and 145 min was suggested to be more appropriate.
Besides these, various other materials such as human hair,250 pine
needles, cactus leaves,251 polymer materials,252,253 ZnS,254 MnO2 ,255 black
tea leaves,256 tree fern,257 pyrite and synthetic iron sulphide,258 alumimpregnated activated alumina,259 sorels cement,260 calcined-alunite,261
sporopollenin-a biopolymeric material,262 coconut copra meal,263 husk of
Lathyrus sativus,264 zeolitized pumice waste,265 regenerated clay mineral from
spent bleaching earth,266 bauxsol-a neutralised bauxite refinery residue,267
rosa canina seeds,268 limestone and GAC mixture,269 and wheat bran270 have
also been explored as adsorbents.
COST ESTIMATION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Adsorbent cost is an important factor and may be helpful in comparing the
materials; however, it is seldom reported in the research papers. Table 2
presents cost estimates for some of the adsorbents reported along with
TABLE 2. Cost of low-cost adsorbents and commercial activated carbons as reported in
literature
Adsorbent
Fullers earth
Fullers earth
Bentonite
Manganese oxide
Blast furnace slag
Spheroidal cellulose
Chitosan
Sphagnum moss peat
Bagasse flyash
Starch xanthate
Carbonaceous adsorbent (fertilizer industry waste)
Peat
Perlite
Coconut shell charcoal (as received)
Commercial activated carbon
Activated carbon (almond shell)
Commercial granular activated carbon
Price (US $ kg1 )
Reference
0.04
0.1
0.05
0.050.06
0.04
1.07
16
0.02
0.009
1.0
0.1
0.0180.069
<1.5
0.34
1.37
20
56
1.542.93
3.30
351
167
167
352
214
136
136
353
224
354
219
355
356
318
318
351
356
357
357
820
V. K. Gupta et al.
commercial activated carbons. These estimates should be considered as

indicative, as the cost of the raw materials can vary. The cost of the
precursor and/or the final material depends on various factors, which
include its availability; whether it is natural, industrial/agricultural/domestic
wastes/byproducts, or synthesized products; the processing required; the
treatment conditions; and both recycle and lifetime issues. The cost will also
vary depending on when and where the adsorbents are made, and if they are
in and for developed countries, developing countries, or underdeveloped
countries.
A certain amount of work has already been carried out on the production
of LCA from materials of different origins, and the results so far obtained are
also promising. However, there is clearly a need for more detailed systematic
studies and technical improvements with respect to the current systems. As
regards to future work, the following recommendations are suggested.
It is known that the adsorption capacity of LCA can be modified by
controlling the conditions of treatment (physical or chemical). However, the
adaptation of general principles obtained with a particular material should be
case-specific and may need to be altered as per constituents of the precursor.
The differences found in adsorption capacities for different adsorbents of the
same origin indicate that there exists some relationship between adsorptive
properties and the molecular structure or the surface groups of the adsorbent,
besides the surface area/porosity effect, and needs more detailed critical
investigations.
There is a need for critical assessment of adsorbents with regard to
their constituents as well as comparisons with other materials of different
origins, as these issues are still debatable. For example, lignocellulosics are
promising materials when used as pure or modified. However, it is still
debatable which constituentnamely, cellulose, hemicellulose, or lignin
contributes more for the adsorption of certain adsorptives in the materials
when used as such, or after treatment. More detailed systematic studies are
needed to find out which component in the precursor is primarily responsible
for the development of surface area or micro/meso-porosity or is helpful in
the development of functional groups.
Because a voluminous literature is already available confirming the production and wide application of LCAs, what scientists now need is to find
and report in more depth the details of the materials, their constituents and
critical evaluation of materials of different origin. However, doing experiments in the same laboratory will be preferred in order to compare the
adsorptive and textural nature of LCAs. The next step after initial laboratory
evaluations (i.e., after characterization of adsorbents) in determining adsorptive capacity and understanding uptake mechanism is to design and carry
out some pilot-plant scale studies for their practical application especially
in industries. As the industrial effluents contain several pollutants simultaneously, attention has to be given to adsorption of pollutants from mixtures,
Low-Cost Adsorbents
821
and the LCAs should further be investigated for their efficiency using real
industrial effluents.
CONCLUSIONS
The literature reviewed revealed the fact that due to limited water resources
and increasing pollution levels, many methods are used for removing pollutants from wastewater, and among them, the adsorption method is widely
used because it is versatile as it removes diverse pollutants. In various plants
that are used for treating wastewater through adsorption, activated carbon
is used as adsorbent. However, in view of the higher cost of activated carbons and difficulties associated with regeneration, attempts have been made
by various workers to use low-cost natural materials or industrial wastes or
byproducts, collectively known as low-cost alternative adsorbents or low-cost
adsorbents, or LCAs. Some of the many LCAs that have been studied have
proven to be effective and a number of them offer promise for the future.
The aim behind the development of LCAs has been to minimize the cost
of the adsorbent and to avoid the need for regeneration. However, the use
of many of these materials also has other advantages that are not purely economic. On the one hand, many of them are renewable or abundant natural
resources, which are currently under-utilized. On the other hand, others are
industrial or agricultural wastes that are currently not recycled or given new
uses. In addition, some of the materials can be used as adsorbents with little
or no pretreatment and can therefore be manufactured at low cost by small
companies even in non-industrialized areas of the world, and without the
adsorbent manufacturing process being itself a source of pollution. Taking
all these factors into account, it can be seen that the production of LCAs and
their use for water treatment and pollution control can contribute toward the
economic and social development of communities. They should therefore
be considered valuable components of national and local programs for the
implementation of sustainable development policies.
Despite the progress that has been made, there is still a need for continued development of low-cost adsorbents whose performance, particularly
on a large scale, may be comparable to that of the whole range of activated
carbons that are currently available. Perusal of the literature shows that with
few exceptions, the adsorbents having good carbon content are normally
versatile adsorbents and can be fruitfully used for the removal of organic as
well as inorganic contaminants, whereas the adsorbents with high inorganic
content or inorganic-based are generally good for the removal of inorganic,
especially heavy metal, contaminants. Some of the limitations that still need
to be overcome include the following:
r in many cases, the surface area of the new adsorbents has been low,
which results in poor adsorptive power;
822
V. K. Gupta et al.
r usually, critical comparative studies on different adsorbents and detailed

r
r
r
r
r
systematic studies at different pH, for example, have not been carried out,
which makes it difficult to directly compare performance;
relationships between composition and constituents of the adsorbent and
surface functional groups with the physicochemical properties of the adsorptive are usually not discussed critically;
the adsorption properties of the adsorbents prepared have usually been
studied with regard to only a few adsorptives;
the performance of alternative adsorbents has not been generally compared with activated carbons to assess their real potential;
the work has been mainly confined to batch studies, when column experiment results are also needed to assess the performance of the materials
for a wider range of applications; and
the cost of the raw and final material are invariably not mentioned.
It would, of course, be ideal if an alternative low-cost adsorbent was

available that performed as well as activated carbon and was versatile in
removing organic as well as inorganic contaminants. However, even if the
alternative adsorbent used performs half as well as activated carbon, then
it could be a good alternative in view of its lower cost and its more direct
implication in securing sustainable development.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee,
India, and FCT (Fundaca o para a Ciencia e a Technologia), Lisbon, Portugal,
for the award of a post-doctoral grant (number SFRH/BPD/20535/2004)
and to the European Commission (Project ALFA-II-0412-FAFI) for financial
support.
REFERENCES
[1] World Health Organization. Health in water resources development. Available at: http://www.who.int/docstore/water sanitation health/vector/water
resources.htm (accessed October 3, 2007).
[2] Snoeyink, V.L., and Jenkins, D. (1980). Water chemistry. New York: John Wiley
& Sons.
[3] United Nations World Water Development Report UNESCO. (2003). Water for people water for life. Available at: http://www.unesco.org/water/
wwap/wwdr1/pdf/chap9.pdf (accessed October 13, 2007).
[4] Lehr, J.H., Gass, T.E., Pettyjohn, W. A., and DeMarre, J. (1980). Domestic water
treatment. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
[5] Nemerrow, N.L. (1978). Industrial water pollution: Origins, characteristics,
and treatment. Boston: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
[6] Helmer, R., and Hespanhol, I. (1997). Water pollution controla guide to the
use of water quality management principles. London: E & FN Spon.
Low-Cost Adsorbents
823
[7] United Nations World Water Development Report UNESCO. (2003). Water
for people water for life. Available at: http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/
wwdr1/ex summary/index.shtml (accessed October 13, 2007).
[8] World Water Council. Home WWC/Water at a glance/Water Crisis. Available
at: http://www.worldwatercouncil.org/index.php?id=25&L=0%5C (accessed
October 17, 2007).
[9] World Health Organization and UNICEF. Water for life: Making it happen. Available at: http://www.who.int/water sanitation health/monitoring/
jmp2005/en/ (accessed November 18, 2007).
[10] Resolutions adopted by the Conference, resolution 1, annex II. (1992). Report
of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Vol. 1.
Rio de Janeiro, June 314 (United Nations publication, Sales No . E.93.I.8 and
corrigenda).
[11] Resolutions adopted by the Conference, resolution 1, annex I. (1992). Report
of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Vol. 1.
Rio de Janeiro, June 314 (United Nations publication, Sales No . E.93.I.8 and
corrigenda).
[12] Koziorowski, B., and Kucharski, J. (1972). Industrial waste disposal. Oxford:
Pergamon Press.
[13] Walker, C. (1975). Environmental pollution by chemicals. London: Hutchinson
& Co. Ltd.
[14] De Zuane, J. (1997). Handbook of drinking water quality. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold.
[15] Conway, R.A., and Ross, R.D. (1980). Handbook of industrial waste disposal.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
[16] Kupchella, C.E., and Hyland, M.C. (1989). Environmental science living within
the system of nature. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
[17] Okamura, H., and Aoyama, I. (1994). Interactive toxic effect and distribution
of heavy metals in phytoplankton. Environ. Toxicol. Water Qual., 9, 7.
[18] Martin, T.R., and Holdich, D.M. (1986). The acute lethal toxicity of heavy metals
to percarid crustaceans (with particular reference to fresh-water asellids and
gammarids). Water Res., 20, 1137.
[19] Moore, J.W. (1991). Inorganic contaminants of surface water research and
monitoring priorities. New York: Springer-Verlag.
[20] Murti, C.R.K., and Viswanathan, P. (1991). Toxic metals in the Indian environment. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
[21] Venkataraman, K. (1965). The chemistry of synthetic dyes. New York: Academic
Press Inc.
[22] Nemerow, N.L., and Doby, T.A. (1958). Color removal in waste-water treatment
plants. Sew. Ind. Wastes, 30, 1160.
[23] Walsh, G.E., Bahner, L.H., and Horning, W.B. (1980). Toxicity of textile mill
effluents to freshwater and estuarine algae, crustaceans and fishes. Environ.
Pollut. Series A, 21, 169.
[24] Anthony, A.J. (1977). Characterization of the impact of colored wastewaters
on free-flowing streams. Proc. 32nd Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA.
[25] Caturla, F., Martin-Martinez, J.M., Molina-Sabio, M., Rodriguez-Reinoso, F., and
Torregrosa, R. (1988). Adsorption of substituted phenols on activated carbon.
J. Colloid Interface Sci., 124, 528.
824
V. K. Gupta et al.
[26] Weiner, E.R. (2000). Applications of environmental chemistry: A practical guide

for environmental processional. Washington, DC: Lewis Publishers.
[27] Selassie, C.D., Shusterman, A.J., Kapur, S., Verma, R.P., Zhang, L., and Hansch,
C. (1999). On the toxicity of phenols to fast growing cells: A QSAR model for
a radical-based toxicity. J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2, 12, 2729.
[28] Castillo, M., and Barcelo, D. (1999). Identification of polar toxicants in industrial wastewaters using toxicity-based fractionation with liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. Anal. Chem., 71, 3769.
[29] Fawell, J.K., and Hunt, S. (1988). Environmental toxicology: Organic pollutants.
Chichester, England: Ellis Horwood Limited.
[30] Melnikov, N.N. (1971). Chemistry of pesticides. New York: Springer-Verlag.
[31] Zouboulis, A.I., Lazaridis, N.K., and Grohmann, A. (2002). Toxic metals removal from waste waters by upflow filtration with floating filter medium. I.
The case of zinc. Sep. Sci. Technol., 37, 403.
[32] Sethi, S., and Wiesner, M.R. (1995). Performance and cost modeling of ultrafiltration. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 121, 874.
[33] Tan, L., and Sudak, R.G. (1992). Removing color from a groundwater source.
J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 84, 79.
[34] Applegate, L.E. (1984). Membrane separation process. Chem. Eng., 91, 64.
[35] Eliassen, R., and Bennet, G.E. (1967). Anion exchange and filtration techniques
for waste water renovation. J. Water. Pollut. Control Fed., 39, R82.
[36] Lee, D.W., Hong, W.H., and Hwang, K.Y. (2000). Removal of an organic dye
from water using a predispersed solvent extraction. Sep. Sci. Technol., 35,
1951.
[37] Snider, E.H., and Porter, J.J. (1974). Ozone treatment of dye waste. J. Water.
Pollut. Control Fed., 46, 886.
[38] Hempfling, C. (1997). Ultraviolet/oxidation treatment of explosive wastewaters
using a commercial process. Environ. Prog., 16, 164.
[39] Birchler, D.R., Milke, M.W., Marks, A.L., and Luthy, R.G. (1994). Landfill
leachate treatment by evaporation. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 120, 1109.
[40] Al-Degs, Y., Khraisheh, M.A.M., Allen, S.J., and Ahmad, M.N. (2000). Effect of
carbon surface chemistry on the removal of reactive dyes from textile effluent.
Water Res., 34, 927.
[41] Nicolet, L., and Rott, V. (1999). Recirculation of powdered activated carbon for
the adsorption of dyes in municipal wastewater treatment plants. Water Sci.
Technol., 40, 191.
[42] Judkins, J.F., and Hornsby, J.S., Jr. (1978). Color removal from textile dye waste
using magnesium carbonate. J. Water. Pollut. Control Fed., 50, 2446.
[43] Ng, K.S., and Mueller, J.C. (1975). Foam separationa technique for water
pollution abatement. Water Sew. Works, 122, 48.
[44] Fox, M.A., and Dulay, M.T. (1993). Heterogeneous photocatalysis. Chem. Rev.,
93, 341.
[45] Bromley-Challenor, K.C.A., Knapp, J.S., Zhang, Z., Gray, N.C.C., Hetheridge,
M.J., and Evans, M.R. (2000). Decolorization of an azo dye by unacclimated
activated sludge under anaerobic conditions. Water Res., 34, 4410.
[46] Kennedy, K.J., Lu, J., and Mohn, W.W. (1992). Biosorption of chlorophenols
to anaerobic granular sludge. Water Res., 26, 1085.
Low-Cost Adsorbents
825
[47] Bell, J., Plumb, J.J., Buckley, C.A., and Stuckey, D.C. (2000). Treatment and
decolorization of dyes in an anaerobic baffled reactor. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE,
126, 1026.
[48] dos Santos, A.B., Cervantes, F.J., and van Lier, J.B. (2007). Review paper on
current technologies for decolorisation of textile wastewaters: Perspectives for
anaerobic biotechnology. Bioresour. Technol., 98, 2369.
[49] Shen, H., and Wang, Y.-T. (1994). Biological reduction of chromium by E. Coli.
J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 120, 560.
[50] LaPara, T.M., Konopka, A., Nakatsu, C.H., and Alleman, J.E. (2000). Thermophilic aerobic wastewater treatment in continuous-flow bioreactors. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 126, 739.
[51] Rela, P.R., Sampa, M.H.O., Duarte, C.L., Costa, F.E., and Sciani, V. (2000).
Development of an up-flow irradiation device for electron beam wastewater
treatment. Radiat. Phys. Chem., 57, 657.
[52] Basfar, A.A., and Abdel Rehim, F. (2002). Disinfection of wastewater from
a Riyadh wastewater treatment plant with ionizing radiation. Radiat. Phys.
Chem., 65, 527.
[53] Chatchupong, T., and Murphy, R.T. (1996). Model of electrodialysis process
associated with organic adsorption. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 122, 154.
[54] Szpyrkowicz, L., Naumczyk, J., and Zilio-Grandi, F. (1995). Electrochemical
treatment of tannery wastewater using Ti/Pt and Ti/Pt/Ir electrodes. Water
Res., 29, 517.
[55] Suzuki, Y., Maezawa, A., and Uchida, S. (2000). Utilization of ultrasonic energy in a photocatalytic oxidation process for treating waste water containing
surfactants. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., 39, 2958.
[56] Karapinar, N. (2003). Magnetic separation of ferrihydrite from wastewater by
magnetic seeding and high-gradient magnetic separation. Int. J. Miner. Proces.,
71, 45.
[57] Danis, T.G., Albanis, T.A., Petrakis, D.E., and Pomonis, P.J. (1998). Removal
of chlorinated phenols from aqueous solutions by adsorption on alumina pillared clays and mesoporous alumina aluminum phosphates. Water Res., 32,
295.
[58] Quignon, F., Thomas, F., Gantzer, C., Huyard, A., and Schwartzbrod, L. (1998).
Virus adsorption in a complex system: An experimentally designed study.
Water Res., 32, 1222.
[59] Pirbazari, M., Badriyha, B.N., and Miltner, R.J. (1991). GAC adsorber design
for removal of chlorinated pesticides. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 117, 80.
[60] Carrott, P.J.M., Ribeiro Carrott, M.M.L., Cansado, I.P.P., and Nabais, J.M.V.
(2000). Reference data for the adsorption of benzene on carbon materials.
Carbon, 38, 465.
[61] Imamura, K., Ikeda, E., Nagayasu, T., Sakiyama, T., and Nakanishi, K. (2002).
Adsorption behavior of methylene blue and its congeners on a stainless steel
surface. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 245, 50.
[62] Bansal, R.C., and Goyal, M. (2005). Activated carbon adsorption. Boca Raton,
Fla.: Taylor & Francis Group.
[63] Liapis, A.I. (1987). Fundamentals of adsorption. New York: Engineering
Foundation.
826
V. K. Gupta et al.
[64] Mattson, J.S., and Mark, H.B.J. (1971). Activated carbon surface chemistry and
adsorption from solution. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
[65] Mantell, C.L. (1951). Adsorption. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
[66] Masschelein, W.J. (1992). Unit processes in drinking water treatment. New
York: Marcel Dekker, p. 322.
[67] LeVan, M.D., Carta, G., and Yon, C.M. (1997). Adsorption and ion exchange. In
Perry, R.H., Green, D.W., and Maloney, J.O. (eds.). Perrys chemical engineers
handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 166.
[68] Clifford, D.A. (1999). Ion exchange and inorganic adsorption. In Letterman,
R.D. (ed.). Water quality and treatment. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 9.19.87.
[69] Linsen, B.G. (1970). Physical and chemical aspects of adsorbents and catalysts.
London: Academic Press.
[70] Do, D.D. (1998). Adsorption analysis: Equilibria and kinetics. London: Imperial
College Press.
[71] Allingham, M.M., Cullen, J.M., Giles, C.H., Jain, S.K., and Woods, J.S. (1958).
Adsorption at inorganic surfaces II: Adsorption of dyes and related compounds
by silica. J. Appl. Chem., 8, 108.
[72] Backhaus, W.K., Klumpp, E., Narres, H.-D., and Schwuger, M.J. (2001). Adsorption of 2,4-dichlorophenol on montmorillonite and silica: Influence of
nonionic surfactants. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 242, 6.
[73] Kesraouiouki, S., Cheeseman, C.R., and Perry, R. (1994). Natural zeolite utilization in pollution controla review of applications to metals effluents. J.
Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 59, 121.
[74] Menon, V.C., and Komarneni, S. (1998). Porous adsorbents for vehicular natural gas storage: A review. J. Porous Mat., 5, 43.
[75] Adebajo, M.O., Frost R.L., Kloprogge J.T., Carmody, O., and Kokot, S. (2003).
Porous materials for oil spill cleanup: A review of synthesis and absorbing
properties. J. Porous Mat., 10, 159.
[76] Curkovic, L., Cerjan-Stefanovic, S., and Filipan, T. (1997). Metal ion exchange
by natural and modified zeolites. Water Res., 31, 1379.
[77] Caputo, D., and Pepe, F. (2007). Experiments and data processing of ion
exchange equilibria involving Italian natural zeolites: A review. Microporous
Mesoporous Mater., 105(3), 222.
[78] Auerbach, S.M., Carrado, K.A., and Dutta, P.K. (2003). Handbook of zeolite
science and technology. New York: Marcel Dekker.
[79] Handreck, G.P., and Smith, T.D. (1988). Adsorption of methylene blue from
aqueous solution by ZSM-5-type zeolites and related silica polymorphs. J.
Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. I, 84, 4191.
[80] Ellis, J., and Korth, W. (1993). Removal of geosmin and methylisoborneol
from drinking water by adsorption on ultrastable zeolite Y. Water Res., 27,
535.
[81] Okolo, B., Park, C., and Keane, M.A. (2000). Interaction of phenol and
chlorophenols with activated carbon and synthetic zeolites in aqueous media. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 226, 308.
[82] Yu, Y., Zhuang, Y.-Y., and Wang, Z.-H. (2001). Adsorption of water-soluble
dye onto functionalized resin. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 242, 288.
Low-Cost Adsorbents
827
[83] Bansal, R.C., Donet, J.-B., and Fritz, S. (1988). Active carbon. New York: Marcel
Dekker.
[84] Hassler, J.W. (1963). Activated carbon. New York: Chemical Publishing Company, Inc.
[85] Carrott, P.J.M., Ribeiro Carrott, M.M.L., Mourao, P.A.M., and Lima, R.P. (2003).
Preparation of activated carbons from cork by physical activation in carbon
dioxide. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 21, 669.
[86] Phan, N.H., Rio, S., Faur, C., Le Coq, L., Le Cloirec, P., and Nguyen, T.H.
(2006). Production of fibrous activated carbons from natural cellulose (jute,
coconut) fibers for water treatment applications. Carbon, 44, 2569.
[87] Lillo-Rodenas, M.A., Marco-Lozar, J.P., Cazorla-Amoros, D., and Linares-Solano,
A. (2007). Activated carbons prepared by pyrolysis of mixtures of carbon
precursor/alkaline hydroxide. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 80, 166.
[88] Carrott, P.J.M., Carrott, M.M.L.R., and Roberts, R.A. (1991). Physical adsorption
of gases by microporous carbons. Colloids Surf., 58, 385.
[89] Freeman, H.M. (1989). Standard handbook of hazardous waste treatment and
disposal. New York: McGraw-Hill.
[90] Smsek, M., and Cerny, S. (1970). Active carbon manufacture properties and
applications. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company.
[91] Weber, W.J., Jr., Hopkins, C.B., and Bloom, R., Jr. (1970). Physicochemical
treatment of wastewater. J. Water. Pollut. Control Fed., 42, 83.
[92] Stenzel, M.H. (1997). Remove organics by activated carbon adsorption. In
Nalven G.F. (ed.). Practical engineering perspectives on the environment:
Air, water and soil. New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
p. 237.
[93] Najm, I.N., Snoeyink, V.L., Lykins, B.W.J., and Adams, J.Q. (1991). Using
powdered activated carbon: A critical review. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 83,
65.
[94] Carrott, P.J.M., Carrott, M.M.L.R., and Nabais, J.M.V. (1998). Influence of surface
ionization on the adsorption of aqueous mercury chlorocomplexes by activated
carbons. Carbon, 36, 11.
[95] Carrott, P.J.M., Carrott, M.M.L.R., Nabais, J.M.V., and Ramalho, J.P.P. (1997).
Influence of surface ionization on the adsorption of aqueous zinc species by
activated carbons. Carbon, 35, 403.
[96] Kuennen, R.W., Taylor, R.M., Van Dyke, K., and Groenevelt, K. (1992). Removing lead from drinking water with a point-of-use GAC fixed-bed adsorber.
C., Marzal, P., Seco, A., and Gonzalez, J.A. (2000). Cadmium and
[97] Gabaldon,
copper removal by a granular activated carbon in laboratory column systems.
Sep. Sci. Technol., 35, 1039.
[98] Macias-Garcia, A., Valenzuela-Calahorro, C., Gomez-Serrano, V., and EspnosaMansilla, A. (1993). Adsorption of Pb2+ by heat-treated acid sulfurized activated carbon. Carbon, 31, 1249.
[99] Zogorski, J.S., Faust, S.D., and Haas, J.H. (1976). The kinetics of adsorption of
phenols by granular activated carbon. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 55, 329.
[100] Paprowicz, J.T. (1990). Activated carbons for phenols removal from wastewaters. Environ. Technol., 11, 71.
828
V. K. Gupta et al.
[101] Carrott, P.J.M., Mourao, P.A.M., Ribeiro Carrott, M.M.L., and Goncalves, E.M.
(2005). Separating surface and solvent effects and the notion of critical adsorption energy in the adsorption of phenolic compounds by activated carbons.
Langmuir, 21, 11863.
[102] Mourao, P.A.M., Carrott, P.J.M., and Ribeiro Carrott, M.M.L. (2006). Application
of different equations to adsorption isotherms of phenolic compounds on
activated carbons prepared from cork. Carbon, 44, 2422.
[103] DiGiano, F.A., and Natter, A.S. (1977). Disperse dye-carrier interactions on
activated carbon. J. Water. Pollut. Control Fed., 49, 235.
[104] Walker, G.M., and Weatherley, L.R. (1999). Kinetics of acid dye adsorption on
GAC. Water Res., 33, 1895.
[105] Pelekani, C., and Snoeyink, V.L. (2000). Competitive adsorption between
atrazine and methylene blue on activated carbon: The importance of pore
size distribution. Carbon, 38, 1423.
[106] Al-Degs, Y., Khraisheh, M.A.M., Allen, S.J., and Ahmad, M.N.A. (2001). Sorption
behaviour of cationic and anionic dyes from aqueous solution on different
types of activated carbons. Sep. Sci. Technol., 36, 91.
[107] Pirbazari, M., and Weber, W.J., Jr. (1984). Removal of dieldrin from water by
activated carbon. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 110, 656.
[108] Hu, J., Aizawa, T., Ookubo, Y., Morita, T., and Magara, Y. (1998). Adsorptive
characteristics of ionogenic aromatic pesticides in water on powdered activated
carbon. Water Res., 32, 2593.
[109] Urano, K., Yamamoto, E., Tonegawa, M., and Fujie, K. (1991). Adsorption of
chlorinated organic compounds on activated carbon from water. Water Res.,
25, 1459.
[110] Lee, M.C., Crittenden, J.C., Snoeyink, V.L., and Ari, M. (1983). Design of carbon
beds to remove humic substances. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 109, 631.
[111] Pirbazari, M., Badriyha, B.N., Kim, S.H., and Miltner, R.J. (1992). Evaluating
GAC adsorbers for the removal of PCBs and toxaphene. J. Am. Water Works
Assoc., 84, 83.
[112] Bele, M., Kodre, A., Aron, I., Grdadolnik, J., Pejovnik, S., and Besenhard, J.O.
(1998). Adsorption of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide on carbon black from
aqueous solution. Carbon, 36, 1207.
[113] Malhas, A.N., Abuknesha, R.A., and Price, R.G. (2002). Removal of detergents
from protein extracts using activated charcoal prior to immunological analysis.
J. Immunol. Methods, 264, 37.
[114] Flentje, M.E., and Hager, D.G. (1964). Reevaluation of granular-carbon filters
for taste and odor control. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 56, 191.
[115] Lalezary, S., Pirbazari, M., and McGuire, M.J. (1986). Evaluating activated carbons for removing low concentrations of taste-and odor-producing organics.
[116] Donati, C., Drikas, M., Hayes, R., and Newcombe, G. (1994). Microcystin-LR
adsorption by powdered activated carbon. Water Res., 28, 1735.
[117] Giusti, D.M., Conway, R.A., and Lawson, C.T. (1974). Activated carbon adsorption of petrochemicals. J. Water. Pollut. Control Fed., 46, 947.
[118] McKay, G., Bino, M.J., and Altameni, A.R. (1985). The adsorption of various
pollutants from aqueous solutions on to activated carbon. Water Res., 19,
491.
Low-Cost Adsorbents
829
[119] Najm, I.N., Snoeyink, V.L., and Richard, Y. (1993). Removal of 2,4,6trichlorophenol and natural organic matter from water supplies using PAC
in floc-blanket reactors. Water Res., 27, 551.
[120] Smith, E.H. (1991). Evaluation of multicomponent adsorption equilibiria for
organic mixtures onto activated carbon. Water Res., 25, 125.
[121] Annesini, M.C., Gironi, F., Ruzzi, M., and Tomei, C. (1987). Adsorption of
organic compounds onto activated carbon. Water Res., 21, 567.
[122] Saito, I. (1984). The removal of hexacyanoferrate (II) and (III) ions in dilute
aqueous solution by activated carbon. Water Res., 18, 319.
[123] Hemphill, L., Ramaiah, V., and Valentine, M. (1977). Thermal regeneration of
activated carbon. 32nd Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA, p. 116.
[124] Martin, R.J., and Ng, W.J. (1987). The repeated exhaustion and regeneration
of activated carbon. Water Res., 21, 961.
[125] Newcombe, G., and Drikas, M. (1993). Chemical regeneration of granular
activated carbon from an operating water treatment plant. Water Res., 27, 161.
[126] Kilduff, E.J., and King, C.J. (1997). Effect of carbon adsorbent surface properties
on the uptake and solvent regeneration of phenol. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36,
1603.
[127] Rollar, M.A., Suidan, M.T., Goss, W.H., and Vargo, S.A. (1982). Regeneration
of five activated carbon with methanol. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 108, 1361.
[128] Notthakum, S., Crittenden, J.C., Hand, D.W., Perram, D.L., and Mullins, M.E.
(1993). Regeneration of adsorbents using hetrogeneous advanced oxidation. J.
Environ. Eng. ASCE, 119, 695.
[129] Narbaitz, R.M., and Cen, J. (1994). Electrochemical regeneration of granular
activated carbon. Water Res., 28, 1771.
[130] Zhou, M.H., and Lei, L.C. (2005). Electrochemical regeneration of activated
carbon loaded with p-nitrophenol in a fluidized electrochemical reactor. Electrochim. Acta, 51, 4489.
[131] Taiwo, E.A., and Adesina, A. (2005). Electrochemical regeneration of a native
activated carbon. Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q., 19, 269.
[132] Ali, I., and Gupta, V.K. (2007). Advances in water treatment by adsorption
technology. Nature Protocols, 1, 2661.
[133] Gupta, V.K., and Ali, I. (2002). Adsorbents for water treatment: Low cost alternatives to carbon. In Hubbard, A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of surface and colloid
science. New York: Marcel Dekker.
[134] Pollard, S.J.T., Fowler, G.D., Sollars, C.J., and Perry, R. (1992). Low-cost adsorbents for waste and wastewater treatment: A review. Sci. Total Environ., 116,
31.
[135] Bailey, S.E., Olin, T.J., Bricka, R.M., and Adrian, D.D. (1999). A review of
potentially low-cost sorbents for heavy metals. Water Res., 33, 2469.
[136] Babel, S., and Kurniawan, T.A. (2003). Low-cost adsorbents for heavy metals uptake from contaminated water: A review. J. Hazard. Mater., 97,
219.
[137] Ahluwalia, S.S., and Goyal, D. (2007). Microbial and plant derived biomass for
removal of heavy metals from wastewater. Bioresour. Technol., 98, 2243.
830
V. K. Gupta et al.
[138] Crini, G. (2006). Non-conventional low-cost adsorbents for dye removal: A

review. Bioresour. Technol., 97, 1061.
[139] Mohan, D., and Pittman, J.C.U. (2006). Activated carbons and low cost adsorbents for remediation of tri- and hexavalent chromium from water. J. Hazard.
Mater., 137, 762.
[140] Shukla, A., Zhang, Y.-H., Dubey, P., Margrave, J.L., and Shukla, S.S. (2002). The
role of sawdust in the removal of unwanted materials from water. J. Hazard.
Mater., 95, 137.
[141] Crini, G. (2005). Recent developments in polysaccharide-based materials used
as adsorbents in wastewater treatment. Prog. Polym. Sci., 30, 38.
[142] Gerente, C., Lee, V.K.C., Cloirec, P.L., and McKay, G. (2007). Application of chitosan for the removal of metals from wastewaters by adsorptionmechanisms
and models review. Crit. Rev. Env. Sci. Technol., 37, 41.
[143] Aksu, Z. (2005). Application of biosorption for the removal of organic pollutants: A review. Process Biochem., 40, 997.
[144] Poots, V.J.P., McKay, G., and Healy, J.J. (1976). The removal of acid dye from
effluent using natural adsorbentsII. Wood. Water Res., 10, 1067.
[145] Poots, V.J.P., McKay, G., and Healy, J.J. (1978). Removal of basic dye from
effluent using wood as an adsorbent. J. Water. Pollut. Control Fed., 50, 926.
[146] Mittal, A.K., and Venkobachar, C. (1993). Sorption and desorption of dyes by
sulfonated coal. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 119, 366.
[147] Venkata Mohan, S., Chandrasekhar Rao, N., and Karthikeyan, J. (2002). Adsorptive removal of direct azo dye from aqueous phase onto coal based sorbents:
A kinetic and mechanistic study. J. Hazard. Mater., 90, 189.
[148] Pehlivan, E., and Arslan, G. (2007). Removal of metal ions using lignite in
aqueous solutionLow cost biosorbents. Fuel Process. Technol., 88, 99.
[149] Poots, V.J.P., McKay, G., and Healy, J.J. (1976). The removal of acid dye from
effluent using natural adsorbentsI. Peat. Water Res., 10, 1061.
[150] McKay, G., and Allen, S.J. (1980). Surface mass transfer processes using peat
as an adsorbent for dyestuffs. Can. J. Chem. Eng., 58, 521.
[151] Couillard, D. (1994). The use of peat in wastewater treatment. Water Res., 28,
1261.
[152] Ho, Y.S., and McKay, G. (1999). The sorption of lead (II) ions on peat. Water
Res., 33, 578.
[153] Qin, F., Wen, B., Shan, X.Q., Xie, Y.N., Liu, T., Zhang, S.Z., and Khan, S.U.
(2006). Mechanisms of competitive adsorption of Pb, Cu, and Cd on peat.
Environ. Pollut., 144, 669.
[154] Chui, V.M.D., Mok, K.W., Ng, C.Y., Luong, B.P., and Ma, K.K. (1996). Removal
and recovery of copper (II), chromium (III), and nickel (II) from solutions
using crude shrimp chitin packed in small columns. Environ. Int., 22, 463.
[155] Figueiredo, S.A., Boaventura, R.A., and Loureiro J.M. (2000). Color removal
with natural adsorbents: Modeling, simulation and experimental. Sep. Purif.
Technol., 20, 129.
[156] Figueiredo, S.A., Loureiro, J.M., and Boaventura, R.A. (2005). Natural waste
materials containing chitin as adsorbents for textile dyestuffs: Batch and continuous studies. Water Res., 39, 4142.
[157] Jha, I.N., Iyengar, L., and Rao, A.V.S.P. (1998). Removal of cadmium using
chitosan. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 114, 962.
Low-Cost Adsorbents
831
[158] McKay, G., Blair, H.S., and Findon, A. (1989). Equilibrium studies for the
sorption of metal ions onto chitosan. Indian J. Chem., 28A, 356.
[159] Udaybhaskar, P., Iyengar, L., and Rao, A. (1990). Hexavalent chromium interaction with chitosan. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 39, 739.
[160] Wu, F.-C., Tseng, R.-L., and Juang, R.-S. (2000). Comparative adsorption of
metal and dye on flake- and bead-types of chitosans prepared from fishery
wastes. J. Hazard. Mater., 73, 63.
[161] Juang, R.-S., and Shao, H.-J. (2002). A simplified equilibrium model for sorption
of heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions on chitosan. Water Res., 36, 2999.
[162] Yoshida, H., and Takemori, T. (1997). Adsorption of direct dye on cross-linked
chitosan fiber: Breakthrough curve. Water Sci. Technol., 35, 29.
[163] Low, K.S., Lee, C.K., and Tan, K.K. (1995). Biosorption of basic dyes by water
hyacinth roots. Bioresour. Technol., 52, 79.
[164] Lee, C.K., Low, K.S., and Kek, K.L. (1995). Removal of chromium from aqueous
solution. Bioresour. Technol., 54, 183.
[165] Margarida Alves, M., Gonzalez Beca, C.G., de Carvalho, R.G., Castanheira,
J.M., Sol Pereira, M.C., and Vasconcelos, L.A.T. (1993). Chromium removal
in tannery wastewaters "polishing" by Pinus sylvestris bark. Water Res., 27,
1333.
[166] Tan, T.-W., Hu, B., and Su, H. (2004). Adsorption of Ni2+ on aminemodified mycelium of Penicillium chrysogenum. Enzyme Microb. Technol., 35,
508.
[167] USGS. (2007). 2005 minerals handbook: Clay. Available at: http://minerals.
usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/clays/claysmyb05.pdf (accessed September 26, 2007).
[168] McKay, G., Otterburn, M.S., and Aga, J.A. (1985). Fullers earth and fired clay as
adsorbents for dyestuffsequilibrium and rate studies. Water Air Soil Pollut.,
24, 307.
[169] Cadena, F., Rizvi, R., and Peters, R.W. (1990). Feasibility studies for the removal
of heavy metals from solution using tailored bentonite, in hazardous and
industrial wastes. Twenty-Second Mid-Atlantic Industrial Waste Conference,
Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pa., USA.
[170] Al-Ghouti, M.A., Khraisheh, M.A.M., Allen, S.J., and Ahmad, M.N. (2003). The
removal of dyes from textile wastewater: A study of the physical characteristics
and adsorption mechanisms of diatomaceous earth. J. Environ. Manage., 69,
229.
[171] Espantaleon, A.G., Nieto, J.A., Fernandez, M., and Marsal, A. (2003). Use of
activated clays in the removal of dyes and surfactants from tannery waste
waters. Appl. Clay Sci., 24, 105.
[172] Bagane, M., and Guiza, S. (2000). Elimination dun colorant des effluents de
lindustrie textile par adsorption. Ann. Chim. Sci. Mat., 25, 615.
[173] Weng, C.-H., Tsai, C.-Z., Chu, S.-H., and Sharma, Y.C. (2007). Adsorption
characteristics of copper (II) onto spent activated clay. Sep. Purif. Technol., 54,
187.
[174] Pradas, E.G., Sanchez, M.V., Cruz, F.C., Viciana, M.S., and Perez, M.F. (1994).
Adsorption of cadmium and zinc from aqueous solution on natural and activated bentonite. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 59, 289.
832
V. K. Gupta et al.
[175] Lee, J.H., Song, D.I., and Jeon, Y.W. (1997). Adsorption of organic phenols
onto dual organic cation montmorillonite from water. Sep. Sci. Technol., 32,
1975.
[176] Kim, Y.S., Song, D.I., Jeon, J.W., and Choi, S.J. (1996). Adsorption of organic
phenols onto hexadecyltrimethylammonium-treated montmorillonite. Sep. Sci.
Technol., 31, 2815.
[177] Wu, P.X., Liao, Z.W., Zhang, H.F., and Guo, J.C. (2001). Adsorption of phenol
on inorganic-organic pillared montmorillonite in polluted water. Environ. Int.,
26, 401.
[178] Ozdemir, O., Armagan, B., Turan, M., and Celik, M.S. (2004). Comparison of
the adsorption characteristics of azo-reactive dyes on mezoporous minerals.
Dyes Pigm., 62, 49.
[179] Wang, L., and Wang, A. (2007). Adsorption characteristics of Congo Red onto
the chitosan/montmorillonite nanocomposite. J. Hazard. Mater., 147, 979.
[180] Zhang, L.-M., and Chen, D.-Q. (2002). An investigation of adsorption of lead
(II) and copper (II) ions by water-insoluble starch graft copolymers. Colloid
Surface. A, 205, 231.
[181] Delval, F., Crini, G., Vebrel, J., Knorr, M., Sauvin, G., and Conte, E. (2003).
Starch-modified filters used for the removal of dyes from waste water. Macromol. Symp., 203, 165.
[182] Namasivayam, C., and Periasamy, K. (1993). Bicarbonate-treated peanut hull
carbon for mercury (II) removal from aqueous solution. Water Res., 27, 1663.
[183] Periasamy, K., and Namasivayam, C. (1994). Process development for removal
and recovery of cadmium from wastewater by a low-cost adsorbent: Adsorption rates and equilibrium studies. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 33, 317.
[184] Periasamy, K., and Namasivayam, C. (1995). Adsorption of Pb (II) by peanut
hull carbon from aqueous solution. Sep. Sci. Technol., 30, 2223.
[185] Chamarthy, S., Seo, C.W., and Marshall, W.E. (2001). Adsorption of selected
toxic metals by modified peanut shells. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 76, 593.
[186] Brown, P., Atly Jefcoat, I., Parrish, D., Gill, S., and Graham, E. (2000). Evaluation of the adsorptive capacity of peanut hull pellets for heavy metals in
solution. Adv. Environ. Res., 4, 19.
[187] Ferrero, F. (2007). Dye removal by low cost adsorbents: Hazelnut shells in
comparison with wood sawdust. J. Hazard. Mater., 142, 144.
[188] Ferro-Garcia, M.A., Rivera-Utrilla, J., Rodriguez-Gordillo, J., and BautistaToledo, I. (1988). Adsorption of zinc, cadmium and copper on activated carbons obtained from agricultural byproducts. Carbon, 26, 363.
[189] Daifullah, A.A.M., and Girgis, B.S. (1998). Removal of some substituted phenols
by activated carbon obtained from agricultural waste. Water Res., 32, 1169.
[190] Lima, E.C., Royer, B., Vaghetti, J.C.P., Brasil, J.L., Simon, N.M., dos Santos,
J.A.A., Pavan, F.A., Dias, S.L.P., Benvenutti, E.V., and Silva, E.A.D. (2007).
Adsorption of Cu (II) on Araucaria angustifolia wastes: Determination of the
optimal conditions by statistic design of experiments. J. Hazard Mater., 140,
211.
[191] Sun, G., and Shi, W. (1998). Sunflower stalks as adsorbents for the removal of
metal ions from wastewater. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 37, 1324.
Low-Cost Adsorbents
833
[192] Sun, G., and Xu, X. (1997). Sunflower stalk as adsorbents for color removal
from textile wastewater. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36, 808.
[193] El-Geundi, M.S. (1991). Color removal from textile effluents by adsorption
techniques. Water Res., 25, 271.
[194] Acemioglu, B., Samil, A., Alma, M.H., and Gundogan, R. (2003). Copper (II)
removal from aqueous solution by organosolv lignin and its recovery. J. Appl.
Polym. Sci., 89, 1537.
[195] Sciban, M., and Klasnja, M. (2004). Study of the adsorption of copper (II) ions
from water onto wood sawdust, pulp and lignin. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 22,
195.
[196] Merdy, P., Guillon, E., Aplincourt, M., Dumonceau, J., and Vezin, H. (2002).
Copper sorption on a straw lignin: Experiments and EPR characterization. J.
Colloid Interface Sci., 245, 24.
[197] Demirbas, A. (2004). Adsorption of lead and cadmium ions in aqueous solutions onto modified lignin from alkali glycerol delignication. J. Hazard. Mater.,
109, 221.
[198] Mohan, D., Pittman, J.C.U., and Steele, P.H. (2006). Single, binary and multicomponent adsorption of copper and cadmium from aqueous solutions on
Kraft lignina biosorbent. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 297, 489.
[199] Suhas, Carrott, P.J.M., and Ribeiro Carrott, M.M.L. (2007). Ligninfrom natural
adsorbent to activated carbon: A review. Bioresour. Technol., 98, 2301.
[200] Batzias, F.A., and Sidiras, D.K. (2004). Dye adsorption by calcium chloride
treated beech sawdust in batch and fixed-bed systems. J. Hazard Mater., 114,
167.
[201] Batzias, F.A., and Sidiras, D.K. (2007). Dye adsorption by prehydrolysed beech
sawdust in batch and fixed-bed systems. Bioresour. Technol., 98, 1208.
[202] Batzias, F.A., and Sidiras, D.K. (2007). Simulation of dye adsorption by beech
sawdust as affected by pH. J. Hazard Mater., 141, 668.
[203] Parab, H., Joshi, S., Shenoy, N., Lali, A., Sarma, U.S., and Sudersanan, M. (2006).
Determination of kinetic and equilibrium parameters of the batch adsorption
of Co (II), Cr (III) and Ni (II) onto coir pith. Process Biochem., 41, 609.
[204] Ajmal, M., Khan, A.H., Ahmad, S., and Ahmad, A. (1998). Role of sawdust in
the removal of copper (II) from industrial wastes. Water Res., 32, 3085.
[205] Wu, F.C., Tseng, R.L., and Juang, R.S. (2001). Adsorption of dyes and phenols
from water on the activated carbons prepared from corncob wastes. Environ.
Technol., 22, 205.
[206] Namasivayam, C., Radhika, R., and Suba, S. (2001). Uptake of dyes by a
promising locally available agricultural solid waste: Coir pith. Waste Manage.,
21, 381.
[207] Tsai, W.T., Chang, C.Y., and Lee, S.L. (1998). A low cost adsorbent from
agricultural waste corn cob by zinc chloride activation. Bioresour. Technol.,
64, 211.
[208] Perineau, F., Molinier, J., and Gaset, A. (1983). Adsorption of ionic dyes on
wool carbonizing waste. Water Res., 17, 559.
[209] Rengaraj, S., Moon, S.-H., Sivabalan, R., Arabindoo, B., and Murugesan, V.
(2002). Removal of phenol from aqueous solution and resin manufacturing
industry wastewater using an agricultural waste: Rubber seed coat. J. Hazard.
Mater., 89, 185.
834
V. K. Gupta et al.
[210] Yamada, H., Kayama, M., Saito, K., and Hara, M. (1986). A fundamental research on phosphate removal by using slag. Water Res., 20, 547.
[211] Dimitrova, S.V. (1996). Metal sorption on blast-furnace slag. Water Res., 30,
228.
[212] Dimitrora, S.V., and Mehandgiev, D.R. (1998). Lead removal from aqueous
solutions by granulated blast-furnace slag. Water Res., 32, 3289.
[213] Johansson, L., and Gustafsson, J.P. (2000). Phosphate removal using blast
furnace slags and opoka-mechanisms. Water Res., 34, 259.
[214] Srivastava, S.K., Gupta, V.K., and Mohan, D. (1997). Removal of lead and
chromium by activated slaga blast-furnace waste. J. Environ. Eng.-ASCE,
123, 461.
[215] Gupta, V.K. (1998). Equilibrium uptake, sorption dynamics, process optimization, and column operations for the removal of copper and nickel from aqueous solution and wastewater using activated slag, a low-cost adsorbent. Ind.
Eng. Chem. Res., 37, 192.
[216] Jain, A.K., Gupta, V.K., Jain, S., and Suhas. (2004). Removal of chlorophenols
using industrial wastes. Environ. Sci. Technol., 38, 1195.
[217] Jallan, G., and Pandey, G.S. (1992). Blast furnace gas cleaning sludge as adsorbent of some toxic ions. Res. Ind., 37, 143.
[218] Lopez-Delgado,
A., Perez, C., and Lopez, F.A. (1998). Sorption of heavy metals
on blast furnace sludge. Water Res., 32, 989.
[219] Jain, A.K., Gupta, V.K., Bhatnagar, A., and Suhas. (2003). Utilization of industrial waste products as adsorbents for the removal of dyes. J. Hazard. Mater.,
101, 31.
[220] Rao, M., Parwate, A.V., and Bhole, A.G. (2002). Removal of Cr6+ and Ni2+
from aqueous solution using bagasse and fly ash. Waste Management, 22, 821.
[221] McKay, G., El Geundi, M., and Nassar, M.M. (1987). Equilibrium studies during
the removal of dyestuffs from aqueous solutions using bagasse pith. Water Res.,
21, 1513.
[222] Al-Duri, B., McKay, G., El-Geundi, M.S., and Wahab, M.Z.A. (1990). Threeresistance transport model for dye onto bagasse pith. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE,
116, 487.
[223] Srivastava, S.K., Gupta, V.K., Johri, N., and Mohan, D. (1995). Removal of
2,4,6,-trinitrophenol using bagasse fly ash a sugar industry waste material.
Indian J. Chem. Technol., 2, 333.
[224] Srivastava, S.K., Gupta, V.K., Yadav, I.S., and Mohan, D. (1995). Removal
of 2,4, dinitrophenol using bagasse fly asha sugar industry waste material.
Fresenius Environ. Bull., 4, 550.
[225] Gupta, V.K., Sharma, S., Yadav, I.S., and Mohan, D. (1998). Utilization of
bagasse fly ash generated in the sugar industry for the removal and recovery of
phenol and para-nitrophenol from wastewater. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol.,
72, 180.
[226] Gupta, V.K., Jain, C.K., Ali, I., Chandra, S., and Agarwal, S. (2002). Removal
of lindane and malathion from wastewater using bagasse fly asha sugar
industry waste. Water Res., 36, 2483.
[227] Hasnain Isa, M., Siew Lang, L., Asaari, F.A.H., Aziz, H.A., Azam Ramli, N., and
Dhas, J.P.A. (2007). Low cost removal of disperse dyes from aqueous solution
using palm ash. Dyes Pigm., 74, 446.
Low-Cost Adsorbents
835
[228] Al-Qodah, Z. (2000). Adsorption of dyes using shale oil ash. Water Res., 34,
4295.
[229] Shiao, S.J., and Akashi, K. (1977). Phosphate removal from aqueous solution
by activated red mud. J. Water. Pollut. Control Fed., 49, 280.
[230] Genc, H., Tjell, J.C., McConchie, D., and Schuiling, O. (2003). Adsorption of
arsenate from water using neutralized red mud. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 264,
327.
[231] Cengeloglu, Y., Kir, E., and Ersoz, M. (2002). Removal of fluoride from aqueous
solution by using red mud. Sep. Purif. Technol., 28, 81.
[232] Tor, A., Cengeloglu, Y., Aydin, M.E., and Ersoz, M. (2006). Removal of phenol
from aqueous phase by using neutralized red mud. J. Colloid Interface Sci.,
300, 498.
[233] Cengeloglu, Y., Tor, A., Ersoz, M., and Arslan, G. (2006). Removal of nitrate from aqueous solution by using red mud. Sep. Purif. Technol., 51, 374,
2006.
[234] Tor, A., and Cengeloglu, Y. (2006). Removal of congo red from aqueous
solution by adsorption onto acid activated red mud. J. Hazard Mat., 138,
409,
[235] Streat, M., Patrick, J.W., and Comporro Perez, M.J. (1995). Sorption of phenol
and para-chlorophenol from water using conventional and novel activated
carbons. Water Res., 29, 467.
[236] San Miguel, G., Fowler, G.D., and Sollars, C.J. (2002). Adsorption of organic
compounds from solution by activated carbons produced from waste tire rubber. Sep. Sci. Technol., 37, 663.
[237] Srivastava, S.K., Tyagi, R., and Pant, N. (1989). Adsorption of heavy metal ions
on carbonaceous material developed from the waste slurry generated in local
fertilizer plants. Water Res., 23, 1161.
[238] Srivastava, S.K., and Tyagi, R. (1994). Removal of substituted phenols by activated carbon (developed from fertilizer waste) and some thermodynamic
aspects. Fresenius Environ. Bull., 3, 12.
[239] Srivastava, S.K., and Tyagi, R. (1995). Competitive adsorption of substituted
phenols by activated carbon developed from the fertilizer waste slurry. Water
Res., 29, 483.
[240] Gupta, V.K., Ali, I., Suhas, and Saini, V.K. (2006). Adsorption of 2,4-D and carbofuran pesticides using fertilizer and steel industry wastes. J. Colloid Interface
Sci., 299, 556.
[241] Panday K.K., Prasad G. and Singh V.N. Copper (II) Removal from Aqueous
Solutions by Fly Ash. Water Res., 19, 869, 1985.
[242] Haribabu E., Upadhya Y.D. and Upadhyay S.N. Removal of Phenols from
Effluents by Fly Ash. Int. J. Environ. Studies, 43, 169, 1993.
[243] Viraraghavan T. and Ramakrishna K.R. Fly Ash for Color Removal
from Synthetic Dye Solutions. Water Qual. Res. J. Can, 34, 505,
1999.
[244] Panday K.K., Prasad G. and Singh V.N. Removal of Cr (VI) from Aqueous Solutions by Adsorption on Fly Ash-Wollastonite. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol.,
34, 367, 1984.
836
V. K. Gupta et al.
[245] Gupta G.S., Prasad G. and Singh V.N. Removal of Chrome Dye from Aqueous
Solutions by Mixed Adsorbents: Fly Ash and Coal. Water Res., 24, 45, 1990.
[246] Janos P., Buchtova H. and Ryznarova M. Sorption of dyes from aqueous solutions onto fly ash. Water Res., 37, 4938, 2003.
[247] Shimada M., Hamabe H., Iida T., Kawarada K. and Okayama T. The properties
of activated carbon made from waste newsprint paper. J. Porous Mat., 6, 191,
1999.
[248] Tay J.H., Chen X.G., Jeyaseelan S. and Graham N. Optimising the preparation
of activated carbon from digested sewage sludge and coconut husk. Chemosphere, 44, 45, 2001.
[249] Rio S., Faur-Brasquet C., Coq L.L., Courcoux P. and Cloirec P.L. Experimental design methodology for the preparation of carbonaceous sorbents from
sewage sludge by chemical activationapplication to air and water treatments.
Chemosphere, 58, 423, 2005.
[250] Tan. T.C., Chia. C.K. and Teo C.K. Uptake of Metal Ions by Chemically Treated
Human Hair. Water Res., 19, 157, 1985.
[251] Dakiky M., Khamis M., Manassra A. and Mereb M. Selective adsorption of
chromium(VI) in industrial wastewater using low-cost abundantly available
adsorbents. Adv. Environ. Res., 6, 533, 2002.
[252] Cooper C., Jiang J.Q. and Ouki S. Preliminary evaluation of polymeric Fe- and
Al-modified clays as adsorbents for heavy metal removal in water treatment.
J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 77, 546, 2002.
[253] Ravi V., Bose S.C., Kumar T.M.P. and Siddaramaiah Decolorization of distillery
effluent using poly(vinyl chloride) and cellulose acetate phthalate as adsorbents. J. Macromol. Sci. Part A-Pure Appl. Chem., 43, 1247, 2006.
[254] Liu J.C. and Huang C.P. Adsorption of Some Substituted Phenols Onto Hydrous
ZnS(s). J. Colloid Interface Sci., 153, 167, 1992.
[255] Bernard S., Chazal P. and Mazet M. Removal of organic compounds by adsorption on pyrolusite ([beta]-MnO2). Water Res., 31, 1216, 1997.
[256] Hossain M.A., Kumita M., Michigami Y. and Mori S. Kinetics of Cr(VI) adsorption on used black tea leaves. J. Chem. Eng. Jpn., 38, 402, 2005.
[257] Ho, Y.S., Chiang, T.H., and Hsueh, Y.M. (2005). Removal of basic dye from
aqueous solution using tree fern as a biosorbent. Process Biochem., 40, 119.
[258] Ozverdi, A., and Erdem, M. (2006). Cu2+, Cd2+ and Pb2+ adsorption from
aqueous solutions by pyrite and synthetic iron sulphide. J. Hazard. Mater., 137,
626.
[259] Tripathy, S.S., Bersillon, J.L., and Gopal, K. (2006). Removal of fluoride from
drinking water by adsorption onto alum-impregnated activated alumina. Sep.
Purif. Technol., 50, 310.
[260] Hassan, S.S.M., Awwad, N.S., and Aboterika, A.H.A. (2006). Removal of
chromium (VI) from wastewater using Sorels cement. J. Radioanal. Nucl.
Chem., 269, 135.
[261] Tunali, S., Ozcan, A.S., Ozcan, A., and Gedikbey, T. (2006). Kinetics and
equilibrium studies for the adsorption of Acid Red 57 from aqueous solutions
onto calcined-alunite. J. Hazard. Mater., 135, 141.
[262] Unlu, N., and Ersoz, M. (2006). Adsorption characteristics of heavy metal ions
onto a low cost biopolymeric sorbent from aqueous solutions. J. Hazard.
Mater., 136, 272.
Low-Cost Adsorbents
837
[263] Ho, Y.S., and Ofomaja, A.E. (2006). Biosorption thermodynamics of cadmium
on coconut copra meal as biosorbent. Biochem. Eng. J., 30, 117.
[264] Panda, G.C., Das, S.K., Chatterjee, S., Maity, P.B., Bandopadhyay, T.S., and
Guha, A.K. (2006). Adsorption of cadmium on husk of Lathyrus sativus:
Physico-chemical study. Colloid Surf. B-Biointerfaces, 50, 49.
[265] Catalfamo, P., Arrigo, I., Primerano, P., and Corigliano, F. (2006). Efficiency of
a zeolitized pumice waste as a low-cost heavy metals adsorbent. J. Hazard.
Mater., 134, 140.
[266] Tsai, W.T., and Lai, C.W. (2006). Adsorption of herbicide paraquat by clay
mineral regenerated from spent bleaching earth. J. Hazard. Mater., 134, 144.
[267] Akhurst, D.J., Jones, G.B., Clark, M., and McConchie, D. (2006). Phosphate
removal from aqueous solutions using neutralised bauxite refinery residues
(Bauxsol (TM)). Environ. Chem., 3, 65.
[268] Gurses, A., Dogar, C., Karaca, S., Acikyildiz, M., and Bayrak, R. (2006). Production of granular activated carbon from waste Rosa canina sp. seeds and its
adsorption characteristics for dye. J. Hazard. Mater., 131, 254.
[269] Hussain, S., Aziz, H.A., Isa, M.H., Adlan, M.N., and Asaari, F.A.H. (2007).
Physico-chemical method for ammonia removal from synthetic wastewater
using limestone and GAC in batch and column studies. Bioresour. Technol., 98,
874.
[270] Singh, K.K., Singh, A.K., and Hasan, S.H. (2006). Low cost bio-sorbent wheat
bran for the removal of cadmium from wastewater: Kinetic and equilibrium
studies. Bioresour. Technol., 97, 994.
[271] Shin, E.W., Karthikeyan, K.G., and Tshabalala, M.A. (2007). Adsorption mechanism of cadmium on juniper bark and wood. Bioresour. Technol., 98, 588.
[272] Deshkar, A.M., Bokade, S.S., and Dara, S.S. (1990). Modified Hardwickia binata bark for adsorption of mercury (II) from water. Water Res., 24, 1011.
[273] Al-Asheh, S., and Duvnjak, Z. (1997). Sorption of cadmium and other heavy
metals by pine bark. J. Hazard. Mater., 56, 35.
[274] Sarin, V., and Pant, K.K. (2006). Removal of chromium from industrial waste
by using eucalyptus bark. Bioresour. Technol., 97, 15.
[275] Gupta, G.S., and Shukla, S.P. (1996). An inexpensive adsorption technique for
the treatment of carpet effluents by low cost materials. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol.,
13, 15.
[276] Ahmaruzzaman, M., and Sharma, D.K. (2005). Adsorption of phenols from
wastewater. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 287, 14.
[277] Pehlivan, E., and Arslan, G. (2007). Removal of metal ions using lignite in
aqueous solutionlow cost biosorbents. Fuel Process. Technol., 88, 99.
[278] Mohan, D., and Chander, S. (2006). Single, binary, and multicomponent sorption of iron and manganese on lignite. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 299, 76.
[279] McKay, G., Allen, S.J., McConvey, I.F., and Otterburn, M.S. (1981). Transport
processes in the sorption of colored ions by peat particles. J. Colloid Interface
Sci., 80, 323.
[280] Ho, Y.S., and McKay, G. (1998). Kinetic model for lead (II) sorption on to
peat. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 16, 243.
[281] Ho, Y.S., and McKay, G. (2000). The kinetics of sorption of divalent metal ions
onto sphagnum moss peat. Water Res., 34, 735.
838
V. K. Gupta et al.
[282] Masri, M.S., Reuter, F.W., and Friedman, M. (1974). Binding of metal cations
by natural substances. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 18, 675.
[283] Peniche Covas, C., Alvarez, L.W., and Argulles Monal, W. (1992). The adsorption of mercuric ions by chitosan. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 46, 1147.
[284] Chiou, M.-S., Ho, P.-Y., and Li, H.-Y. (2004). Adsorption of anionic dyes in
acid solutions using chemically cross-linked chitosan beads. Dyes Pigm., 60,
69.
[285] Muraleedharan, D.R., Venkobachar, C., and Leela, I. (1994). Investigations of
fungal fruiting bodies as biosorbents for the removal of heavy metals from
industrial processing streams. Sep. Sci. Technol., 29, 1893.
[286] Aksu, Z., and Calik, A. (1999). A comparative study of the biosorption of iron
(III)-cynide complex anions to Rhizopus arrhizus and Chlorella vulgaris. Sep.
Sci. Technol., 34, 817.
[287] Yu, Q., and Kaewsarn, P. (1999). Binary adsorption of copper (II) and cadmium
(II) from aqueous solutions by biomass of marine alga, Durvillaea potatorum.
Sep. Sci. Technol., 34, 1595.
[288] Li, Z., Li, Z., Yaoting, Y., and Changzhi, C. (1998). Removal of lead from
aqueous solution by non-living Rhizopus nigricans. Water Res., 32, 1437.
[289] Srivastava, S.K., Tyagi, R., Pant, N., and Pal, N. (1989). Studies on the removal of some toxic metal ions, part II: Removal of lead and cadmium by
montmorillonite and kaolinite. Environ. Technol. Letts., 10, 275.
[290] Hawash, S., El-Abd, H., El-Geundi, M.S., Nassar, M.M., and Farah, J.Y. (1993).
Useful adsorption equilibriums by means of natural clay. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol.,
10, 231.
[291] El-Guendi, M.S., Ismail, H.M., and Attyia, K.M.E. (1995). Activated clay as an
adsorbent for cationic dyestuffs. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 12, 109.
[292] Khan, S.A., Rehman, R., and Khan, M.A. (1995). Adsorption of chromium (III),
chromium (VI) and silver (I) on bentonite. Waste Manage., 15, 271.
[293] Gupta, G.S., and Shukla, S.P. (1996). An inexpensive adsorption technique for
the treatment of carpet effluents by low cost materials. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol.,
13, 15.
[294] Tavani, E.L., and Volzone, C. (1997). Adsorption of chromium (III) from a
tanning wastewater on kaolinite. J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem., 81, 143.
[295] Rauf, N., Ikram, M., and Tahir, S.S. (1999). Adsorption studies of Cu (II) from
aqueous/acidic solutions onto bentonite. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 17, 431.
[296] Ozacar, M., and Sengil, I.A. (2006). A two stage batch adsorber design for
methylene blue removal to minimize contact time. J. Environ. Manage., 80,
372.
[297] Hu, Q.H., Qiao, S.Z., Haghseresht, F., Wilson, M.A., and Lu, G.Q. (2006).
Adsorption study for removal of basic red dye using bentonite. Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res., 45, 733.
[298] Ozacar, M. (2006). Contact time optimization of two-stage batch adsorber
design using second-order kinetic model for the adsorption of phosphate onto
alunite. J. Hazard. Mater., 137, 218.
[299] Khazali, O., Abu-El-Halawa, R., and Al-Souod, K. (2007). Removal of copper
(II) from aqueous solution by Jordanian pottery materials. J. Hazard. Mater.,
139, 67.
Low-Cost Adsorbents
839
[300] Cimino, G., Passerini, A., and Toscano, G. (2000). Removal of toxic cations
and Cr (VI) from aqueous solution by hazelnut shell. Water Res., 34, 2955.
[301] Demirbas, E., Kobya, M., Oncel, S., and Sencan, S. (2002). Removal of Ni (II)
from aqueous solution by adsorption onto hazelnut shell activated carbon:
Equilibrium studies. Bioresour. Technol., 84, 291.
[302] Kumar, A., Rao, N.N., and Kaul, S.N. (2000). Alkali-treated straw and insoluble
straw xanthate as low cost adsorbents for heavy metal removalpreparation,
characterization and application. Bioresour. Technol., 71, 133.
[303] Osma, J.F., Saravia, V., Toca-Herrera, J.L., and Couto, S.R. (2007). Sunflower
seed shells: A novel and effective low-cost adsorbent for the removal of the
diazo dye Reactive Black 5 from aqueous solutions. J. Hazard. Mater., 147,
900.
[304] Arami, M., Limaee, N.Y., Mahmoodi, N.M., and Tabrizi, N.S. (2005). Removal
of dyes from colored textile wastewater by orange peel adsorbent: Equilibrium
and kinetic studies. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 288, 371.
[305] El-Geundi, M.S., and Aly, I.H. (1992). Equilibrium studies during the adsorption
of acid dyestuffs onto maize cob. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 9, 121.
[306] Hawthorne-Costa, E.T., Winkler-Hechenleitner, A.A., and Gomez-Pineda, E.A.
(1995). Removal of cupric ions from aqueous solutions by contact with corncobs. Sep. Sci. Technol., 30, 2593.
[307] Guo, X., Zhang, S., and Shan, X.-Q. (2008). Adsorption of metal ions on lignin.
J. Hazard. Mater., 151, 134.
[308] Arami, M., Limaee, N.Y., Mahmoodi, N.M., and Tabrizi, N.S. (2006). Equilibrium
and kinetics studies for the adsorption of direct and acid dyes from aqueous
solution by soy meal hull. J. Hazard. Mater., 135, 171.
[309] Asfour, H.M., Fadali, O.A., Nassar, M.M., and EI-Geundi, M.S. (1985). Equilibrium studies on adsorption of basic dyes on hardwood. J. Chem. Technol.
Biotechnol., 35A, 21.
[310] Vaishya, R.C., and Prasad, S.C. (1991). Adsorption of copper (II) on sawdust.
Indian J. Environ. Prot., 11, 284.
[311] Zarraa, M.A. (1995). A study on the removal of chromium (VI) from waste
solutions by adsorption on to sawdust in stirred vessels. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol.,
12, 129.
[312] Raji, C., and Anirudhanm, T.S. (1998). Batch Cr (VI) removal by
polyacrylamide-grafted sawdust: Kinetics and thermodynamics. Water Res., 32,
3772.
[313] Hamdaoui, O. (2006). Batch study of liquid-phase adsorption of methylene
blue using cedar sawdust and crushed brick. J. Hazard. Mater., 135, 264.
[314] Lima, E.C., Royer, B., Vaghetti, J.C.P., Brasil, J.L., Simon, N.M., dos Santos,
J.A.A., Pavan, F.A., Dias, S.L.P., Benvenutti, E.V., and Silva, E.A.D. (2007).
Adsorption of Cu (II) on Araucaria angustifolia wastes: Determination of the
optimal conditions by statistic design of experiments. J. Hazard. Mater., 140,
211.
[315] Lee, S.-H., and Yang, J.-W. (1997). Removal of copper in aqueous solution by
apple wastes. Sep. Sci. Technol., 32, 1371.
[316] Manju, G.N., Raji, C., and Anirudhan, T.S. (1998). Evaluation of coconut husk
carbon for the removal of arsenic from water. Water Res., 32, 3062.
840
V. K. Gupta et al.
[317] Mohan, D., Singh, K.P., and Singh, V.K. (2006). Trivalent chromium removal
from wastewater using low cost activated carbon derived from agricultural
waste material and activated carbon fabric cloth. J. Hazard. Mater., 135, 280.
[318] Babel, S., and Kurniawan, T.A. (2004). Cr (VI) removal from synthetic wastewater using coconut shell charcoal and commercial activated carbon modified
with oxidizing agents and/or chitosan. Chemosphere, 54, 951.
[319] Khalid, N., Ahmad, S., Kiani, S.N., and Ahmed, J. (1998). Removal of lead from
aqueous solutions using rice husk. Sep. Sci. Technol., 33, 2349.
[320] Khalid, N., Ahmad, S., Kiani, S.N., and Ahmed, J. (1999). Removal of mercury
from aqueous solutions by adsorption to rice husks. Sep. Sci. Technol., 34,
3139.
[321] Tiwari, D.P., Singh, D.K., and Saksena, D.N. (1995). Hg (II) adsorption from
aqueous solutions using rice-husk ash. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 121, 479.
[322] Dubey, S.P., and Gopal, K. (2007). Adsorption of chromium (VI) on low cost
adsorbents derived from agricultural waste material: A comparative study. J.
Hazard. Mater., 145, 465.
[323] Mendez, A., Fernandez, F., and Gasco, G. (2007). Removal of malachite green
using carbon-based adsorbents. Desalination, 206, 147.
[324] Amarasinghe, B.M.W.P.K., and Williams, R.A. (2007). Tea waste as a low cost
adsorbent for the removal of Cu and Pb from wastewater. Chem. Eng. J., 132,
299.
[325] Sekaran, G., Shanmughasundaram, K.A., Mariaappan, M., and Raghavan, K.V.
(1995). Utilisation of a solid waste generated in leather industry for removal
of dye in aqueous solution. Indian J. Chem. Technol., 2, 311.
[326] Namasivayam, C., and Senthilkumar, S. (1999). Adsorption of copper (II) by
waste Fe (III)/Cr (III) hydroxide from aqueous solution and radiator manufacturing industry wastewater. Sep. Sci. Technol., 34, 201.
[327] Kuan, W.-H., Lo, S.-L., Wang, M.K., and Lin, C.-F. (1998). Removal of Se (IV)
and Se (VI) from water by aluminum-oxide-coated sand. Water Res., 32, 915.
[328] Huang, Y.-H., Hsueh, C.-L., Cheng, H.-P., Su, L.-C., and Chen C.-Y. (2007).
Thermodynamics and kinetics of adsorption of Cu (II) onto waste iron oxide.
J. Hazard. Mater., 144, 406.
[329] Srivastava, S.K., Bhattacharjee, G., Tyagi, R., Pant, N., and Pal, N. (1988).
Studies on the removal of the some toxic metal ions from aqueous solutions
and industrial waste, I: Removal of lead and cadmium by hydrous iron and
aluminium oxide. Environ. Technol. Letts., 9, 1173.
[330] Gupta, V.K., Rastogi, A., Dwivedi, M.K., and Mohan, D. (1997). Process development for the removal of zinc and cadmium from wastewater using slaga
blast-furnace waste material. Sep. Sci. Technol., 32, 2883.
[331] Ortiz, N., Pires, M.A.F., and Bressiani, J.C. (2001). Use of steel converter slag
as nickel adsorber to wastewater treatment. Waste Manage., 21, 631.
[332] Khattri, S.D., and Singh, M.K. (1999). Color removal from dye wastewater using
sugar cane dust as an adsorbent. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 17, 269.
[333] Mckay, G., El-Geundi, M., and Nassar, M.M. (1997). Equilibrium studies for the
adsorption of dyes on bagasse pith. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 15, 251.
[334] Aly, H.M., and Daifullah, A.A.M. (1998). Potential use of bagasse pith for the
treatment of wastewater containing metals. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 16, 33.
Low-Cost Adsorbents
841
[335] Farinella, N.V., Matos, G.D., and Arruda, M.A.Z. (2007). Grape bagasse as a
potential biosorbent of metals in effluent treatments. Bioresour. Technol., 98,
1940.
[336] Darwish, N.A., Halhouli, K.A., and Al-Dhoon, N.M. (1996). Adsorption of phenol from aqueous systems onto spent oil shale. Sep. Sci. Technol., 31, 705.
[337] Lopez, E., Soto, B., Arias, M., Nunez, A., Rubinos, D., and Barral, T. (1998).
Adsorbent properties of red mud and its use for wastewater treatment. Water
Res., 32, 1314.
[338] Gupta, V.K., Gupta, M., and Sharma, S. (2001). Process development for the
removal of lead and chromium from aqueous solutions using red mudan
aluminium industry waste. Water Res., 35, 1125.
[339] Gupta, V.K., Srivastava, S.K., and Mohan, D. (1997). Equilibrium uptake, sorption dynamics, process optimization and column operations for the removal
and recovery of malachite green from wastewater using activated carbon and
activated slag. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36, 2207.
[340] Srivastava, S.K., Tyagi, R., Pal, N., and Mohan, D. (1997). Process development
for removal of substituted phenol by carbonaceous adsorbent obtained from
fertilizer waste. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 123, 842.
[341] Diamadopoulos, E., Ioannidis, S., and Sakellaropoulos, G.P. (1993). As (V)
removal from aqueous solutions by fly ash. Water Res., 27, 1773.
[342] Lin, J.X., Zhan, S.L., Fang, M.H., Qian, X.Q., and Yang, H. (2008). Adsorption
of basic dye from aqueous solution onto fly ash. J. Environ. Manage., 87, 193.
[343] Wang, S., Li, L., Wu, H., and Zhu, Z.H. (2005). Unburned carbon as a low-cost
adsorbent for treatment of methylene blue-containing wastewater. J. Colloid
Interface Sci., 292, 336.
[344] Hasnain Isa, M., Siew Lang, L., Asaari, F.A.H., Aziz, H.A., Azam Ramli, N., and
Dhas, J.P.A. (2007). Low cost removal of disperse dyes from aqueous solution
using palm ash. Dyes Pigm., 74, 446.
[345] Apak, R., Atun, G., Guclu, K., and Tutem, E. (1996). Sorptive removal of
cesium-137 and strontium-90 from water by unconventional sorbents, 2: Usage
of coal fly ash. J. Nucl. Sci. Technol., 33, 396.
[346] Eren, Z., and Acar, F.N. (2007). Equilibrium and kinetic mechanism for Reactive
Black 5 sorption onto high lime Soma fly ash. J. Hazard. Mater., 143, 226.
[347] Zhang, F.-S., and Itoh, H. (2003). Adsorbents made from waste ashes and
post-consumer PET and their potential utilization in wastewater treatment. J.
Hazard. Mater., 101, 323.
[348] Solari, P., Zouboulis, A.I., Matis, K.A., and Stalidis, G.A. (1996). Removal of
toxic metals by biosorption onto nonliving sewage sludge. Sep. Sci. Technol.,
31, 1075.
[349] Lister, S.K., and Line, M.A. (2001). Potential utilisation of sewage sludge and
paper mill waste for biosorption of metals from polluted waterways. Bioresour.
Technol., 79, 35.
[350] Seredych, M., and Bandosz, T.J. (2007). Removal of cationic and ionic dyes
on industrial-municipal sludge based composite adsorbents. Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res., 46, 1786.
[351] Atun, G., Hisarli, G., Sheldrick, W.S., and Muhler, M. (2003). Adsorptive removal of methylene blue from colored effluents on fullers earth. J. Colloid
Interface Sci., 261, 32.
842
V. K. Gupta et al.
[352] Chakravarty, S., Dureja, V., Bhattacharyya, G., Maity, S., and Bhattacharjee,
S. (2002). Removal of arsenic from groundwater using low cost ferruginous
manganese ore. Water Res., 36, 625.
[353] Sharma, D.C., and Forster, C.F. (1993). Removal of hexavalent chromium using
sphagnum moss peat. Water Res., 27, 1201.
[354] Tare, V., Chaudhari, S., and Jawed, M. (1992). Comparative evaluation of soluble and insoluble xanthate process for heavy metal removal from wastewaters.
Water Sci. Technol., 26, 237.
[355] USGS. 2005 minerals yearbook: Peat. Available at http://minerals.usgs.gov/
minerals/pubs/commodity/peat/peat myb05.pdf (accessed October 3, 2007).
[356] Mathialagan, T., and Viraraghavan, T. (2002). Adsorption of cadmium from
aqueous solutions by perlite. J. Hazard. Mater., 94, 291.
[357] Toles, C.A., Marshall, W.E., Wartelle, L.H., and McAloon, A. (2000). Steam- or
carbon dioxide-activated carbons from almond shells: Physical, chemical and
adsorptive properties and estimated cost of production. Bioresour. Technol.,
75, 197.

Low Cost Adsorbents

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Low Cost Adsorbents

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See

Low Cost Adsorbents: Growing Approach to

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

640 PUBLICATIONS 33,084 CITATIONS

153 PUBLICATIONS 3,294 CITATIONS

Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya

113 PUBLICATIONS 2,690 CITATIONS

20 PUBLICATIONS 3,196 CITATIONS

Available from: Peter Carrott

This article was downloaded by: [B-on Consortium - 2007]

Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology

Low-Cost Adsorbents: Growing Approach to Wastewater Treatmenta Review

Wastewater Treatmenta Review',Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology,39:10,783 842

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 39:783842, 2009

Low-Cost Adsorbents: Growing Approach

Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009

Centro de Qumica de Evora

Lus Antonio Verney, 7000-671 Evora, Portugal

Industrial, agricultural, and domestic activities of humans have

Address correspondence to V. K. Gupta, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of

Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009

The UN policy on sustainable development, established by Agenda 2110

Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009

Dissolved and Non-Dissolved Chemicals

Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009

Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009

r Radioactive substances. Radioactive substances14 should be handled with

Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009

been banned, various substitutes such as toxaphene, lindane, parathion,

METHODOLOGIES FOR POLLUTION CONTROL

Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009

ADSORPTION AND ION EXCHANGE

discussed using similar equations, which bring up a mixture of concepts.

Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009

Alumina and Bauxite

Zeolites and Ion Exchange Resin

Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009

adsorbents and show ion exchange property7375 as well as molecular

Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009

(carbon dioxide, oxygen, or steam) usually in the temperature range 600

The product formed by either of the methods is known as activated

phenols,25,99102 dyes,103106 pesticides,59,107,108 chlorinated hydrocarbons,109

Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009

SPENT ACTIVATED CARBON

Low-Cost Alternative Adsorbents

Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009

of the adsorbent, and the additional costs of regeneration if required, can

Dissolved and nondissolved chemicals

One of the utilization methods

Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009

Alumina and bauxite

Mixing precursor with

Downloaded By: [B-on Consortium - 2007] At: 15:55 14 October 2009

Washing and drying

Washing and drying

Sieving and storage

Sieving and storage

Sieving and storage

Adsorption and testing of

34.22, 25.84, 11.90

Cu (II), Pb (II), Ni (II) 18.9, 68.5, 12.0

Cu (II), Pb (II), Ni (II) 17.8, 56.7, 13.0

4070 min for Cu