Copyright Patrick Hanley, Ph.D.

1998-2016
Contents
Basic Concepts
Definition of aerodynamics and fluid dynamics. Find out why aerodynamics is a difficult topic
of study.
Forces on an Airplane. Why Does it Fly?
Introduction to forces acting on an airplane. Explanation of the role of the lift, drag, weight
and thrust forces as related to flight.
What is Density?
Definition of density; Comparison of air and water densities; The relations between lift, drag
and density.
What is Viscosity?
Definition of viscosity; Introduction to the role of viscosity in aerodynamic drag.
What is Compressibility?
Definition of compressibility; Speed of sound definition; Mach number definition; PrandtlGlauert rule.
What is Pressure?
Definition of pressure; the relations between lift and drag and pressure; conservation laws
and pressure.

Non-Dimensional Numbers
Some non-dimensional number in aerodynamics include the lift, drag and moment
coefficients in addition to Reynolds number and Mach number.
Reynolds Numbers
Definition and importance of Reynolds number. Table with sample calculations of Reynolds
number.
Lift, Drag and Moment Coefficients
Definition and calculation of lift, drag and moment coefficients. Importance of consistent units
examined in calculations.
The Wing
Role of different shaped wings; Definition of induced drag; Introduction to tapered,
sweptback and delta wings.
How Does a Wing Generate Lift?
The relations between conservation of mass, conservation of momentum, streamlines,
Bernoulli equation, pressure and lift are discussed in this section.
How Does a Wing Generate Drag?
This discussion about the generation of profile drag includes the role of boundary layers,
transition points, adverse pressure gradients and laminar flow airfoils.
Airfoils
This glossary of terms define the parts of an airfoil and characterize different types of
airfoils.
How to Pick Airfoil for Wings
How to use the lift and drag polar plot, the lift and moment versus angle of attack plots to
compare airfoils and choose the correct one for your application.
Designing and Testing Airfoils
This section introduces inverse design and airfoil modification concepts for designing airfoils.
An overview of experimental and computer testing of airfoils is presented.
Considerations for Builders
Further consideration for builders examine the role of airfoil thickness in the design of wings.
Definitions
A glossary of several terms in the field of aerodynamics.
References
Books and software for further exploration of aerodynamics.

1. Basic Concepts
We live in an ocean of air. We breathe in air and our bodies use it to nourish our cells. We
need air to live. Without air, we would die but more importantly, without air, we could not fly.
What is air?
Air is a fluid. Under certain conditions, it is very similar to water. The study of fluid motion is
call fluid dynamics. The study of air motion is called aerodynamics. Aerodynamics is a
branch of fluid dynamics. Fluid dynamics is a branch of physics.

Why is the motion of air different from the motion of water?

Different fluids have different properties. The properties of a fluid tell us how it will behave in
different situations. The properties of density , viscosity, compressibility are the most
important in aerodynamics. At low speeds, the motion of water and air are almost identical.
However, at high speeds, the compressibility of air changes the characteristics of the flow.
This is especially true when the speed of an airplane approaches or exceeds the speed of
sound.
The speed of sound in air is less than the speed of sound in water. In air, the speed of sound
is about 330 m/s. In water it is around 1480 m/s. In a truly incompressible fluid, the speed of
sound is infinite. Some airplanes can fly near or faster than the speed of sound. The basic
physical principles, laws and equations are the same for subsonic, transonic and supersonic
flight. However, the actual behavior of air is different for the various speeds. Supersonic and
transonic flight are characterized by shock waves or sonic booms. This behavior does not
occur in our experience with water travel. There is yet to be a craft that can travel at the
speed of sound in water.
Aerodynamics is the study of airflow past solid bodies. Aerodynamics can be studied by
applying the physical laws and then using mathematics to solve the governing equations.
This is called theoretical aerodynamics. In some instances, solutions to the governing
equations are obtained using the computer. This study is called computational aerodynamics
or computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Yet in other instances, aerodynamics can be studied
using a wind tunnel or actual flight. This branch is called applied aerodynamics or
experimental methods.
Why is aerodynamics difficult?
The study of aerodynamics is complicated by the fact that the fluid properties such as
velocity, pressure and density are functions of three spatial variables (x,y and z) and time.
These equations are difficult to solve using numerical mathematics and impossible to solve
using current analytical methods. Sometimes the equations can be simplified to two spatial
variables without loss of physical significance. However, the mathematical representation of
the flow field remains a partial differential equation in at least two spatial dimensions and
maybe time. The equations must also be solved in a complex geometry which represents the
airfoil, flaps, slats and other airplane components.
In short, the study of aerodynamics is difficult and many simplifications must be made to
arrive at solutions that can be used by aerospace engineers. Modern tools such as
computers, state of the art wind tunnels, electronics and flight testing have joined forces with
classical analytical techniques to gain an understanding of aerodynamics.
Within the past 30 years, the digital computer has played an instrumental role in
aerodynamics simulations. Early, supercomputers and mainframes were required to simulate
the simplest flow fields. However, recently, the personal computer and advances in
numerical algorithms have made it possible to simulate complicated fluid flows on the
personal computer.
Lower priced and faster personal computers have also become a tool for visualizing the
aerodynamics flow field using advanced computer graphics with resolutions once available
on only the most expensive workstations and minicomputers. With user-friendly and cost
effective software such as VisualFoil that are designed to specifically for the personal
computer environment, aerodynamics simulations are now available to anyone wishing to
design and build airplanes.

2. Forces
There are four force components acting on an airplane in level flight. The forces are lift, drag,
thrust and weight. These forces are illustrated in the diagram below:

The four forces acting on an airplane are lift, drag, weight and thrust. The wing must be
designed to support the airplane's weight in level flight. Greater drag means a more powerful
engine and a higher rate of fuel consumption.
As shown in the diagram, the lift force must be large enough to balance the airplane's
weight. Lift is the force that keeps the airplane in flight. Most of the lift is produced by the
wings of the airplane. Other parts of the airplane such as the fuselage and the tail can also
produce lift. A symmetric fuselage can produce lift when the airplane is flown at any angle of
attack. Some airplane fuselages are designed to produce additional lift even when the
airplane is not flown at an angle of attack. The horizontal tail, however, is often designed and
oriented to produce negative lift. This is necessary for the longitudinal static stability of the

airplane.
Drag and thrust are the other forces acting on an airplane during level flight. The diagram
shows that the thrust must be large enough to balance or exceed the drag.
Drag is produced by all of the airplane's components including the wing, tail and fuselage.
The lift and drag forces are dependent on the speed of the airplane. As we will later see, the
lift and drag are proportional to the square of the speed of the airplane. So doubling the
airplane's speed will result in a four-fold increase in the lift and drag forces.
The thrust force is due to the engine. The force produced by the engine must exceed the
drag if the airplane is to fly. The amount of thrust force can determine how quickly the
airplane can take off and how fast the airplane can climb from one altitude to the next. An
airplane with a high drag force would require a powerful engine. Reducing the drag force can
improve the airplane's aerodynamics performance and fuel consumption.
A quick study of the airplane force diagram can give a good idea of the lift coefficient that the
wing must develop to keep the airplane in level flight. The lift coefficient is equal to the
weight of the airplane divided by the product of the square of the flight speed, the density
and one half of the wing planform area.

The lift coefficient developed by an airfoil section must be greater than the number for the
entire airplane computed using the above expression. Because of three-dimensional effects,
the airfoil lift coefficient must be greater than the lift coefficient for the wing. The wing must
be able to support the airplane's weight at the slower takeoff and landing speeds. In addition,
the airplane's minimum power must be at least equal to the airplane's drag multiplied by its
speed. More power is required for takeoff, climbing, landing and other maneuvers. Airfoils
must be chosen to take into account high lift and low drag requirements of the airplane.

3. What is Density?
The density of a fluid tells us how much space or volume a fluid having a certain weight can
occupy. A high density fluid will fill a relatively small volume or container even though the
fluid is quite heavy. A low density fluid will fill a large container even though the fluid is
relatively light. A gallon of water weighs more than a gallon of air. This is because at
standard atmospheric temperature and pressure (STP) air is less dense than water.
In general, the density of a fluid can vary from one location to the next. The density at a
particular point can be obtained by isolating a small enough volume around the point in
which the density does not vary. The local density can be computed by dividing the mass
enclosed in the region by the small volume. So the average density can be calculated by
Density= Mass/Volume
The density is defined as the mass of the air divided by the volume that it occupies.
The density of air at 70 degrees F and atmospheric pressure is 0.0023 slugs/cubic ft. The
density of water at the same temperature and pressure is 1.94 slugs/cubic ft. In the figure
below, the gallon of water will be about 843 time heavier than a gallon of air.

A gallon of water weighs about 843 times more that a gallon of air due to the density
difference between water and air.
The weight of a gallon of air can be found by multiplying the volume of air by its density and
then by the acceleration due to gravity. The acceleration due to gravity is about 32.2
feet/second2 or about 9.81 meters/second2 .Often, the density of the air can vary from one
location to the next. This is because air is highly compressible and nominal changes in
pressure and temperature can affect the density. On the other hand, the density of water is
almost constant from one location to the next. Water is very close to being incompressible or
constant/fixed density.
The lift developed by a wing is proportional to the density. For the same lift coefficient and
velocity, the lift can be increased by 10% corresponding to a 10% increase in the density.
Conversely, the lift can be decreased by 10% corresponding to a 10% decrease in density.
For an airplane in flight, the density is dependent on altitude. The density decreases as the
altitude increases.
Lets us do an experiment to show the difference in lift generated in water and air. Consider a
wing with a chord of 4 inches and span of two feet. The lift generated by this wing in water
will approximately be 800 time greater than in air due to the difference in density alone.
Consider the wing being dragged at about 10 miles per hour. An approximate calculation
shows that the lift developed in water to be about 900 ounces while the lift developed in air
to be about .93 ounces. This difference is dramatic and shows the dependence of the lift on
the density of the fluid. However, the difference is not only due to the density multiplier in the
lift equation. Density also plays another role in the determination of the Reynolds number. In
air, the Reynolds number is much smaller than the Reynolds number in water. In the above
test conditions, the wing will stall much sooner in air than in water because of the relatively
low density of air. Secondly, the thicker boundary layer around the airfoil in air will cause the
lift coefficient to be lower than the lift coefficient in water.
For aerodynamics calculations, the density of air can be found in an atmospheric table.
Generally, the density of air varies with altitude, temperature and humidity. An atmospheric
table lists the density, pressure, temperature as a function of altitude.

Table 1.0 Standard Atmosphere Table

4. What is Viscosity?
Air also has friction. Viscosity is a measure of friction in the air. Highly viscous fluids are very
sticky. If you insert a stick into a pail of water, you will extract less fluid than if you insert the
same stick into a pail of oil. Oil is more viscous than water. Viscosity is important in
aerodynamics because it determines the drag on aerodynamic surfaces such as the
fuselage, wing and tail. Viscosity contributes to the drag in more than one way. An obvious
way in which viscosity contribute to the drag is by the introduction of friction drag. This is
similar to pulling a box of sand across the floor. The resistance or drag is due to friction. The
effects of the air's viscosity across a wing results in friction drag.

Oil is more viscous than water. When a stick is placed in oil and in water, to water is quick to
run off while the oil lingers due to its greater viscosity.
Another contribution of viscosity is in massive flow separation and stall. Viscosity contributes
to losses of momentum in moving air. This loss is often described in pipe flow as total
pressure loss or head loss. This loss cannot be recovered. So when air flows over a highly
curved surface it immediately begins to lose small quantities momentum. The flow begins to
separate when there is not enough momentum left to resist an adverse pressure gradient.
An adverse pressure gradient tends to push the flow in a direction opposite to which it is
flowing. The separation of the flow leads to reduction in lift and increased drag. In
aerodynamics, this is known as stall. Physically, this is due in part to viscosity in the air.
Sometimes in aerodynamic analysis, it is necessary to simplify the theory and neglect
viscosity. When this is done, the air is said to be inviscid. Inviscid fluids are not found in the
real world. However, this assumption can lead to solutions that can approximate the
measured results quite well. The inviscid assumption is useful for computing the lift
developed by an airfoil, however, inviscid theory is not appropriate for computing profile
drag.
In the foregoing discussion of momentum, viscosity, velocity and pressure, it must be noted
that velocity, pressure and density are highly coupled in a standard flow field. It is therefore

prudent to assume that the flow is not due to the pressure gradient or the pressure gradient
is due to the flow.
The viscosity coefficient can be found in atmospheric tables as a function of altitude.
Alternatively, if the temperature is known, the coefficient of viscosity can be found using
Sutherland's Law, a formula for computing the viscosity as a function of temperature.

5. What is Compressibility?
Compressibility is a measure of how much a fluid can be squeezed. All fluids are
compressible. However, some fluids are more compressible than others. Air is very
compressible. On the other hand, water is not very compressible. It is very difficult to
squeeze water. Fluid flow analysis can often be simplified by assuming that the fluid is not
compressible or incompressible. If a fluid is incompressible then the density will not change
from one location to the next in the fluid.
The compressibility of a fluid is a measure of the change in pressure required to change the
volume of the fluid. The diagram shows two pistons and cylinders. The left piston is higher
that the right. The left can be placed in the same position as the one on the right by applying
a force. If the fluid is not very compressible a large force is required to change the position of
the piston. If the fluid is very compressible, then a very small force will be required to change
the position of the piston and decrease the volume.

Compressibility is a measure of the difference in force required to change the volume of a

fluid from one level to the next.
Why is compressibility important? Compressibility determines the speed of sound in air. If
the fluid is incompressible, then the speed of sound is infinite. The speed of sound is finite in
a compressible fluid. What is the speed of sound in air? It turns out that the speed of sound
varies with temperature only. The expression for the speed of sound is
which works out to be about 330 meters/second at 68 degrees F. In the equation
as the ratio of specific heats and its value is 1.40 for air.

is known

Why is the speed of sound important in aerodynamics? Air behaves differently when its
speed is above or below the speed of sound. When an airplane travels at speeds that is
slower than the speed of sound, it is called subsonic. Supersonic speeds are speeds above
the speed of sound. Transonic speeds are speeds close to the speed of sound. When
airplanes travel at transonic speeds, pockets of the local flow near the airplane are subsonic
while other parts are supersonic.
When an airplane flies, signals are emitted ahead that travel at the speed of sound. These
signals let the undisturbed air "know" that the airplane is approaching. The undisturbed air
particles can then set up a pattern to accommodate the approaching aircraft. What happens
when the airplane travels faster than the speed of sound? The disturbances that warns the

air ahead of the aircraft do not get there before the aircraft. Consequently, nature sets up an
alternative methods of diverting the flow field around the aircraft. A shock wave or sonic
boom is set up in the flow field. The pressure, temperature, density and air flow magnitude
and directions change rapidly across the shock wave. The shock wave allows the flow to
"instantaneously" turn away from the path of the airplane. The shock wave introduce an
additional drag component known as wave drag.
The Mach number is a non-dimensional number relating the airplane velocity to the speed of
sound. The Mach number is defined as (airplane velocity) divided by (speed of sound). An
airplane traveling at a Mach number of .5 is traveling at 1/2 the speed of sound. An airplane
traveling at a Mach number of two (2.0) is traveling at twice the speed of sound.
The Mach number is good indicator of whether or not compressibility can be considered
important in a particular aerodynamics study. As a rule, compressibility must be considered
to affect the aerodynamics at about a Mach numbers of 0.2. For subsonic flows, the lift
obtained using incompressible information can be modified to account for compressibility.
Using the Prandtl-Glauert rule, the lift can be divided by the square root of (one minus the
square of the Mach number). The following expressions can be used to correct the lift and
moment using the Prandtl-Glauert rule.

Important Points
1. If your airplane flies faster than a Mach number of 0.2 then compressibility is important.
You cannot accurately use incompressible flow data to analyze your airfoils.
2. Flight at transonic and supersonic speeds can have additional drag due to shock waves.
This form of drag is called wave drag.
3. You can modify your incompressible lift and moment coefficient data to be more accurate
for higher subsonic Mach numbers using the Prandtl-Glauert formula shown above.

6. What is Pressure?
All fluids, including air, has weight. The weight that a fluid exerts on objects is a distributed
force. It is not a "concentrated force" such as a pound of sugar or the weight of a baseball.
The atmosphere exerts a distributed force all around us. This is know as atmospheric
pressure. The pressure is a distributed forces or force per unit area. To get the total force
due to pressure, we must add up the total area and multiply it by the pressure. In addition,
the direction of action of the force will be perpendicular to the area normal direction. At
standard temperature and pressure the distributed force due to atmospheric pressure is
2116 pounds per square foot. Each square foot supports 2116 pounds of force due to the
column of air above it. Since atmospheric pressure act all around us, there is no discernible
forces acting on us due to atmospheric pressure. Sometimes the pressure is not evenly
distributed so adding the total force is a complicated exercise that can be determined by
mathematical integration.
Pressure also depends on density and temperature. If the temperature is not too high or low,
the ideal gas law can be used to determine the pressure of air if the temperature and density

are known. To find the pressure, multiply the temperature by the density and the gas
constant. The gas constant can be found experimentally and is usually tabulated in a
handbook of physical constants
Lift and Drag and Pressure
When an airplane's wing flies through air, a pressure distribution is established over the
wing. When the pressure is numerically summed or integrated with respect to the wing's
surface area (over the entire surface of the wing), the net force in the direction perpendicular
to the flow velocity is called lift.

When an airplane flies in air, a pressure distribution is established about the wing. The figure
shows the pressure coefficient at the airfoil' surface. A negative value of the pressure
coefficient means the pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure. A positive value means
that the local pressure is higher than atmospheric pressure. The lift can be computed by
integrating with respect the wing's surface area.
In addition, component of pressure force in the flow direction is known as pressure or form
drag. There is also a drag component due to air friction. As the wing flies through the air,
there is air resistance that is quite similar to dragging a box across the floor. This is know as
friction drag. Together form drag and friction drag are know as profile drag. The discussion of
drag is not limited to profile drag. Upcoming chapters will discuss other major components of
drag that can act on the wing. The physics of the airfoil flow establishes the particular pattern
of airflow past the airfoil to provide lift.
There are three physical laws at work in aerodynamics. These laws are the conservation of
mass, momentum and energy.
The law of conservation of mass is primarily responsible for setting up the pattern of flow
past the wing. This law determines the magnitude and direction of the fluid velocity close to
the wing.
The law of conservation of momentum is essentially Newton's second law, i.e., Force is
equal to the time rate of change of (mass X velocity). This law commonly known as (F =
mass X acceleration or F=Ma) relates forces acting on the wing due to pressure and friction
to rates of momentum change of fluid particles in the vicinity of the wing.
The law of conservation of energy is not very important in low speed flight. In low speed
flight, the conservation of energy can be used to determine the rate of heat transfer to and
from the wing if there is a temperature difference between the wing's surface and air.
However, in high speed flight, the conservation of mass, momentum and energy are integral
in establishing the complete aerodynamics characteristics of the wing.

In the above discussion, I described the three laws as separate physical phenomena along
with their primary importance. In reality, especially high speed flight, the laws are very
closely related. The three laws cannot be separated as a rule but in certain types of flows it
is intuitive to separate them to derive an understanding of the flow field.
The conservation of momentum relates the velocity and pressure distribution. If the pressure
is know the lift on the airfoil can be found by integrating the pressure over the surface of the
airfoil. Also, if the velocity distribution is know, the lift and drag forces can be found by using
the conservation of momentum statement in the region enclosing the airfoil.
Important Points
Summing the pressure and area elements over a surface will result in a net force. The
component of the force opposite the direction of travel is pressure or form drag. The
component perpendicular to the direction of travel is lift.
The pressure distribution about the airfoil can affect the flow in the boundary layer and
determine the position of the transition point.
The conservation laws for aerodynamics relates velocity, density, temperature and pressure.

7. Non-Dimensional Parameters
The lift coefficient, drag coefficient, moment coefficient and Reynolds number are all nondimensional numbers used in aerodynamics. Non-dimensional numbers are quantities that
do not have a measurement such a length, time and mass. They are scientifically derived to
represent a particular phenomena in the physics of flight. The process of scientifically
determining non-dimensional numbers is called the Buckingham PI Theorem.
Non-dimensional numbers are useful tools in aerodynamics. While the lift and drag have
dimensions of force (pounds or newtons), the lift and drag coefficients have no units. This
means that a single lift coefficient can be used to find the lift on a number of different sized
wings and for a variety of other flight conditions.
When aeronautical engineers analyze airfoils, they record the data in terms of coefficients
and other non-dimensional numbers. This allows the data to be used by many people with
similar test conditions. If your wing has the same airfoil shape and Reynolds Number, then
you can use the experimental data regardless of your airplane's velocity and wing area. For
example, a computer program or handbook might list an airfoil at zero angle of attack with a
lift coefficient of 0.228. This number can be used by a model airplane builder as well as a full
scale airplane builder regardless of the dimension of the wing and the speed of flight of the
airplane.
The dynamic pressure is a quantity used to find the lift and drag from the coefficients. To
calculate the dynamic pressure, multiply the air density by the square of the airplane's
velocity then divide by two. In addition to the dynamic pressure, you will need to multiply the
lift coefficient by the wing's area. You can find the lift coefficient from a handbook or a
computer program for your particular airfoil. You can compute the lift by multiplying the lift
coefficient by the dynamic pressure and the area of the wing. If you double the area of your
wing, then your lift will double. The drag acting on your wing can be found in a similar way.
Multiply the drag coefficient by the dynamic pressure and the wing's area to find the drag.
Doubling the area of the wing will double the drag.
When you investigate the performance of your airfoil, another non-dimensional number is
important. This number is the Reynolds Number. The Reynolds number tells us about the
effect of viscosity on the wing. Large Reynolds numbers tells us that viscosity is not very
important. Low Reynolds numbers tells us that viscosity is very important. Remember,

viscosity is responsible for drag and stall. So, if viscosity is very important, the lift and drag
can differ from what we can expect when viscosity is not important. It is necessary to find the
lift and drag coefficients that corresponds to the Reynolds number for your airfoil. To find the
Reynolds number for your airfoil, multiply the chord length of your wing by the air density and
your airplane's velocity then divide the product by the coefficient of viscosity. You can often
find the coefficient of viscosity for air in a handbook or reference book that tabulate the
properties of the atmosphere. The drag coefficient is low for large Reynolds numbers but
high for low Reynolds number.
Important Points
1. Dimensionless quantities were introduced as tools in aerodynamics. These quantities
such as the lift, drag and moment coefficients along with the Reynolds number can be used
to find the aerodynamic characteristics of several wings without repeating an experiment or
calculation.
2. Often, data in books and charts are given in terms of non-dimensional numbers. It is
important to know how to use the data for your specific applications.
3. Non-dimensional numbers often used in aerodynamics are the Reynolds number, Mach
number, pressure coefficient, lift coefficient, drag coefficient and moment coefficient.

8. The Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number is a non-dimensional parameter (number) that tells how viscosity will
affect your model. If the Reynolds number is low, then viscosity is very important and will
have a big effect on your model. For low Reynolds numbers, the drag coefficient will be high
and the airfoil can stall earlier than for high Reynolds numbers. Most experimental data and
calculations are given in terms of Reynolds number. When you look at a graph of lift
coefficient versus angle of attack, it is plotted for a certain Reynolds number. You must know
the Reynolds number for your airfoil before using this data.
To calculate the Reynolds number you can do the following:
Reynolds Number = air density * Chord length * Airplane Speed / Air Viscosity
coefficient
When you have determined the Reynolds number you can use it to determine the lift and
drag coefficients for your airfoil from experimental and/or computational graphs and
diagrams. The curves will give you the lift and drag coefficients corresponding to your
particular Reynolds number. You can then use these numbers to find the lift and drag forces
on your wing.
To fly in level flight, your lift must be equal to your weight. So if you know the weight of your
airplane then you need to choose an airfoil and angle of attack combination to match your
airplane weight at your target flight speed. However, you must also know your drag for this
configuration. If your drag is too high then you will need a bigger engine, burn more fuel or
have a poor rate of climb or sink rate. So you should carefully pick the airfoil that gives you
the best lift/drag ratio for your purposes.
Picking the best airfoil starts with finding the Reynolds number for you wing. The lift and drag
coefficients for two identical airfoils will depend on the Reynolds number. Therefore, most
experimental and computational results for airfoil data are listed as functions of Reynolds
Number. Consider the following table as an exercise in computing the Reynolds number. The
Reynolds number is computed from condition at sea level where the density is 1.2 kg/cubic
meter and the coefficient of dynamic viscosity is
Pa-s.

Important Points
1. Compute the Reynolds number before determining the lift and drag coefficients for your
airfoil. The lift, drag and moment coefficients data for airfoils are given in terms of Reynolds
number in many charts, handbooks and computer software. You must determine the
Reynolds number for your particular airfoil to effectively use these charts.
2. In computing the Reynolds number, be sure to place all of the parameters in the proper
units.
3. For practical applications, the Reynolds number is typically between 10,000 and 20 million
for air. The Reynolds number is never negative.

9. Lift, Drag and Moment Coefficients

The lift, drag and moment coefficients are non-dimensional numbers that can be used to
compute the lift, drag and moment acting on an airfoil or wing.
The lift coefficient is defined as:

The drag coefficient is defined as:

The moment coefficient is defined as:

In the above formulas for the lift drag and moment (aerodynamic) coefficients, is the air
density, V is the aircraft's velocity and A is the planform area of the wing.
Experimental and computational results for an airplane's wing is usually given in terms of the
lift, drag and moment coefficients. Expressing aerodynamics data in terms of coefficients
means that the same data can be used to find the forces on many wings instead of just one.
The actual forces acting on a wing can be found from the aerodynamics coefficients for
example:
Consider an airplane flying with a speed of 200 miles/hour, having a wingspan of 21 feet and
chord of 5 feet. If the wing is rectangular, the plan form area will be (span X chord) 105
square feet. At sea level, the density is 0.002376 slugs/ft3. Let us further consider the wing
cross section is a NACA 2412 airfoil at 1 degree angle of attack. The lift coefficient given is
therefore 0.334 and the drag coefficient is 0.00599 for a computed Reynolds number based

on chord of about 12 Million. We can then compute the lift, drag and moment acting on the
wing based on the coefficients.
Before we begin, it is important to have all the numbers in the same units. For example we
will perform the calculation in feet for length, seconds for time, slugs for mass and square
feet for area. This means that we have to change our units of velocity in miles per hour to
feet per second. This can be done as follows:

Important Points
1. Be sure that all units are compatible before computing the lift, drag and moment
coefficients.
2. The lift force computed using the lift coefficient is perpendicular to the direction of travel
while the drag force is opposite.
3. Before using the lift and drag coefficient for your design, be sure that they correspond to
the correct Reynolds number for your application. The rule is to first compute the Reynolds
number and then pick the lift and drag coefficients at the specific Reynolds number.
4. The lift and drag coefficients given for airfoil data do not give the lift and drag for a finite
wing. The airfoil data represents the infinite wing data.

10. The Wing

The Planform
In "Basic Concepts", we talked about the elementary principles of aerodynamics. However,
we have not yet discussed what keeps an airplane airborne and what causes it to fly well.
The simple answer is the wing. There are all type of wings out there. If you look at your
airplane from a top view you will see the planform of the wing. From the top, the wing is
almost rectangular in shape. This shape is know as the planform of the wing. There are truly
rectangular planforms, tapered planforms, swept back planforms and delta wings.
Planform and Performance
The shape of the wing can affect the overall performance of the airplane. Why?. The
airplane gets its lift from the difference in pressure between the upper surface and lower
surface of the wing. So in level flight, the pressure on the upper surface of the wing is on the
average less than the pressure on the lower surface of the wing. The result for this pressure

difference is lift. The amount of lift depends on the area of the wing. Remember, pressure is
a distributed force and the magnitude of the total force depends on the area over which the
pressure is acting. That is why the difference in pressure on the upper and lower surfaces of
the wing might be small compared to atmospheric pressure. However, the area of the wing is
large and when the pressure and area are combined the resulting force can be huge. This
force is large enough to keep a heavy airplane sustained in level flight.
How can the shape of the wing affect the performance of the airplane? Earlier we said that
air will flow from a region of low pressure to a region of high pressure. This causes a leakage
of air at the tip of the wing. Air will flow from the lower surface of the wing to the upper
surface around the tip. This movement of air leads to a vortical flow of air around the wing
and into the wake of the airplane. This vortical flow is know as the tip or trailing vortex. It is
similar to a horizontal tornado starting at the wing and trailing in the direction of the tail and
into the wake of the airplane. The strength of the tip vortex depends on the lift generated by
the wing. Big and heavy airplanes with high wing loadings produce strong tip vortices. The
wing loading is the term given to the weight of the airplane divided by the planform area of
the wing. Tip vortices of commercial jetliners have been known to affect the flight of smaller
aircraft when they get caught in the wake of the airliners.
The trailing vortex system can cause the angle of attack along the wing to change locally.
That is, if your wing is flying at an angle of attack of about 5 degrees geometric angle of
attack, then the trailing vortex system will cause the angle of attack that the wing actually
see to deviate slightly from 5 degrees all along to wing. This local change in angle of attack
is called the induced angle of attack. The effective angle of attack, the combinations of
induced and geometric angles of attack, is what the local airfoil actually sees. The induced
will cause the lift vector to rotate slightly backwards and add to the drag. This contribution to
the overall drag is significant and is known as induced drag. Hence, for the wing, there is
profile drag and induced drag. Induced drag is also called "drag due to lift", after all, it is the
generation of lift that produces the strong trailing vortices that causes the lift force to rotate a
little backwards and oppose the motion of the airplane.
How can we minimize the effects of induced drag?
The planform shape of the wing has a lot to do with induced drag. We can show
mathematically that an elliptical shaped wing will produce the minimum induced drag. The
Spitfire Airplane during WWII is an example of an airplane with an elliptical wing planform.
The DC 3 aircraft also had a nearly elliptical planform. Long thin wings also produce less
induced drag. The induced drag is inversely proportional to the aspect ratio. The aspect
ration is defined as the square of the span divided by the area of the wing. In addition, some
designers use winglets. Winglets are placed at the tip of the wings as a barrier to prevent the
air from flowing from the lower surface of the wing to the upper surface. The Voyager
aircraft, the airplane that flew around the world on a single tank of gas, has a high aspect
ratio wing and winglets. The idea was to reduce the drag and conserve fuel.
Straight and Tapered Wings
The most common wing planform used by low speed aircraft is the rectangular (straight)
wing or the tapered wing.

Straight rectangular wing showing span and chord dimensions. The mid-span chord is
known as the root chord. The straight wing can have aerodynamic or geometric twist to
improve its aerodynamic performance.
The rectangular plan form is characterized by the ratio of span to chord length. The aspect
ratio is a number that represents this ratio. For the straight wing the aspect ratio is defined
as

As mentioned before, the induced drag is inversely proportional to the aspect ration. So, the
higher the aspect ratio, the lower the induced drag.
The unswept tapered wing is slightly related to the rectangular wing. However, for the
tapered wing, the root chord is longer than the tip chord. The ratio of the root chord to the tip
chord is know as the taper ratio.

The straight tapered wing is characterized by its aspect ratio and taper ratio. The tapered
wing also introduces the concept of mean aerodynamic chord, an average chord along the
wing which has the moment coefficient of the entire wing.
Although the rectangular and tapered wings are similar, the induced angle of attack along
the wings are different. For the rectangular wing, the induced angle of attack is highest near
the root chord. This sometime leads to flow separation in this area. As the taper ratio is
increased, the flow separation will move outwards towards the tip of the wing. The tapered
wings will tend to have a lower induced drag than the rectangular wing.
The concept of mean aerodynamic chord can be applied to the tapered wing. The moment
coefficient of the mean aerodynamic chord is the same as the moment of the entire wing.

The following sections review variations of the rectangular and tapered wing. As airplane
flight speed increased the swept back and delta wings were introduced to take advantage of
conditions at transonic and supersonic flight speed.
Swept Wings
Other aerodynamics benefits can be gained by the shape of the wing's planform. Most
commercial jetliners such as the Boeing 727, 737, 747 etc. have sweptback wings. Swept
wings are also common in fighter jets such as the F18 and F16. The purpose of the
sweptback wing is to alleviate the affects of flight at transonic speeds. Transonic speeds is
flight close to the speed of sound.
When the airplane flies close to the speed of sound the local airspeed close to the airplane
will vary above and below the speed of sound. The will also be local shock waves.
Sweptback wings allow the component of flow over the thickest part of the wing to be less
than the airplane speed. This reduces the possibility of having local shock waves on the
wing. Shock waves are a source of drag called wave drag.

The diagram show a swept tapered wing. The swept wing is characterized by the sweep
back angle. Swept back wing are used at transonic flight speeds to reduce the effects of
wave drag due to local shock waves.
Advantages
1 Sweptback wings can be used to alleviate the effects of flight at transonic speeds. This
allows the airplane to fly faster without too much wave drag penalty.
2 The wings can be tapered to reduce the induced drag.
3 Sweptback wings reduce the possibility of divergence. Divergence can cause the wing to
tear off in flight.
Delta Wings
Delta wings are triangular shaped wings. The Concorde and the space shuttle both utilize
delta wings. They are common on supersonic aircraft for a number of reasons. One reason
is to prevent the bow shock wave from interacting with the wing. Here are some
disadvantages and advantages of delta wings:

The above figure shows a delta wing. This wing is a tapered swept back wing where the tip
chord is zero in length. Delta wings are useful in supersonic flight where bow shocks can
interfere with straight wings.
Advantages
1 Delta wings produce high lift. The trailing vortex is attached to the wing providing an
additional vortex lift. The vortex lift can double the overall lift coefficient at moderate to high
angles of attack. At zero angle of attack, the vortex lift is zero.
2 Delta wings are ideal for airplanes flying at supersonic speeds because the shock wave
cannot interact with aircraft wing.
3 The sweptback nature of the delta wing provides high structural integrity since the problem
of divergence is reduced as in the case of the swept wing.
4 High angles of attack are possible due to additional vortex lift.
Disadvantages
1 The delta wing has a low aspect ratio which increases the induced drag. It is unlikely that a
delta wing would be a good candidate for the design of a sailplane or the voyager aircraft.
2 The delta wing is difficult to build. The ribs of the wing vary from a finite root chord to a
point at the tips.
3 A common misconception when using delta wings to improve model aircraft lift is to use the
vortex lift capabilities of the wing for these purpose. However, the delta wing must be placed
a relatively high angle of attack. The delta wing also produce a large nose-down moment. In
some aircraft it is necessary to add a canard section close to the aircraft's nose to
compensate for the moment.
Important Points
The wing's planform provides the necessary surface area for lift. Here are some points to
consider when thinking about the planform of an airplane:
Performance - The shape of the wing determines the induced drag and local flow field
characteristics. Rectangular wings can provide good lifting characteristics at the expense of
induced drag and flow separation near the root chord.
Range considerations - High aspect ratio wing can reduce the induced drag of an airplane.
This allows for longer flights and better fuel economy. However, there are structural and
weight penalties for high aspect ratio.

Speed - Building for speed? Your wing must be either be swept back or delta to reduce the
wave drag and avoid interference with shock waves (sonic boom).
Structure - high aspect ratio wings require strong lightweight material. The more wing, the
more weight. Furthermore, a wing is a cantilevered beam that is supported at the fuselage. A
long slender wing requires good support at the wing-fuselage junction.

11. How a Wing Generates Lift

When air flows around objects, in this case an airfoil, the fluid particles must avoid the
object. The law of conservation of mass plays "traffic cop" to ensure that the particles
orderly avoid the airfoil and yet conserve mass. Conservation of mass sets up roadways and
speed limits that the air particles must follow and obey to safely avoid the airfoil. These
roadways are the streamlines.

Streamlines past a NACA 4412 Airfoil Showing Stagnation, Transition and Separation
Points. The conservation of mass determines the flow field due to the airfoil shape and
orientation to the incoming stream. The following rules can be assumed: 1. At the
stagnation points, the streamlines tend to move farther apart. 2. When the flow turn corners
into the immediate stream direction, the streamlines tend to get closer together. 3. When
the flow turn corners away from the immediate flow direction, the streamlines tend to get
further apart.
The above picture shows the speed limits that is established by the conservation of mass at
various locations along the chord of the NACA 4412 airfoil. Near the leading edge, the air
speed limit is zero. This point is called a stagnation point. The location of the stagnation
point will change when the angle of attack changes. All fluid particles getting to this point
must stop. The speed limit rapidly increase to more than two time the stream velocity along
the roadway (streamline) over the leading edge of the airfoil and to the upper airfoil surface.
On the lower surface, the speed limit starts from zero at the stagnation point and increases
to about the free stream speed. The air particle speed limit is the same at the trailing edge
point where the roadways (streamlines) from the upper and lower surfaces meet.
The velocity distribution for the air around the airfoil can be determined for engineering
purposes by constructing and solving an equation for the conservation of mass. When the
flow is considered to be ideal, (constant density and inviscid), the conservation of mass
equation can be used to solve for the air speed. However, the conservation of mass equation
can give many solutions that satisfy the equation and related boundary conditions on the
airfoil. The boundary conditions on the airfoil states that the airfoil must remain a streamline.
One solution can admit an infinite velocity at the trailing edge of the airfoil. This solution is
not physically plausible in everyday life. The Kutta Condition is often applied to the solution

of the conservation of mass equation to restrict the conservation of mass solutions to

realistic flows. The Kutta Condition imposes the restriction that the air flowing from the
trailing edge must be finite.
The conservation of mass is primarily responsible for establishing a velocity distribution
about the airfoil. It is the law that tells the air how to move out of the path of the wing. There
is yet another physical law that governs the momentum of the particles. In everyday life
when we drive on the highway, speeding-up and slowing-down produces forces on our
bodies. These forces are a result of the acceleration and deceleration of the car. This is
similar for air particles. When conservation of mass forces the air to accelerate or
decelerate, the momentum of the particles change and the rates of change cause forces to
act on the particles. If we consider a small box near the airfoil where air is entering and
leaving we can make a statement of conservation of momentum for the air in that area.
Because air is a fluid, the box is not rigid so air can enter and leave and the associated
momentum of the particles entering and leaving the area can be subtracted and added to
the rate of change of momentum in the box. The conservation of momentum statement
balances the forces due to acceleration of the fluid particles in the box, the rate of change of
momentum due to air entering and leaving the box and pressure acting on the surface of the
box.
The conservation of momentum law leads to a statement relating the air density, velocity and
pressure at all locations around the airfoil. If the air is considered to be irrotational and
incompressible then the conservation of momentum leads to the Bernoulli equation. The
Bernoulli equation relates the velocity, density and pressure at a particular point in the flow
field.
These two physical laws are primarily responsible for the lift acting on an airfoil. First, when
the airfoil approaches, air must move away. How the air moves is governed by the
conservation of mass. Secondly, the moving air changes the pressure field around the airfoil.

Pressure coefficient at the surface of the airfoil. The lower curve show the pressure
coefficient on the lower surface while the upper curve show the pressure coefficient on the
upper surface of the airfoil. A positive value of the pressure coefficient denotes a region
where the local pressure is higher than atmospheric while a negative value denotes a region
where the pressure is lower than atmospheric.
Lift is usually taught of as the upwards force acting on the wing of an airplane. In level flight,
the lift acts opposite to the weight and hence allows the airplane to stay aloft. The definition

of lift, however, is a force acting on the wing that is perpendicular to the direction of motion.
Lift is the force obtained due to pressure acting on the lower and upper surface of the wing.
The pressure on the upper surface combines to produce a force acting in the downwards
direction. While the pressure on the lower surface combines to produce a force acting in the
upwards direction. When the downwards force is less than the downwards force, the result is
an upwards lifting force or positive lift. A positive lift is easily obtained by setting a
symmetrical airfoil to a positive angle attack. This is the situation that is utilized by aircraft
builders to provide an upwards force on the airplane. However, when the downwards force is
greater than the upwards force, the result is a downwards acting lift. Race car builders utilize
airfoils that provide a negative lifting force to design spoilers that increase the traction on the
wheels of cars. When the upwards force is equal to the downwards force, the result is an
airfoil without lift. All airfoils have an angle where the resultant lift would be zero. This angle
is referred to the angle for zero lift. The angle for zero lift for a symmetric airfoil is zero. The
angle for zero lift is a negative value for cambered airfoils.
Important Points
This is what happens when air flows towards a wing
Fact 1: The wing and the air cannot occupy the same space at the same time.
Fact 2: The air must move out of the path of the wing because the air will not flow through
the wing. Therefore, the air must move around the wing.
Fact 3. The air cannot move in any random direction or at any random velocity as the wing is
approaching. The motion of the air must obey the physics of aerodynamics. In particular, the
air must obey the conservation of mass.

12. How a Wing Generates Drag

Consider the flow of air along a flat wall. At first glance, the air is flowing at a constant
velocity along the wall. Close to the wall, however, the velocity of the air is lower than the
free stream velocity. As we look closer and closer at the surface of the wall, the velocity
decreases. At the exact wall surface, the velocity is zero. The region near the wall where the
velocity is less than 99% of the stream velocity is called the boundary layer. The boundary
layer thickness is the height above the wall where the flow velocity is 99% the speed of the
flow field.
The above exercise was brought to you courtesy of friction. Friction is the same phenomena
that causes resistance to motion of an object being dragged along the ground. Friction
causes the fluid particles close to the wall to "stick" to the wall. Particles close to the wall
slow down from the free stream velocity due to the effects of friction. The loss of velocity or
momentum due to friction cannot be recovered by the fluid. This loss translate to form drag
developed by the airfoil.
Like the wall in the above thought exercise, a boundary layer also develops along the airfoil.
The boundary layer increases in thickness along the length of the airfoil. The boundary layer
thickness at the leading edge of the airfoil is close to zero and then increases along the
length of the airfoil. As we will see later, how the boundary layer develops along the airfoil
depends on the Reynolds number, whether the flow is laminar or turbulent and on the
transition point.
The boundary layer thickness is a function of the Reynolds number. At very high Reynolds
number, the boundary layer will be relatively thin. A thinner boundary layer results in a lower
profile drag coefficient since the momentum loss is confined to a smaller region around the
airfoil. Less momentum is wasted in accelerating the fluid particles close to the airfoil.

However, a thick boundary layer results in a high drag because of the loss of momentum in a
greater region of the fluid. As a rule, the lift coefficient is almost independent of Reynolds
number at small angles of attack and moderate to high Reynolds numbers. However, at low
Reynolds numbers, the boundary layer is so thick that this rule cannot be applied.

Boundary layer outline on the surface of a NACA 0012 airfoil at a high Reynolds number.
The boundary layer is not visible until close to the leading edge. Thin boundary layers lead
to low profile drag and an almost linear lift vs. drag graph.

Boundary layer outline on the surface of a NACA 0012 airfoil at a moderate Reynolds
number. The boundary layer is evident at the 20% chord point and the separation points
along the airfoil are no longer directly at the trailing edge.

Boundary layer outline on the surface of a NACA 0012 airfoil. At a low Reynolds number, the
boundary layer is very thick and visible close to the leading edge. The drag coefficient is
higher for lower Reynolds numbers due to the thick boundary layer.

Why is the boundary layer important?

The boundary layer reduces the momentum of the flow field near the airfoil. This momentum
reduction is never recovered and contributed to the profile drag. The momentum thickness
gives a measure of the momentum reduction along the airfoil. Like the boundary layer
thickness, the momentum thickness is zero at the leading edge and increased along the
chord of the airfoil. The momentum thickness is a measure of the friction drag along the
surface of the airfoil and also can be related to the profile drag. The profile drag combines
both the friction and form drag.
The boundary layer also deflects the flow around the airfoil and effectively creates a new
inviscid surface. The displacement thickness is a measure of how much the viscous effects
displace the effective inviscid surface of the airfoil. The displacement thickness can affect he
lift and moment values of the airfoil since it has effectively created a new airfoil.
The boundary layer can be laminar or turbulent. To see laminar and turbulent flows, open a
faucet very slowly. As the water runs from the exit you'll see an almost transparent stream of
water close to the exit of the faucet. This stream of water is laminar. Further down the
stream, waves will appear in the stream. This the point where the flow will transition to
turbulent flows. Finally, towards the end of the stream, the flow is unsteady, it randomly
splashes, it breaks into small pieces and it is bubbly.
The situation with the faucet is very similar to the flow developed over an airfoil. When a
wing flows through the still air, the flow close to the leading edge is laminar. Then away from
he leading edge, the flow go through transition. The air develops wave like structures similar
to those in the stream of water. Finally, the waves grow and flow becomes turbulent.
What are the characteristics of laminar flows?
The boundary layer thickness in laminar flows is smaller than turbulent flows. In addition, the
momentum thickness is also less. This means that when the flow is laminar, the profile drag
will be lower than when the flow is turbulent.
The position along the airfoil where the boundary layer switches from laminar to turbulent is
called the transition point. The position of the transition point depends on several factors.
These include the Reynolds number, airfoil shape, the pressure distribution along the airfoils
and the roughness/smoothness of the airfoil surface.
The turbulent boundary layer is thicker than its laminar counterpart. Why? The fluid particles
in the turbulent boundary layer do not travel in a straight path. They tend to deviate from
their path as they travel. In doing so, the particles in the boundary layer occasionally enter
the free stream and exchange momentum with the particles there. Consequently, the
particles in the boundary layer gain momentum, while the particles into the stream loses
momentum. Because the stream has a momentum loss, the border of the boundary layer is
extended outwards. The momentum thickness is also increased and hence the increase in
drag. In the case of the faucet, the turbulent flow draws air into the air/water interface
creating a bubbly opaque flow. The laminar part of the stream has a distinct air/water
interface. The flow there is almost transparent.
A Tale of Two Airfoils
Why is there a difference in the profile drag coefficient between two symmetrical airfoils of
the same maximum thickness and at the same Reynolds number? The drag coefficients (as
computed by VisualFoil) are 0.005927 and 0.004181 for the NACA 0012 and NACA 66-012

respectively. The Reynolds number is chosen to be 3 million so comparisons can be made

with experimental data. The following section provides a brief explanation. Enter the
candidates, the NACA 0012 and the NACA 66-012.

NACA 0012 airfoil at 0 degrees angle of attack and Reynolds number of 3 million.

NACA 66-012 airfoil at 0 degrees angle of attack and Reynolds number of 3 million.
An examination of the two airfoils shows that the maximum thickness of NACA 0012 airfoil
occurs at the 25% chord location while the maximum thickness of the NACA 66-012 airfoil
occurs at about the 50% chord location. Why is this important?
The NACA 0012 Story
The flow speed near the surface of the NACA 0012 is increasing in speed up to the 25%
chord location. After this point, the surface turns away from the general flow direction and
causes the flow particles to decelerate. The leads to an adverse pressure gradient past the
25% point on the airfoil.

Pressure coefficient for the NACA 0012 airfoil. The decrease in velocity results in a adverse
pressure gradient past the 25% point along the surface of the airfoil. An adverse pressure
gradient promotes transition of the boundary layer from a laminar to turbulent flow.
And here is the point of this section. Adverse pressure gradients tend to promote transition to
turbulence. Strong adverse pressure gradients tend to cause the flow to separate. Turbulent
flows lead to higher profile drag coefficients on streamlined bodies than laminar flows. (Note
that on none streamlined bodies, turbulent flow can reduce the form drag).
The NACA 66-012's Story
The maximum thickness of the NACA 66-012 airfoil occurs near the 50% chord location. The
contour of the airfoil provides the condition for a favorable pressure gradient up to the 60%
chord position.

Pressure coefficient at the surface of the NACA 66-012 airfoil showing a positive pressure
gradient up to the 60% point. A positive (favorable) pressure gradient delays the tendency of
the boundary layer to transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
Transition is delayed past the 60% chord location and hence the reductions in drag.

This graph compares the transition points of the NACA 0012 and 66-012 airfoils. The
transition point of the 0012 airfoil is at the 40% chord position while the transition point for
the 66-0012 airfoil is at the 60% position. This delay in transition results in a lower profile
drag for the 66-012 airfoil.
Important Points
1. The drag coefficient of airfoils depend on the Reynolds number and boundary layer
thickness. The thicker the boundary layer, the higher the drag coefficient.
2. The drag coefficient can be reduced by delaying the transition of the boundary layer from
laminar to turbulent flow.
3. The shape of the airfoil can be used to control the surface pressure acting on the airfoil
and hence the transition point. This is particularly true for higher Reynolds number flows.
Airfoils can be designed with a favorable pressure gradient that promote a greater region of
laminar flows along the surface of the airfoils.

13. Airfoils
We have seen that most wings have an almost rectangular planform shape while some
others are triangular (delta wing). Hmm.. What gives a wing its function? It is the airfoil or
wing cross section.
A wing is designed to produce lift and minimize drag. The airfoil shape is the most important
feature in fulfilling this role of the wing. It is true that almost any cross sectional shape will
produce lift. The exception of this is perhaps a circular cross section. Although, just about
any shape will develop lift, most will cause the aircraft to vibrate while in many cases the
profile drag would be great.
The airfoil shape allows the wing to generate lift without producing high drag. It also gives a
very smooth ride. The airfoil shape determines how the wing will behave. It determines how
much lift, drag and torsion the wing will generate. Airfoils can be designed for high lift, low
drag, transonic flight and supersonic flight. It is true that good performing wings depend on
good performing airfoils.

Here is a typical airfoil shape. The airfoil is streamlined and introduces no sharp edges into
the flow field such as a square or triangular shape.
The above figure shows a schematic diagram of an airfoil. Here are a few terms associated
with the physical appearance and function of airfoils:
Leading Edge -The tip of the airfoil. The coordinate of the leading is (0,0).
Trailing edge -The end of the airfoil. The coordinate of the trailing edge is (1,0).
Chord line - A straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges.
Camber line - A curved line dividing the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil. The chord
line and camber line are the same for a symmetric airfoil.
Thickness Distribution - A symmetric airfoil. The thickness distribution is characterized by
the maximum thickness to chord ratio and the location of maximum thickness.
Angle of Attack - The angle between the chord line and the flow velocity.
Coordinates - A set of points that define the upper and lower surfaces of an airfoil in an (x,y)
coordinate system.
Aerodynamic center - The aerodynamic center is the location along the airfoil where the
moment coefficient does not change with a change in angle of attack. The aerodynamic
center is located near the c/4 location for a thin airfoil.
Center of pressure - The center of pressure is the location along the airfoil which can be
regarded as the point of action of the lift. If the lift was a concentrated force, it would be
applied at the center of pressure.
Multi Element Airfoil - A multi-element airfoil is made up of various segments. At the trailing
edge, for example, the will exist a flap or multiple flap segments that are not directly
connected to the rest at the airfoils. The leading edge can have various devices such as
slats and slots that allow the wing to develop high lift in landing and takeoff. Multielement
airfoils are common on jet airliners and other airplane that are required to land and take-off
at speeds well below their cruising velocities.
Airfoils are designed for different roles. Usually an airfoil design would involve tradeoffs to
achieve a specific design mission. For example, an airfoil might be designed to provide high
lift however the profile drag might be high. On the other hand, an airfoil might be designed
for low profile drag but with a low lift coefficient penalty. The following terms are usually
applied to airfoils:
Thin airfoil - It is often convenient in aerodynamic analysis to assume an airfoil is thin. An
airfoil can be considered "thin" if the maximum thickness to chord ratio and the maximum
camber are considerably less than the chord dimension. The assumption of thin airfoil leads

to a simplification of the governing equations that describe aerodynamics.

Laminar Flow Airfoil -The idea behind the laminar flow airfoil is to reduce the profile drag
by extending the laminar region of the boundary layer. For high Reynolds numbers flows, the
laminar region can be extended by designing an airfoil with a sustained positive pressure
gradient. These airfoils are known as laminar flow airfoils. Laminar flow airfoils tend to be
relatively thin at the leading edge and then gradually increase in thickness well beyond the
c/2 position before rapidly tapering at the trailing edge.
High Lift Airfoil - A high lift airfoil produces very high lift at zero angle of attack. The lift
generated is often due to a high value of camber. High lift airfoils also have an associated
high moment coefficient. An airfoil can be reflexed or aft-loaded to control the moment sign
and magnitude.
NACA Airfoil - NACA (National Advisory Commission on Aeronautics) was the predecessor
of NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration). At the turn of the century, like its
present counterpart, NACA was on the forefront of aeronautical research. NACA scientists
and engineers generated research articles and standards as a result of their theoretical and
applied (experimental) research in aeronautics. NACA airfoils have 4-digit, 5-digit, 6-digit and
7-digit designations.
Reflexed Airfoil - The camber is distributed to create loading near the leading edge. The
loading distribution near the trailing edge is relatively flat. The camber distribution creates a
low nose-up pitching moment about the aerodynamic center. For this reason, reflexed airfoils
can be used for such applications as "flying wing" type airplanes that have no horizontal tail
for stability in pitch.
Aft Loaded Airfoil - An aft loaded airfoil has the opposite behavior of the reflexed airfoil. The
camber distribution creates a loading concentration towards the trailing edge of the airfoil.
Some high lift airfoils falls into this category. The aft loaded airfoil created a high nose down
moment about the aerodynamic center of the airfoil. Airplanes that are designed for high lift
mission which use aft loaded airfoils also require a large horizontal tail to offset the moment
developed by the wing.
Important Points
1. The wing's cross section or airfoil shape determines the behavior of the wing. The cross
section can be of any shape, however, the typical streamlined airfoil shape provides the best
flight characteristics while reducing drag and vibrations.
2. The same airfoil can behave differently at different angles of attack and Reynolds number.
Before a design with a specific airfoil can be finalized, test at various angles of attack and
Reynolds number must be performed to determine the wing's performance at all possible
flight conditions.

14. Choosing Airfoil Shapes for Wings

Before you choose an airfoil for your airplane's wing you must investigate the airfoil to see
how well it would perform under normal and extreme operation conditions for your particular
airplane. During a regular flight, your airplane will takeoff, climb to a cruise altitude, cruise
and then land. Your airfoil might also have a specific mission. In some instances your
airplane mission might be short takeoff and landing and slow flight. For example, this is the
case of a crop-duster aircraft which takes off from a short field, flies slowly to properly seed
the field and then lands on a short field or roadway. In another case, you might design an
airplane for efficiency in the cruise configuration to achieve good fuel economy for long
range and endurance. You would like to pick an airfoil that provides optimal performance for

these specific airplanes for their missions. One way to quickly look at the performance of
many airfoils is the lift and drag polar plot and the lift coefficient versus angle of attack plot.
The Lift and Drag Polar Plot
The lift and drag polar plot is a graph that frequently shows lift on the horizontal axis and
drag on the vertical axis. However, this arrangement is sometimes reversed in other graphs.
The lift and drag polar plot is a good tool for determining the performance of airfoils because
it presents the characteristics of the airfoil for a given Reynolds number in a single picture.
A point on the lift and drag polar plot is obtained by setting the airfoil to a certain angle of
attack and then plotting the resulting lift and profile drag at the corresponding point on the
graph. The complete curve is obtained by typically starting with a negative angle of attack
and gradually increasing it to a positive angle. The resulting values of the lift and drag makes
up the lift and drag polar plot.
The graph below shows the lift and drag polar for the NACA 0012 airfoil. From the graph,
one can immediately see that minimum drag is at the point of zero lift for this airfoils. As the
lift coefficient increases, so does the drag.More lift is purchased by an increasing drag
penalty. At the maximum lift point, the drag is at a maximum. The curve also shows that near
the point of maximum lift, a small increment in lift corresponds to a large increase in drag.
Indeed, past the point of maximum lift (not shown on the graph), the drag increases
dramatically due to massive separation and associated high form drag.

Lift and drag polar plot for the NACA 0012 airfoil at a Reynolds number of 1 Million. The
NACA 0012 is a symmetric airfoil. The plot shows that the minimum drag occurs at a lift
coefficient of zero or the zero angle of attack position.
The lift and drag polar graph is a very useful tool for comparing the performance of two or
more airfoils. The figure below show a plot of the polars for the NACA 0012 and 4412 airfoils.
Let us suppose that a design calls for an airfoil that produces a lift coefficient of 0.8. Using
the lift and drag polar plot, we immediately sees that the NACA 4412 would be the correct
choice (if the Cl is the only consideration). This is because at the lift coefficient of 0.8 the
drag coefficient for the NACA 4412 is 0.008 while for the NACA 0012 it will be 0.012.

The lift and drag polar plot can be used to compare a number of airfoils at the same time.
Comparing the NACA 0012 and 4412 airfoils shows that the 4412 provides a greater lift
coefficient at a reduced drag for Cl greater the 0.4
Another curve that is useful in aerodynamic analysis of airfoils is the lift versus angle of
attack plot. The figure below shows two curves for the NACA 0012 and the NACA 4412
airfoils. The curves are obtained by gradually increasing the angle of attack from a negative
value to a positive value and then plotting the corresponding lift and angle of attack on a
graph.
The figure is useful in showing which airfoil can produce the most lift for a given angle attack.
The graph can also be used to see the angle of attack for maximum lift for airfoils. It also
show the angle of attack for zero lift.
Superimposed on the lift versus angle of attack graph is also the moment coefficient (about
c/4) versus angle of attack. The moment coefficient for several airfoils can be compared.
High lift airfoils usually have an associated high moment coefficient. A very high moment
coefficient usually require the design of a large horizontal tail section to keep the airplane
stable in level flight. The large tail can result in excess tail drag due to its size and additional
induced and profile drag.

The lift coefficient versus angle of attack curves provides a useful tool for selecting which
airfoil have higher lift coefficients. The curve can also be used to estimate the maximum lift

and angle for maximum lift for airfoils.

Important Points
1. Use the lift and drag polar plots to quickly decide which airfoil would produce a desirable
lift coefficient with minimal drag penalty.
2. Be sure to use the Reynolds number for the graph corresponds to the Reynolds number
for your design before using the data on the lift and drag polar plot.
3. Study separate lift and drag polar plots at Reynolds numbers corresponding to all
operational condition for your airplane before deciding on a particular airfoil. Airfoils can
perform differently at different Reynolds numbers.
4. Use the lift versus angle of attack curve to decide at which angle of attack your aircraft will
stall. The stall angle of attack is a strong function of Reynolds number.
5. Use the moment versus angle of attack curve to pick an airfoil that has a low moment
coefficient.

15. Designing and Testing Airfoils

Although there exists a vast body of airfoil coordinates and data it is often the case where
the data does not match a particular Reynolds number or the airfoil is not suitable for a
specific design function. In these cases custom testing and airfoil design can be the answer.
This section discusses ways to design and test airfoils.
Airfoils Design
Inverse Design
In direct design methods, the coordinates or surface of the airfoil is tweaked until a suitable
lift or drag coefficient is obtained and the desired pressure and velocities are established at
the airfoil surface. In the inverse design methods, the problem starts with the desired
outcome. In other words, the pressure, surface velocity, lift and drag are specified and the
design algorithm produces the surface or coordinates of the airfoil. This is especially true in
the case of low drag airfoil designs. From the "Drag" section of this booklet, we saw that it
was the pressure distribution on the surface of the airfoils that extended or reduced the
region of laminar boundary layer. Starting with a desired pressure coefficient or velocity
distribution at the surface of the airfoil, algorithms can be developed to design a low drag
airfoil surface. Airfoils designed using this method or any design method must be tested to
see if the desired results are actually reached during flight conditions.
Modifying Airfoils
With fast computers, interactively modifying the surface of an airfoil to produce the desired
outcome is now a popular way to design airfoils. Often the solution starts with a number of
points that the designer can move on the screen to produce a new surface definition. In
fractions of a second, the computer can determine the new lift and drag coefficients for the
modified design which allows the designer to know whether the last move was a good or bad
one.
Testing Airfoils
As mentioned before, airfoils must be tested to see if they can produced the desired
aerodynamics coefficients for the complete flight envelope. It is also necessary to test an
airfoil to determine when it will stall so the operational limits of an aircraft can be
established.

Wind Tunnel Testing

Wind tunnel testing involves placing a wing section into an instrumented tube and
establishing a flow air past the airfoil. The airfoil also must be instrumented with pressure
and velocity devices to record the local flow conditions at various locations on the airfoil
surface. The advantages associated with wind tunnel testing are well appreciated. They give
the actual physical representation of the airflow and do not have errors associated with over
simplified physics, numerical error and miscalculations that are often associated with
analytical and numerical studies. However, the wind tunnel confines and the instruments
also introduce their unique sources of error. These include turbulent flow, excess blocking
and false measurements due to intrusive instruments.
Computer Testing
The digital computer can be used to simulate the airflow past an airfoil. Computer testing
starts with an mathematical description of the aerodynamic problem. The mathematics is
often too difficult or impossible to solve by analytical means. A computer algorithm is
developed to solve the system of equations for the pressure, velocities and aerodynamics
coefficients. Computer testing can be very accurate but it depends on the complexity of the
physical model and capabilities of the computer.
Some computer solutions are based on simple models which are appropriate for testing
airfoil in a cruise configuration where many assumptions can be made to simplify the
physical model. These simulations are useful in making preliminary decisions about airfoils
for a new wing design.
Computer simulations can be very complex. The simulations can model the flow not only in
the cruise configuration but can be used to test airfoils for off design operations. This include
airfoils at angles of attack beyond stall where there can be massive flow separation with
unsteady behavior.
A modern detailed computer simulation starts with the conservation of mass, momentum and
energy equations. These equations are partial differential equations that depends on three
spatial variable and time. A mathematical algorithm is developed to discretize the differential
equation in a form that the computer can solve. Discretization involve dividing physical space
into small cells or grid where an algebraic representation of the differential equation is
defined.

Numerical grid for the NACA 7412 airfoil. The computer computes the pressure, density and
velocity vector on thousands of points using algebraic representations of the partial
differential equations. The accuracy of the simulations depend on the number of points and
cell dimensions.

The computer solves the equations using the geometry for distinct problems as boundary
conditions. In the course of the solution, the pressure, density and velocity components are
updated as a function of time and position in the flow field. At the end of each simulation, the
computed pressure, density and velocity can be used to determine lift, drag and moment
about an airfoil.
accurate if a large number of cells is used in the simulation. Highly accurate solutions would
typically require huge computer memory and several hours of computer usage. The results
of computer simulations are displayed using computer graphics. The graphics represent a
vast amount of data in an easy to understand presentation.
Important Points
1. Know the limitations of the tests that you are performing on your airfoil. This is especially
true for computational models. Some computer simulations that provide excellent on-design
results can provide poor estimates of maximum lift and associated drag. Generally, when
looking for critical design parameters it is often prudent to do wind tunnel testing.
2. Wind tunnel testing is costly and measurements must be carefully recorded and carried
out. Computer testing methods are indispensable tools that can finalize which designs
deserve your precious wind tunnel resources.

16. Consideration for Makers

If you are in the process of building a model airplane or a full scale homebuilt airplane kit, the
point of this booklet is to look closely at the wing and its airfoil sections and at the sections of
other aerodynamic surfaces. The airfoils can give vital clues to your airplane's performance.
You must examine and compare airfoils section on your prospective kits to see if the airfoil
supports your expectations from the aircraft. Here are some additional points to consider:
If you are a builder of an indoor or slow flying model airplane, low Reynolds number wings
should be relatively thin to avoid the early onset of an adverse pressure gradient.
The laminar boundary layer on a low Reynolds number wing will tend to separate early in
the presence of an adverse pressure gradient. The thinner the wing, the better the prospects
of continued attached laminar flow.
For competitive builders, thin airfoils are ideal for racing or long range aircraft. Thin wings
usually translate to low drag and hence better fuel economy.
However, thin wings will tend to stall before their thicker counterparts. Therefore, although
the thin wing has good low drag qualities, airplanes sporting thin airfoils will tend to require
faster landing speeds and exhibit poorer maneuvering capabilities than airplane with thicker
wings.
Rectangular wings made from thin airfoils should have thicker airfoils sections towards the
root of the wing where the induced angle of attack can result in local stalling of the wing in
this region.
Slow flying airplanes should have thicker wings because of their better stall and
maneuvering characteristics at slower speed.
Airplane kits for gliders and sailplanes should have thicker wing sections due to their low
flying speeds.
Sailplanes should have high aspect ratio wings, not only for reducing the induced drag but

to provide a favorable angle of glide. A quick analysis can reveal that the glide angle is
inversely proportional to the aspect ratio.

17. Definitions
Aerodynamic Center: The aerodynamic center is a point along the airfoil about which the
moment coefficient does not vary with an angle of attack change.
Aerodynamic Twist: When a wing is set at a given angle of attack, that angle of attack is
not experienced locally at all locations of the wing. The local angle of attack might be lower
or larger than the set angle of attack. Consequently, regions along the wing will be at higher
or lower angles of attack. This can lead to lower lift and more drag than expected. The
alleviate this, the wing can be twisted to provide a lower angle of attack at high induced
locations and higher angles of attack where the local angle is lower than expected. The
resulting twisted wing is said to have aerodynamic twist.
Aileron: Ailerons are movable surfaces located at the trailing edge and near the tips of the
wing as shown in the figure below. Ailerons assist the airplane in turns and are designed to
move in opposing directions. Therefore, in a right turn, the left aileron will deflect downwards
while the right aileron deflect upwards.
Airfoil: An airfoil is the cross section of a wing. The airfoil shape is primarily responsible for
the lift and profile drag of the wing.
Angle of Attack: The angle of attack is defined as the angle between the plane of the wing
(airfoil chord) and the direction of motion (free stream velocity).
Center of Pressure: A point along the airfoil about which the moment due to the lift is zero,
i.e., it is the point of action of the lift.
Chord: The chord is the dimension of the airfoil from its leading edge to trailing edge.
Circulation: Circulation is a measure of the vorticity of the flow field.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD): Computational fluid dynamics utilizes numerical
algorithms to solve the various governing equations that describe fluid flows. CFD uses
advanced computer graphics and visualization tools to display the numerical results as a
realistic flow field.
Density: The mass of a substance contained in a given volume divided by the volume. For a
incompressible fluid, the density is considered to be constant throughout the flow field.
However, for a compressible fluid, the density can vary from one location to the next in the
flow field.
Drag: Drag is an aerodynamic force opposing the direction of motion. Drag can be due to
viscosity (friction drag), pressure differences due to the shape of an object (form drag), lift on
an finite wing (induced drag) and other energy loss mechanisms in the flow such as wave
drag due to shock waves and inefficiencies in engines.
Drag Coefficient : The drag coefficient is defined as the drag/(dynamic pressure * reference
area). The reference area is usually the plan-form area of a wing or horizontal projection of
the wing.
Dynamic Pressure: The dynamic pressure is defined as one half of the air density multiplied
by the square of the velocity and has units of pressure, i.e. Force/Area. The dynamic
pressure is used to nondimensionalize forces and pressures in aerodynamics.

Finite Difference Method: This numerical methods divides the physical space into cells and
approximates derivatives as differences across the cells divided by the cell width. As the
number of cells increases and the gap decreases, the finite difference algorithm becomes
very accurate.
Flap Deflection Angle: The flap deflection angle is the angle between the deflected flap and
the chord line. The angle is positive for a downwards deflection of the flap.
Fluid: Examples of fluids are liquids and gasses. Common liquids and gasses such as air
and water are considered to be fluids.
Fluid Dynamics: The study of how fluid moves. Fluid dynamics usually fall into two
categories (1) aerodynamics and (2) hydrodynamics. Aerodynamics studies the motion of air
while hydrodynamics studies the motion of water.
Lift: The lift is a force acting perpendicular to the direction of flight. The lift is equal to the
fluid density multiplied by the circulation about the airfoil and the free stream velocity.
Lift Coefficient: The lift coefficient is defined as the lift/(dynamic pressure * reference area).
The reference area is usually the plan-form area of a wing or horizontal projection of the
wing.
Lift, Maximum: When the angle of attack is increased, the lift produced by an airfoil will also
increase. However, this trend will not continue indefinitely. At a relatively small angle of
attack (between 10 and 20 degrees for most airfoils), the lift will decrease, sometimes
dramatically, with further increase in angle of attack. Maximum lift is attained just before the
subsequent decrease in lift.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord: This average chord is located along the wing and has the same
moment coefficient as the entire wing.
Panel Method: This numerical method places singularities along the airfoil. In the present
case, the singularities are vortices. The vorticity is distributed linearly along the panel.
Plain Flap: A plain flap is a hinge attachment near the trailing edge of an airfoil and is a
percentage of the chord.
Pressure Coefficient: The pressure coefficient is a non-dimensional form of the pressure. It
is defined as the difference of the local and reference pressure divided by the dynamic
pressure.
Span: The span is the total length of the wing
Streamlines: Contours in the flow field that are tangent to the velocity vector.
Total Pressure: The total pressure is defined as the sum of the static pressure and local
dynamic pressure.
Transition Point: The location along the chord of an airfoil where the boundary changes
(transitions) from laminar flow to turbulent flow.
Vorticity: The vorticity is a measure of the spin or angular velocity of the individual fluid
particles. The vorticity is defined as the curl of the velocity vector. The vorticity is equal in
magnitude to two time the angular velocity of the particle.

18. References
1. Patrick E. Hanley, The VisualFoil Software Package Version 4.0, Hanley Innovations,
http://www.hanleyinnovations.com.
2. J. D, Anderson, Introduction to Flight (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989) (TL570 .A68
1985).
3.

M. Kuethe and C.-Y. Chow, Foundations of Aerodynamics: Bases of Aerodynamic

Design (New York: Wiley, 1986) (TL570 .K76 1986).

4. John D. Anderson, Jr., Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, McGraw-Hill, Incorporated,

New York, 1991.
5.

John J. Bertin and Michael L. Smith, Aerodynamics for Engineers, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1989

6.

Ira H. Abbott and Albert E. Von Donenhoff, Theory of Wing Sections, including a
summary of airfoil data, Dover Publications, Inc., New York