Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF
ENGINEERING DRAWING
FOR
BY
THOMAS
E.
FRENCH, M.
E.
NEW YORK
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY
239
COPYRIGHT, 1911
BY THE
PEEFACE
method in the teaching of engineerless
and
uniformity in the courses in differperhaps
ing drawing,
ent schools than would be found in most subjects taught in
In some well-known instances
technical schools and colleges.
There
is
a wide diversity of
the attempt
Some
home work.
tive geometry,
begin immediately on the theory of descripworking in all the angles, others discard theory
in
machine
detailing.
Some
conception
it
may be
of instruments,
language.
222476
PREFACE
vi
ize
represented.
One
9"xl2"
Department
of
PREFACE
vii
COLUMBUS, OHIO.
May
6,
1911.
it
as
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE
CHAPTER
v
INTRODUCTORY
I.
CHAPTER
Quality
II.
List of instruments
and materials
drawing The
instruments Com-
for line
Drawing
boards
CHAPTER
III.
23
Good form
CHAPTER
in
47
APPLIED GEOMETRY
IV.
Approximate
ellip-
cycloid
of
spiral
Archimedes.
CHAPTER
Importance
Single-stroke
Reinhardt
58
LETTERING
V.
Should
be
done
freehand
vertical
letter
caps Single-stroke
Spacing and composition
ix
Pens
for
inclined
Titles.
lettering
caps
The
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
VI.
The planes
65
Writing the language and reading the language Auxiliary views Sectional views
Section lining Revolution The true length of a line Shade
lines
Problems, in seven groups.
Definition
CHAPTER
of projection
Principles
VII.^
100
curved surfaces
Developments Practical considerations To develop the hexagonal prism The cylinder The hexagonal pyramid The rectangular pyramid The truncated cone Double curved surfaces
Triangulation Development of the oblique cone Transition
The intersection of surfaces Two cylinders Cylinder
pieces
and cone Cutting spheres Two cones Problems, in ten groups.
CHAPTER
Use
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
VIII.
122
of conventional picture
methods, their advantages, disadvantages, and limitations Isometric drawing The isometric
section
Oblique projection Rules for placing the object The
Cabinet drawing The principle of axonometric
offset method
Dimetric system Clinographic projection and its use
projection
in crystallography
Problems Reading exercises, orthographic
sketches to be translated into pictorial sketches.
CHAPTER
IX.
WORKING DRAWINGS
145
Definitions
mercial
Title
drafting
Differences in practice
CHAPTER
X.
Problems.
TECHNICAL SKETCHING
201
torial
perspective
CHAPTER
Principles of
Exercises.
XI... THE
Characteristics
Lettering
of
architectural
Titles.
214
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
XII.
xi
Classification of
229
Plats of subdivisions,
City plats
lining
Vegetation,
Common
faults
Lettering
Government
Maps
Profiles.
CHAPTER
XIII.
Tracing
Dyke prints Transparentizing Various suggestions Preparation of drawings for reproduction Zinc etching Half tones
Retouching
Lithography.
257
CHAPTER XIV. NOTES ON COMMERCIAL PRACTICE
To
a
information
miscellaneous
sharpen
pen
Suggestions and
To make a lettering pen Line shading, use, and methods Patent
office drawings, rules, and suggestions
Stretching paper and
274
Architectural
drawing
Descriptive geometry
Lettering
drawing
INDEX.
Miscellaneous.
281
ENGINEERING DRAWING
ENGINEERING DRAWING
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
the term Engineering Drawing
By
by
artists
nature,
if
he
is
limited in his
medium
As there
are no lines in
and light and shade, he is able only to suggest his meaning, and
must depend upon the observer's imagination to supply the lack.
The engineering draftsman has a greater task. Limited to
outline alone, he may not simply suggest his meaning, but must
give exact and positive information regarding every detail of the
machine or structure existing in his imagination. Thus drawing
to him is more than pictorial representation; it is a complete
graphical language, by whose aid he may describe minutely every
operation necessary, and may keep a complete record of the work
for duplication or repairs.
In the
artist's case
less degree,
by any
the object as
it
one.
would appear to the eye when finished, conseand understood only by one
ENGINEERING DRAWING
When
accuracy of
mastery
of
we may
write
may
is
must
know the alphabet, the grammar and the composition, and be
familiar with the idioms, the accepted conventions and the
abbreviations.
it will
in
space.
It is not a language to be learned only by a comparatively
few draftsmen, who will be professional writers of it, but should
be understood by all connected with or interested in technical
industries, and the training its study gives in quick, accurate
observation, and the power of reading description from lines, is
of a value quite
In this study
we must
expression.
*
is
often applied to
all
constructive
of long
INTRODUCTORY
knowledge
of
geometry
is
We
"
occupied with the real principles or
grammar
"
of the language.
CHAPTER
II.
can be afforded.
of professional
Somegrade
buy
is
the
to
times a beginner
suggestion
get cheap
tempted by
instruments for learning, with the expectation of getting better
ones later. With reasonable care a set of good instruments will
last a lifetime, while poor ones will be an annoyance from the
it is
a great mistake to
inferior instruments.
for drawing,
and mention
of
some not
ments,
Germany.
etc., are,
however, made
The following
List of Instruments
1.
and Materials.
Set
of, drawing
least:
Two
ruling pens.
/4. 45
*r 5.
x
*
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
and 30-60
triangles.
(two
flat
or one triangular).
pencil.
Pencil pointer.
Bottle of drawing ink.
French curves.
^12. Pencil eraser.
-^ 11.
13.
Drawing paper, to
suit.
Cleaning rubber.
15.
Hard Arkansas
oil
stone.
16. Protractor.
17.
Bottle holder.
20.
Sketch book.
(1)
form
in
initials or
All
of
FIG.
1.
Tongue
joint.
FIG.
2.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
modified form of this pin joint is still used for some of the
cheap grades of instruments. The objection which led to the
abandonment of this form was that the wear of the tongue on
the pin gave a lost motion, which may be detected by holding a
This
leg in each hand and moving them slowly back and forth.
Co
A.
FIG. 3.
jump
The pivot
joint, Fig. 2,
FIG.
original
4.
The
three patterns.
shown
in Fig. 3.
by experienced
draftsmen.
FIG.
5.
and
for
joints
If
spring,
shown
in Fig. 6.
is
FIG.
should be preferred.
plain,
latter form,
The
Fig. 4,
leg
6.
Hairspring dividers.
Compasses
may
ENGINEERING DRAWING
D
FIG.
7.
FIG.
8.
is
illustrated in Fig.
9,
the
Various pens.
in Fig. 10.
Both these styles are made with
a center screw, Fig. 11, but this form has not become popular
among draftsmen. The springs of the side screw bows should
be strong enough to open to the length of the screw, but not so
stiff as to be difficult to
pinch together. The hook spring bow
(2) Drawing boards are made of clear white pine (bass wood
has been used as a substitute) cleated to prevent warping.
Care should be taken in their selection. In drafting-rooms
FIG. 9.
FIG. 10.
Hook-spring
bow
Spring
bow
instruments.
instruments.
FIG. 11.
of loose
boards.
fixed
ENGINEERING DRAWING
10
A
M
J\
FIG. 12.
line
wood
FIG. 13.
English T-square.
drawing
11
FIG. 14.
FIG. 15.
(5)
To
test
a triangle.
Scales.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
12
09
os
vs
zs
ev
oc
9V
zv
Bg
ov-
ye
XAAAAM^^^
FIG. 16.
Engineers' scale.
on one stick than the others, but this is offset by the delay
Flat scales are much more conin finding the scale wanted.
be
chosen
on
this account.
Three flat scales
and
should
venient,
"
one
of
scale.
The
are the equivalent
triangular
opposite bevel"
to
than
form
is
easier
the
scale (e)
(d).
Many
regular
pick up
scales
v^Yvvv^vyvyvv^^
]
*
V~V
W-W
^T
"
o\
FIG. 17.
*\
\\
Architects' scale.
all
ordinary work.
head and
steel point
are
screwed into
made with
it (a)
thin
Fig. 20,
German
and
silver
cost as high
(b)
13
hundred answer every purpose. Tacks with comparatively short, tapering pins should be chosen. Instead of
thumb tacks many draftsmen prefer 1/2- or 1-oz. copper tacks,
thirty cents a
FIG. 19.
hand
this
is
still
When
FIG. 20.
made
of
fast as
it
ENGINEERING DRAWING
14
FIG. 21.
Curve.
to curves likely to be
ellipse curve, of
PIG. 22.
either a log. spiral, Fig. 22, or one similar to the one used in Fig.
It has been found by experiments that
65, will be sufficient.
Sometimes
it is
make
his
own
These
may
celluloid, or
15
be cut out
even card-
copper
home-made
substitute.
=A
K 8".
One
much
FIG. 23.
better for ink than a so-called ink eraser, as it will remove the
ink perfectly without destroying the surface of paper or cloth.
A piece of soft " " rubber, or sponge rubber is useful f Or cleaning
paper.
(13) Drawing paper
finished drawings and
is
made
cream or buff
may
have
sufficient grain to
for either ink or color, and the third for water color sketches.
The paper in the larger sheets is heavier than in the smaller sizes,
hence
board
it is
is
better to
a very
ENGINEERING DRAWING
16
For working
2-ply, 3-ply, 4-ply, etc.; 3-ply is generally used.
drawings the cream or buff detail papers are much easier on the
eyes than white papers. The cheap manilla papers should be
avoided. A few cents more per yard is well spent in the increased
FIG. 24.
Railroad pen.
FIG. 25.
Double pen.
FIG. 26.
Curve pen.
The foregoing instruments and materials are all that are needed
and are as a rule, with the exception of
paper, pencils, ink, erasers, etc., classed as supplies, what a
in ordinary practice,
17
FIG. 27.
Lettering pens.
may
equipment.
The
railroad pen
is
FIG. 28.
lines.
In selecting this
Proportional dividers.
pen notice that the pens are turned as illustrated in Fig. 24.
Most forms have the pens in opposite directions. A much better
pen for double lines up to 1/4" apart is the border pen,
as it can be held down to the paper more satisfactorily.
FIG. 29.
Beam
Fig. 25,
It may
compass.
be used for very wide solid lines by inking the middle space as
well as the two pens.
The curve pen, Fig. 26, made with a swivel, for freehand curves,
contours,
2
etc., is of
occasional value.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
18
save a
Fig. 27A, for large single stroke lettering
in sizes from \ to 6.
made
are
time.
Fig.
of
deal
They
great
27 B is the Shepard pen, made for the same purpose.
in any proporProportional dividers, for enlarging or reducing
Payzant pens,
FIG. 30.
used in
map
Drop pen.
work, patent
office
drawings, etc.
FIG. 31.
Protractor.
The beam compass is used for circles larger than the capacity
compass and lengthening bar. A good form is illustrated
in Fig. 29.
The bar with shoulder prevents the parts from
of the
turning or falling
off.
19
FIG. 32.
Section liner.
D
FIG. 33.
D
Section lining devices.
"
Section lining or
cross hatching" is a difficult operation for
the beginner, but is done almost automatically by the experienced
draftsman. Several instruments for mechanical spacing have
been devised.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
20
FIG. 34.
FIG. 35.
Dotting pen.
21
FIG. 36.
FIG. 37.
FIG. 38.
FIG. 39.
22
ENGINEERING DRAWING
angles" have been devised. Of these the best known are the
Kelsey, Fig. 36, the Rondinella, Fig. 37, and the Zange, Fig. 38.
Bottle holders prevent the possibility of ruining the drawing,
table or floor
by the upsetting
Fig. 39
is
FIG. 40.
CHAPTER
III.
and some
observance of
all
of
which
may
these details
is
appear
trivial,
really necessary,
become
most
difficult to
overcome.
feel of
feels
As these
and
drill,
is
ENGINEERING DRAWING
24
and instructions
in
making
first
corrections
plates
may
must not be
be given later in
erased.
The drawing table should be set so that the light comes from
left, and adjusted to a convenient height for standing, that
the
is,
sitting.
The
Pencil.
The
used.
FIG. 41.
wedge
point.
point will not wear away in use as fast as a conical point, and on
that account is preferred for straight line work by most drafts-
lightly,
25
The T-Square.
The T-square
FIG. 42.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
26
head of the square and toward the light. These lines are always
drawn up from bottom to top, consequently their location points
should be made at the bottom.
In drawing lines great care must be exercised in keeping them
accurately parallel to the T-square or triangle, holding the pencil
point lightly, but close against the edge, and not varying the
angle during the progress of the
The T-square
of Fig. 42 the
is
line.
adjusted
thumb
FIG. 43.
the head, or of Fig. 43, the fingers on the blade and the thumb on
the board. In drawing vertical lines the T-square is held in
position against the left edge of the board, the thumb on the
blade, while the fingers of the left hand adjust the triangle, as
illustrated in Fig. 44.
it.
Laying
off
little
is
double click as
in contact
it
comes
the Drawing.
The paper
size of
27
lines
FIG. 44.
points giving the trimming line and the border line. These
"
"
points should not be dots, or holes bored with the pencil, but
short, light dashes.
Use
of Dividers.
is
equal parts by bisecting the left border line and dividing the
lower border line into three parts. These divisions are made not
ENGINEERING DRAWING
28
is
its
FIG. 45.
with the thumb and forefinger to close it and the other two to
open it. This motion should be practised until an adjustment
to the smallest fraction can be made. In coming down to small
divisions the second and third fingers must be gradually slipped
out from between the legs while they are closed down upon them.
To
the other leg from its position on the paper, and the line spaced
again with this setting, Fig. 46. If this should not come out
exactly the operation may be repeated. With a little experience
a line may be divided in this way very rapidly. Similarly a line
may be divided into any number of equal parts, say five, by
estimating the first division, stepping this lightly along the
with the dividers held vertically by the handle, turning the
instrument first in one direction and then in the other. If the
line,
29
by opening the
If
FIG. 46.
Bisecting a line.
Use
ring around
be preserved
with the pencil.
may
it
if
necessary by drawing a
of the Triangles.
We
lines are
triangle
guiding straight-edge.
With the T-square against the edge of the board, lines at 30
degrees, 45 degrees and 60 degrees may be drawn as shown in
The two
Fig. 47, the arrows showing the direction of motion.
triangles
may
15, 75,
105
ENGINEERING DRAWING
30
drawn
directly,
and a
may
of 15 degrees
may
be
FIG. 47.
To draw a
parallel to
any
adjust to
it
a triangle
FIG. 48.
held against the T-square or other triangle, hold the guiding edge
and slip the first triangle on it to the required position.
in position
50,
fit
the hypothenuse
31
of a triangle to
perpendicular to the
line.
FIG. 49.
Move
it
To draw
parallel lines.
Fi G. 50.
Use
of the
To draw
perpendicular
Compasses.
lines.
as the dividers
and
of all
first
ENGINEERING DRAWING
32
inserting the
pen
needle a
trifle
FIG. 51.
little
FIG. 52.
When
the lead
is
FIG. 53.
adjusted to pass exactly through the mark the right hand should
be raised to the handle and the circle drawn (clockwise) in one
sweep by turning the compass, rolling the handle with the thumb
and
forefinger, inclining
it
Fig. 52.
trated
in
33
position of the fingers after the revolution is illusCircles up to perhaps three inches in
53.
Fig.
diameter may be drawn with the legs straight but for larger
sizes both the needle-point leg and the pencil leg should be turned
-
FIG. 54.
circles
FIG. 55.
drawing concentric
circles
Use
are
In
of lengthening bar.
first.
-*4fl[
ENGINEERING DRAWING
34
of the thread,
ing the setting, to avoid wear and final stripping
relieved by
be
the pressure of the spring against the nut should
in or out
nut
the
holding the points in the left hand and spinning
FIG. 56.
Use
of the Scale.
The
first
reduction
this
is
to
what
is
commonly
called half size or correctly speaking, to the scale of 6" = 1'; that
This scale is used in
is, each dimension is reduced one-half.
if
full size,
If this scale is
too
-*--74'.
FIG. 57.
large for the paper the drawing is made to the scale of three
inches to the foot, often called "quarter size," that is, three inches
is
the
first
is
35
left of
1/2" scale is too large for the object, the next commerthe scale of one inch equals one foot, and so on
as shown in the following table.
the
cial size is to
down
Full size
3/4"
= 1'
= 1'
4"
=1'
=1' (rarely used)
3"
= 1'
2"
3/16" -I/
1/8" =1'
Scale 6"
11 /2"
1'
1"
=1'
1/2"
3/8"=!'
1/4" =1'
3/32"-
1'
The scale 1/4" equals 1 ft. is the usual one for ordinary house
plans and is often called by architects the "quarter scale."
This term should not be confused with the term "quarter size,"
as the former
A
it
means 1/4"
circle is generally
the radius
is
As
should be
3-in.
line
made without
ENGINEERING DRAWING
36
To
fill
between the
it
to the bottle
FIG. 58.
forefinger.
will
tendency
which a pencil or writing pen
is held, which is obviously convenient in writing to give the up stroke, but as this motion is not
required with the ruling pen the position illustrated is preferable.
For
full lines
paper.
of the
37
If turned in from the perpendicuvery apt to run under the edge and cause a
will result.
is
blot.
A line
on the
FIG. 59.
Correct position at A.
and, without stopping the motion of the pen, the line finished
with a finger movement. Short lines are drawn with this finger
alone.
sharpness of the pen, but the pressure against the T-square should
be only enough to guide the direction.
If the ink refuses to flow it is because it has dried and clogged
in the extreme point of the pen.
This clot or obstruction may
ENGINEERING DRAWING
38
Instructions in regard to the ruling pen apply also to the comIt should be kept perpendicular by using the knuckle
pass pen.
joint,
line.
it
is
exactly
right.
It is
FIG. 60.
two pens of different sizes the larger one should be used, as it fits
the hand of the average man better than the smaller one, holds
more ink, and will do just as fine work.
Faulty Lines.
If inked lines appear
imperfect in any way the reason should
be ascertained immediately. It may be the fault of the
pen, the
ink, the paper, or the draftsman, but with the probabilities
lines.
The
correction in
39
!-^
...
.,..,.,,. Pesifoo
faraway frv/7? edge ofTsgva/e
-gnaBBHWB^i^HHB^^^B^* ^en ^
m^mBmmmmn^^~^i**~
^^mtf*m^mmm-m^
___
^rrr,
*"'
WJK\
n "i^"'
m
~
T"
/4^?/
Faulty
is
raf?
^er
(/ff(
Tsgvasif
iPPi^pPiPii
Wl
i
FIG. 61.
^ e^e
-~
C/OS
s///petf//7fo tref///?e
enough //?/
^ //y?/>^ ^
/>7tf
lines.
the
line,
a set of conventional
symbols covering all the lines needed for different purposes may
properly be called an alphabet of lines. There is as yet no
universally adopted standard, but the following set is adequate,
and represents the practice of a majority of the larger concerns
of this country.
(
1)
Visible outline
(2)
Invisible outline.
(3)
Center
line.
Dimension
(5)
Extension
(6)
Alternate position.
(7)
Line of motion.
(8)
Cutting plane.
(9)
"Ditto" or repeat
(10)
Broken material.
line.
line.
line.
The alphabet
of lines.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
40
It
is
FIG. 63.
The alphabet
illustrated.
and
FIG. 64.
The alphabet
illustrated.
The Use
of the
41
Figs. 63
and
French Curve.
The French curve, as has been stated on page 14, is a ruler for
non-circular curves.
When sufficient points have been determined it is best to sketch in the line lightly in pencil freehand,
without losing the points, until it is clean, smooth, continuous,
and satisfactory to the eye. The curve should then be applied
to it, selecting a part that will fit a portion of the line most nearly,
and noting particularly that the curve is so laid that the direction
of its increase in curvature is in the direction of increasing curvature of the line, Fig. 65. In drawing the part of the line matched
FIG. 65.
Use
of the curve.
by the curve, always stop a little short of the distance that seems
to coincide.
After drawing this portion the curve is shifted to
find another part that will coincide with the continuation of the
the curve.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
42
When
inking with the curve the pen should be held perpenInking curves
dicularly and the blades kept parallel to the edge.
will be found to be excellent practice.
Sometimes, particularly at sharp turns, a combination of
and curve
may
The geometrical
same purpose.
of ability.
for the
FIG. 66.
figures of
FIG. 67.
Chapter
IV may be used
FIG. 68.
Lay off a 9" x 12" plate, with 1/2" border. Divide the space
inside the border into six equal parts, with the dividers.
Locate
the center of each space by drawing short intersecting portions
of its diagonals.
An
Fig. 66.
vertical line,
43
Draw horizontal
into five equal parts with the dividers.
and vertical lines across the square through these points.
Erase the parts not needed.
Fig. 68. Converging
Lines.
DE
Draw
three-inch
EF
square.
Draw
at 30 degrees.
and
AB, BC,
into seven equal parts, with the dividers.
with the pencil as each line
lines, and mark divisions on
lines
AC
FIG. 71.
FIG. 70.
is
straight-edge.
Hexagonal Figure.
Fig. 69.
points (spacers).
Through the center of the space
lines, AB vertical, DE
and
CB
degrees.
vertical.
Fig. 70.
FG
Complete
and
at 30 degrees.
Step
off
figure as
A Street
scale.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
44
their intersection.
With 45-degree
spacers,
and both
triangles.
Draw
tion.
combination.
FIG. 74.
FIG. 73.
FIG. 72.
For compass
(legs
straight)
and
scale.
On it mark
horizontal line through center of space.
concentric circles 1/4" apart. In drawing
The
concentric circles always draw the smallest first.
Draw
On
mark
off
Draw
On
mark
off eight
Fig. 72.
Fig. 75. Tangent Arcs.
Draw
these points
45
and
On
Tangent
Circles
and Lines.
triangles.
A B, 31/2"
base
centers
the bisectors.
FIG. 75.
These intersections
FIG. 76.
side,
will
draw
arcs cutting
FIG. 77.
lines.
Fig. 77.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
46
A PAGE OF CAUTIONS.
Never use the scale as a ruler.
Never draw with the lower edge of the T-square.
Never cut paper with a knife and the edge of the T-square as a
guide.
(Ink
once frozen is worthless afterward.)
Never try to use the same thumb tack holes when putting paper
down a second time.
Never scrub a drawing all over with the eraser after finishing.
It takes the life out of the inked lines.
Never begin work without wiping off table and instruments.
Never put instruments away without cleaning. This applies
CHAPTER
IV.
APPLIED GEOMETRY.
With the
aid of
all
ticular
problem
is
not remembered,
it
may
readily be referred to
any of the standard hand-books. There are some construchowever with which the draftsman should be familiar as
will
occur more or less frequently in his work. The few
they
in
this chapter are given on this account, and for the
problems
in
tions
The
"trial
method"
previous chapter.
trated in Fig. 78.
47
ENGINEERING DRAWING
48
AC
CB
intersecting
A B,
using triangle
and straight-edge.
To transfer a given polygon ABCD to a new base A'B', Fig. 79.
With radii AC and BC describe intersecting arcs from centers
Similarly with radii AD and BD
A'B', locating the point C'
'.
FIG. 79.
Connect
BC
operation.
FIG.
,80.
To draw an
AB
APPLIED GEOMETRY
Any
perpendiculars.
on
bisect
must have
Join B and C by
BE
EC by
and
The
point.
the two
first
49
their centers
a straight
this line
'
is
on these
Assume point
desired to pass, and
line.
its
BE
FIG. 83.
EC.
To
This line might be the center line for a curved road or pipe.
on a straight line the approximate length of a circle -
lay off
Let
AB
be the given
Lay
arc.
off
at E, then
AE
will
FIG. 84.
nearly).
If
is
it
should be
subdivided.*
power
short.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
50
FIG. 86.
The
conic sections.
making a smaller angle than the elements do. These curves are
studied mathematically in analytic geometry but may be drawn
without a knowledge of their equations by knowing something of
their characteristics.
is
the
Ellipse
its
Method.
APPLIED GEOMETRY
51
H
K
KL
FIG. 88.
Ellipse
Trammel Method.
Fig. 88.
On
and
PR
FIG. 89.
An
Ellipsograph.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
52
from any point on the curve to two fixed points called the foci
The foci may thus
is a constant, and is equal to the major axis.
be determined by making DF and DF' equal to AC. Drive pins
FIG. 90.
at the points D, F,
and
and
tie
an
inelastic
thread or cord
If the pin
be removed and a
tightly around the three pins.
marking point moved in the loop, keeping the cord taut, it will
describe a true ellipse. The bisector of the angle between the
point
L may
FIG. 91.
Ellipse
APPLIED GEOMETRY
53
DP
and EP.
FIG. 93.
H, and H'
G',
ellipse.
tion
is
will
When
in
masonry construc-
(eight-centered ellipse)
the rectangle
to
it.
Make
draw the
AB
at 0.
MN at
AFDC,
connect
CM equal
to
AD
DL.
HM
MN. With A as
With P as center, and
arc
N, then P,
"
and
based on
the principle that the radius of curvature at the end of the minor
axis is the third proportional to the semi-minor and semi-major
axes, and similarly at the end of the major axis is the third
proportional to the semi-major and semi-minor axes. The
semi-ellipse or
five
centered oval."
is
the
This method
mean
is
proportional between
ENGINEERING DRAWING
54
Approximate
When
Ellipse.
Fig. 94.
is at least two-thirds the major, the
following
to
AB-DE.
to 3/4 CF.
I
will
centers
for arcs
be
G,
H,
F,
} D, A,
FIG. 95.
and B.
circle arcs.
Any
non-circular curve
may
be approxiamted by tangent
FIG. 96.
Parabola.
FIG. 97.
Hyperbola.
A parabola may
lelogram method
of the ellipse, as
shown
in Fig. 96.
APPLIED GEOMETRY
One
of the
reflectors
55
and search
is
in parabolic
lights.
is
FIG. 98.
c.
Cycloid.
97.
to 0.
At the
PD
draw
abscissae.
The
FIG. 99.
(say 12), lay off the rectified length of the circumference with
these divisions on the tangent AB.
Draw through C the line of
ENGINEERING DRAWING
56
CD
perpendiculars.
FIG. 100.
Involute of a pentagon.
may
Involute of a
circle.
These intersections
incl
FIG. 101.
.vj> -'..ycloid
will
may
FIG. 102.
FIG. 103.
Thus
to
into a convenient
APPLIED GEOMETRY
lay
off
57
point of
by a smooth
curve.
It is evident that
is
gearing.
To Draw the
Spiral of
102.
Fig.
circle,
Archimedes
in a given
intersections.
converting
motion
CHAPTER
V.
LETTERING.
To give all the information necessary for the complete construction of a machine or structure, there must be added to the
"graphical language" of lines describing its shape, the figured
dimensions, notes on materials and finish, and a descriptive title,
all of which must be lettered, freehand, in a style that is perfectly
So far as its
legible, uniform, and capable of rapid execution.
appearance is concerned there is no part of a drawing so important as the lettering. A good drawing may be ruined in appearance by lettering done ignorantly or carelessly.
Lettering is not mechanical drawing. The persistent use by
some draftsmen
of kinds of
On working drawings
the lettering
done
but
it
width
letter.
chapter
is
58
LETTERING
which
will give
"gothic"
59
letters
particularly
F will make
ball
506
Leonardt's
to
this
point
purpose.
adapted
a line of sufficient width for letters 1/4" high, which is as large as
would be used on any ordinary working drawing. 516 EF or
For small
1032 might be used for letters 3/16" high
Hunt's shot point, Gillott's 1050, 604 or Spencerian No. 1
be used. Some draftsmen prepare a new pen by dropping
Gillott's
letters
may
it
in alcohol, or
by holding
it
in a
match flame
for
two or three
seconds.
Single -stroke Vertical Caps.
"
commercial gothic" letter shown
single-stroke
In the
in Fig. 104 is a standard for titles, reference letters, etc.
the
smaller
that
rule
is
the
of
width
to
height
general
proportion
low
the letters the more extended their width should be.
The upright
IHLFETNKMAV
WXYZ4OOCGDUJP
RBS83206957&
FIG. 104.
seldom used in compressed form. Before commencing the practice of this alphabet some time should be spent in preliminary
It should be held easily, in
practice to gain control of the pen.
the position illustrated in Fig. 105, the strokes drawn with a
steady, even motion and a slight uniform pressure on the paper,
not enough to spread the nibs of the pen.
For the first practice draw in pencil top and bottom guide
lines for. 3/16" letters and with a 516 F or similar pen make
directly in ink a series of vertical lines, drawing the
pen down
ENGINEERING DRAWING
60
movements
of the
It
may
be found
is
be
FIG. 105.
It
may
to slant forward.
M 111^
When
///// \\\\\
FIG. 106.
this stroke
OOP
Practice strokes.
FIG. 107.
LETTERING
to keep all angles
much
shown
61
is
Getting too
kind
responsible for appearances of the
in Fig. 108.
EHMNWTZ
FIG. 108.
Too much
ink.
IHLFETNKMAV
WX YZ4 OQCGDUJP
RBS83 2O6957&
FIG. 109.
flexible
Inclined capitals.
Triangles of
ENGINEERING DRAWING
62
ing,
but
it
must be based on a
fundamental
letter forms.
compose them
letter is
first
into words
used in capitals
FIG. 111.
Inexcusable faults.
and small letters for less important captions, and for notes and
In all lettering there should always be drawn
descriptions.
guide lines for both the tops and bottoms. In the inclined style
the 2 to 5 direction lines should be drawn until one has become
FIG. 112.
Practice strokes.
The beginner's
space them too
far apart.
letters should
be taken up
r/
FIG. 113.
The
rule
X, Z, with
the figures 3 and 8 be smaller on the top than on the
bottom, and
that the cross lines in E, F, H, be slightly above the middle.
The bridge of the A is up about 1/3 of the height. Particular
LETTERING
63
the capitals.
Single -stroke Inclined Lower Case.
The lower case or small letters of this style are
/////-///
7
T~7
FIG. 114.
/.
drawn with
This letter
is
"
admirable little book Lettering for Engineers." It is the minuscule or lower case letter reduced to its lowest terms, omitting all
unnecessary hooks and appendages. It is very legible and
-
'
FIG. 115.
Analysis of Reinhardt
letter.
rapidly.
and
ENGINEERING DRAWING
64
straight line,
strokes
approximately equal; 3,
space at least equal to the height of the letter. Paragraphs are
always indented. Fig. 116 is an example of spacing of letters,
letters,
all
the practice
boxed in the lower right hand corner. The question of dimensioning and the contents of the title are fully discussed in Chapter
IX
on working drawings.
Composition.
CHAPTER
VI.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION.
The previous chapters have been preparatory
ject of engineering
FIG. 117.
Perspective projection.
65
ENGINEERING DRAWING
66
which
on the retina
object,
will
of the
FIG. 118.
Orthographic projection.
FIG. 119.
The
plane.
XV.
ter
Orthographic Projection.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
67
to
an
S be
infinite distance,
FIG. 120.
The
plane revolved.
orthographic projection. If we then discard the part of the cylinder between the picture plane and the eye we may say that the
orthographic projection of an object on a plane would be found
by dropping perpendiculars from the object to the plane.
FIG. 121.
dicular
to
the
picture
plane
would be projected as a
line
ENGINEERING DRAWING
68
now another
FIG. 122.
"The
transparent box."
coincide, Fig. 120, they will represent the plane of the paper
and the two views together will show exactly the three dimensions
of the object.
Similarly any other side may be represented by
imagining it to be projected to a plane and the plane afterward
revolved away from the object into the plane of the paper.
Thus the object, Fig. 121, may be thought of as surrounded by a
box with transparent sides, Fig. 122. The projections on these
sides would be practically what would be seen by looking straight
at the object from positions directly in front,
above, and at both
sides.
These " planes of projection" when revolved into one
plane, Fig. 123, and represented on the paper as in Fig. 124 give
what are known as the different ''views" of the object. The
projection on the front or vertical plane is known as the front
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
FIG. 123.
FIG. 124.
The
three projections.
69
ENGINEERING DRAWING
70
line,
V trace
the
point as
is
FIG. 125.
trace of
plane
the left side of the figure would be to the
This
right of the front view.
system, known as first angle projection, was formerly in universal use, but
was generally abandoned in this country more than
twenty years ago and
is now almost obsolete.
The student should understand it, however, as it
may be encountered occasionally in old drawings, in some book illustrations,
and in foreign drawings. In England some
attempt is being made to
introduce true (third angle) projection, but as
yet it has not been accepted
to
any extent.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
The monument
Fig. 128.
On
Fig. 127
is
shown
71
in orthographic projection in
is OA.
of
Evidently in
H tr.
FIG. 126.
many
views are
made
as are necessary to
traces are not
FIG. 127.
FIG. 128.
represented, but center lines or other lines of the views are used
datum lines as in Fig. 130. Thus the center
for reference or
line of the side
plane whose
view
H trace
theoretical study
we
may
is
shall
make
number
of
72
ENGINEERING DRAWING
projections.
FIG. 129.
Fig. 131
picture formed, at a glance; one with more lines as E' will require a little time for study and comparison of the different
views.
One cannot expect to read a whole
at once
of reading a
drawing
any
whole page of print at a
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Fig. 132
is
another progressive
use of hidden
The objects
series, illustrating
73
the necessary
lines.
be "written" in orthographic
C3H
FIG.. 131.
projection
may
FIG. 132.
FIG. 133.
After a study of the methods of pictorial representation (Chapwe shall reverse this operation and practise reading, by
ter VIII)
of objects
drawn
in orthographic projection.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
74
Auxiliary Views.
Sometimes a view taken from another direction will aid in showing the shape or construction of an object to better advantage
than can be done on the three reference planes alone, and often
such a view may save making one or more of the regular views.
For example, the three views of Fig. 134 do not show the face A
A projection on a plane whose edge (H trace) is S-S,
clearly.
the face A, Fig. 135, would show the true size of the
to
parallel
and
the
position of the hole, and would obviate the necessity
face,
FIG. 134.
^^
FIG. 135.
Auxiliary projection.
this
view.
Such a plane as S is called an auxiliary plane, and the projecit an auxiliary projection or auxiliary view.
These planes may be set up anywhere perpendicular to one of
the planes of projection, and revolved into the plane of the paper.
In practical work extensive use is made of auxiliary views in
showing the true size of sections and inclined surfaces.
The plane S in Fig. 136 was taken perpendicular to H and revolved into H. It might as readily have been revolved about
its V trace into V.
Fig. 137 is the picture of an object with the
H and V planes, and an auxiliary plane parallel to one of the
tion on
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
75
ENGINEERING DRAWING
76
FIG. 138.
with V.
FIG. 139.
Auxiliary projection.
These figures
trace to coincide
Auxiliary projection.
dimensions of
the auxiliary view are obtainable directly from the other views.
In practice the auxiliary plane trace is not actually drawn,
but, like the ground line, after use has been made of it in explain-
FIG. 140.
ing the principle, its position is simply imagined, and the views
are worked from center lines.
Thus in Fig. 139 the center line
on the auxiliary view is really the projection of the center line
of the top view or, more
accurately, the edge of a plane whose
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
77
trace
view
is
is
on the auxiliary
view.
Often
trace
it
is
and may be
set off
anywhere
at a convenient place
on the
paper.
FIG. 141.
FIG. 142.
Section on A-B.
Sectional Views.
known
kind
is
ENGINEERING DRAWING
78
FIG. 143.
FIG. 144.
Half section.
When
a figure
is
symmetrical about an
common
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
practice to
show
is
half in section
79
self-explanatory.
FIG. 145.
Little auxiliary
Half section.
particular part.
FIG. 146.
is
may
section.
FIG. 147.
through which
if
Broken
in a sectional
Revolved
sections.
it*
ENGINEERING DRAWING
80
it
in position full,
it is
so left.
This
is
keys, etc., which are never sectioned, but are drawn as in Figs.
149 and 150. A combination full and sectional view, known as a
"dotted section" will sometimes show the construction of an
object economically. Fig. 151 A is an illustration.
FIG. 148.
Revolved
section.
is
FIG. 149.
FIG. 150.
pencil,
wider or narrower.
may
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
81
FIG. 151.
dotted section.
brought out more clearly by varying the pitch, using lines closer
together for smaller pieces.
Different materials are sometimes indicated by conventional
symbols. The use of those symbols is discussed in Chapter IX.
FIG. 152.
Revolution.
to place an object
would be
in the simplest
ENGINEERING DRAWING
82
is
axis perpendicular to
position.
FIG. 153.
a plane,
If
its
FIG. 154.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
83
distance from the ground line to any point in the top view would
be unchanged, hence the new top view may be found by projecting
original top
FIG. 155.
Fig. 156
is
may
MNO
ried along.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
84
in revolution are
theory of projection.
FIG. 156.
Successive revolutions.
of a Line.
itself.
If
will
a line is perpendicular to a
plane
be a point.
its
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
If
a line
than the
is
85
line.
is parallel to
or V its projection on the other plane
be parallel to the ground line.
A line inclined to both and V will not show its true length
If
a line
will
FIG. 158.
Fig. 158
is
AB
until
it
is
is
parallel to
FIG. 160.
159.
line
may
be revolved about
its
AB
all
ENGINEERING DRAWING
86
If this
about its
trace, which is the
projecting plane be revolved
it coincides with H, the line will be
seen in
AB.
Shade Lines.
In the alphabet of lines the visible outline was indicated as a
uniform, bold, full line. This is the general practice for working
drawings.
It is possible by using two weights of lines, to add something
to the clearness and legibility of a drawing, and at the same
FIG. 161.
Shading a
circle.
time to give to
ray each make an angle of 45 degrees with the GL. Part of the
object would thus be illuminated and part in shade, and a shade
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
line is a line separating a light face
from a dark
87
face.
The
strict
lines
FIG. 162.
Shade
lines.
line
acquired,
circle
ENGINEERING DRAWING
88
Line shading
is
method
lines,
FIG. 163.
FIG. 164.
is
an accomplishment not
An
explanation of the
methods, a'nd several examples illustrating its application are
given in Chapter XIV, page 259.
FIG. 165.
FIG. 166.
PROBLEMS.
If
will
Group
I.
Prob.
1.
2.
Draw
Draw
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
3.
4.
5.
6.
FIG. 168.
FIG. 167.
7.
8.
89
Draw
Draw
FIG. 170.
FIG. 169.
Group
II.
Prob.
9.
Views to be completed.
the top and front views given, Fig. 171, and add
Draw
10.
Draw
Draw
Scale 3"
-1
ft.
Scale 3" =
1 ft.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
90
FIG. 171.
FIG. 172.
T^
H%
j
HT
*>!>
'i
.1
FnJi
FIG. 173.
Jl
FIG. 174.
pf-f
W
FIG. 175.
FIG. 176.
'
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
13.
Draw
3"
14.
of
91
=1
Scale
ft.
Draw
Scale 3" =
1 ft.
FIG. 177.
15.
Draw
side
16.
view
Draw
FIG. 179.
Group
III.
Prob.
17.
18.
Scale 6" =
1 ft.
FIG. 180.
Auxiliary projections.
the front view given, complete the top view and
draw auxiliary view on the given C.L. of truncated
Draw
92
ENGINEERING DRAWING
FIG. 181.
FIG. 182.
FIG. 183.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
19.
20.
21.
Draw
Draw
Draw
93
FIG. 184.
22.
23.
24.
Draw
Draw
Draw
1ft.
FIG. 186.
Group
IV.
Prob.
25.
26.
Sectional views.
Draw
187.
Draw
front view
Fig. 188.
Scale 6" =
ft.
of eccentric,
ENGINEERING DRAWING
94
FIG. 188.
FIG. 189.
FIG. 191.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
27.
28.
=1
Scale 6"
95
ft.
Draw top
FIG. 193.
Half sections.
29.
30.
Scale 3" =
Scale 6"
1 ft.
=1
ft.
FIG. 194.
Scale 6" =
1 ft.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
96
Group V.
Prob. 33.
Revolution.
(1)
(2)
H through
15 degrees.
FIG. 195.
(3)
ular to
(4)
r-^H
r-'f-*\
[HE!
5
VO o
FIG. 195 A.
(5)
Revolve from position (2) about an axis perpendicP forward through 30 degrees.
Revolve from position (3) about an axis perpendicular to P forward through 30 degrees.
ular to
(6)
FIG. 197.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
34.
(1)
(2)
(3)
97
35. (1)
1
FIG. 198.
ular to
box
in position as
view shown at
6"
Group VI.
= 1ft.
True length
of lines.
Prob. 37. Find true length of the body diagonal of a 1 1/2" cube.
38. Find true length of the brace AB in tower diagram,
Fig. 199.
39.
Scale 6" =
cone, Fig. 200.
40. Find true length of line
AB
6"
41.
=1
of oblique
Scale
ft.
A B,
1 ft.
= 1ft.
of line
AB on brace,
Fig. 202.
Scale
ENGINEERING DRAWING
98
Group VII.
Prob. 42.
Draw
(cap)
by a
cylindrical abacus
FIG. 199.
FIG. 200.
43.
44.
Draw
FIG. 201.
FIG. 202.
clined 30
to H, and perpendicular to V.
on
the
points
curve).
45.
(Find 8
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
46.
99
48.
left.
Draw
pyramid formed
of
of
pendicular to the
body diagonal.
CHAPTER
VII.
first
Any
may be
may
Surfaces
line.
Ruled surfaces
may
be divided into
curved
warped surfaces.
A plane may be generated by a straight line moving so as to
touch two other intersecting or parallel straight lines.
Single curved surfaces have their elements either parallel or
These are the cylinder and the cone; and a third
intersecting.
surface, which we shall not consider, known as the convolute, in
which the consecutive elements intersect two and two.
Warped surfaces have no two consecutive elements either
There is a great variety of warped
parallel or intersecting.
surfaces.
The surface of a screw thread and of the pilot of a
locomotive are two examples.
Double curved surfaces are generated by a curved line moving
according to some law. The commonest forms are surfaces of
revolution, made by the revolution of a curve about an axis in
surfaces, (c)
hyperboloid, etc.
In some kinds of construction full sized patterns of different
faces, or of the entire surface of an object are required; as for
example in stone cutting, a templet or pattern giving the shape
of
sheet
the object.
*
The
ties, intersections,
geometry.
100
in
proper-
called the
development
101
of the surface.
developable, and
when patterns
FIG. 203.
FIG. 204.
equal to the slant height, and arc equal in length to the circumference of the base, Fig. 204.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
102
necessary.
alone.
In this chapter we
will
In the development of any object we must first have its proviews or parts of views as are necesjections, drawing only such
and true size of cut surfaces.
elements
of
sary to give the lengths
Fig. 205.
is
AB
FIG. 205.
called
Development
of
hexagonal prism.
Measure on
lines," representing the edges.
length as given on the front view, and connect
Attach to one of the top lines the true size of the
"measuring
each of these
its
the points.
cut face C, and to one of the bottom lines the size of the base.
The
figure will
the prism.
It
is
edge.
To develop the
103
FIG. 206.
Development
FIG. 207.
of cylinder.
Five-piece elbow.
As the base
is
symmetrical, one-half
only need be drawn. In these cases the sections as B will develop on their center lines as stretchouts, and measurements will
104
ENGINEERING DRAWING
J_J_iUJ
FIG. 208.
Development
of five-piece elbow.
FIG. 209.
Development
of octagonal
dome.
105
be taken on each side of the center line, since the center line represents a "right section," i.e. the section cut by a plane perpendicular to the axis.
Fig. 208.
of the octagonal dome Fig.
development of cylinders.
The development
application of the
FIG. 210.
Development
209 illustrates an
of hexagonal pyramid.
and attach
it
to the
development.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
106
through them.
cone,
off
on
i.e.
it
FIG. 211.
Development
FIG. 212.
of rectangular pyramid.
Development
of cone.
107
FIG. 213.
diameter
is
Sphere, gore
method
FIG. 214.
Triangulation.
The commonest and best method for approximate development is by triangulation, i.e., assuming the surface to be made
up of a large number of triangular strips, or plane triangles with
ENGINEERING DRAWING
108
very short bases. This is used for all warped surfaces, and for
oblique cones, which, although single-curved surfaces, and capable
of true theoretical development, can be done much more easily
It consists
merely in divid-
ing the surface into triangles, finding the true lengths of the sides
of each, and constructing the triangles one at a time, joining
them on their common sides. A study of Fig. 215, the develop-
ment
of
an oblique cone,
FIG. 215.
Development
of oblique cone
method completely.
by
triangulation.
109
by constructing the
With
DC' and connecting with the point A"
and radius A'V draw an arc on each side of A'C'.
h
center and radius C l intersect these arcs at 1'.
A' as center
'.
With C' as
Then A'V will be the developed position of the element Al.
With 1' as center and arc 1, 2, intersect A'2' and continue the
operation.
FIG. 216.
Development
of oblique cone
by
triangulation.
215, except that the true size of the base is not given in the top
view and must be revolved until parallel to H, as shown.
Transition Pieces.
axis, is typical.
These
ENGINEERING DRAWING
110
is
lines,
The
FIG. 217.
FIG. 218.
Transition piece.
Transition piece.
By
111
of
Any
Two
Cylinders.
practical problem resolves itself into
some combination
of
FIG. 219.
* Often called
"penetrations" or "interpenetrations."
ENGINEERING DRAWING
112
sect,
the figure.
In general, the method of finding the line of intersection of any
two surfaces is to pass a series of planes through them in such a
FIG. 220.
Two
cylinders, axes
not intersecting.
is
illustrated in Fig.
If
the cylinder
cone.
judgment
number
is
113
Some
are illustrated in Fig. 221.
both of the direction and
FIG. 221.
at the
some
FIG. 222.
FIG. 223.
is
ENGINEERING DRAWING
114
as in Fig. 222.
If
FIG. 224.
It is often
and a plane.
necessary on a drawing to represent the line of interand a surface of revolution, such as is shown
section of a plane
in Fig. 224.
The
series of planes as
method
S-S
The
back
on the curve.
PROBLEMS.
Selections from the following problems may be constructed
accurately in pencil, without inking. Any practical problem can
be resolved into some combination of the "type solids," and the
exercises given illustrate the principles involved in the various
combinations.
When
may
115
out.
Group
I.
Prob.
lar
2.
FIG. 226.
3.
4.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
116
Group
II.
Prob.
(B)
Develop three-piece elbow
Develop one section of octagonal
FIG. 227.
roof
and
rafter
8.
(C)
FIG. 228.
Group
III.
Prob.
pyramid
(A)
10.
11.
octagonal
(B)
(C)
117
pyramid
(D)
IV.
Cones, Fig. 228.
Prob. 13. Complete top view, and develop
cone
(A)
Group
15.
16.
14.
flange
cone
(C)
cone
(P)
FIG. 229.
Group V.
(C)
20.
(D)
(E)
(F)
ENGINEERING DRAWING
118
Group VI.
24.
25.
26.
two prisms
Find the line
two prisms
Find the line
two prisms
(A)
of intersection of
(B)
of intersection of
(C)
of
(D)
two cylinders
Find the line
two cylinders
(A)
of intersection of
(B)
119
29.
FIG. 231.
Group VIII.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
120
ENGINEERING DRAWING
FIG 232.
FIG. 233.
121
Group IX.
cones
38.
Find
(A)
line of intersection of
two
cones
If desired,
any
(B)
of the figures in
IX may
5".
FIG. 234.
Group X.
Find
Find
42. Find
40.
line of intersection of
41.
line of intersection of
line of intersection cut
planes
(C)
by
transition piece
43. Find line of intersection cut
planes
(B)
RS
(D)
by
transition elbow
(E)
CHAPTER
VIII.
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION.
as
it
it
really
is
in
form and
from these views. To combine the pictorial effect of perspecdrawing with the possibility of measuring the principal
lines directly, several kinds of one plane projection or conventional picture methods have been devised, in which the third
dimension is taken care of by turning the object in such a way
that three of its faces are visible. With the combined advantages will be found some serious disadvantages which limit their
.it
tive
and
or
it is
illustrated
by supplementary
pictorial
views.
Technical
made
patent
in
one
and
advantageously
plane projection; layouts
piping plans
may be shown, and many other applications will occur to drafts-
illustrations,
office
like
are
shall
Isometric Drawing.
The simplest
'
122
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
123
AC
AD
and
The three lines A B,
angles with each other and are called the isometric
make equal
planes of these axes and all planes parallel to them are called
It will thus be noticed that any line or plane
isometric planes.
FIG. 235.
which in
laid off
ENGINEERING DRAWING
124
Lines not parallel to one of the isometric axes are called non-
FIG. 236.
An
isometric scale.
FIG. 237.
The
in
isometric axes.
on the isometric
drawing.
To draw an object composed of non-isometric lines, an isometric construction must be built up and the points located
by
FIG. 238.
isometric coordinates.
Isometric construction
lines.
may
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
isometric coordinates
by
offsets.
Figs. 239
125
self-
explanatory.
Of course angles in isometric drawing cannot be measured in
In general to represent any angles, or combination of
degrees.
non-isometric
lines, their
FIG. 239.
first,
Offset construction.
circle
ellipse.
by
It
coordinates, or
by the method
FIG. 240.
of conjugate diameters.
Offset construction.
must
lie
of these perpen-
126
diculars
ENGINEERING DRAWING
would be centers
two
Two
FIG. 241.
may
thus be
Approximate isometric
circle.
60-degree lines from the corners A and B. To draw any circlearc, the isometric square of its diameter should be drawn in the
FIG. 242.
Construction of isometric
circles.
If a true ellipse be
plotted in the same square as this fourcentered approximation it will be a little longer and narrower,
and of more pleasing shape, but in the great majority of drawings
the difference is not sufficient to warrant the extra
expenditure
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
of time required in execution.
127
The construction
of a closer
drawing
of
a sphere would
FIG. 244.
FIG. 243.
Reversed axes.
back instead
FIG. 245.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
128
FIG. 246.
FIG. 247.
FIG. 248.
Isometric section.
Main
axis horizontal.
FIG. 249.
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
The isometric section and
employed
to
good advantage.
half section
129
may sometimes
be
are taken as
Shade
lines in isometric
in the reading
is
FIG. 250.
FIG. 251.
some
faces
FIG. 252.
is
it
in
any
ENGINEERING DRAWING
130
FIG. 253.
and the cross axis might be at any angle, 30 degrees being generThus any face parallel to the picture plane will be
ally used.
without
projected
distortion, an advantage over isometric of
in
value
the
particular
representation of objects with circular or
FIG. 254.
irregular outline,
and the
first
would
be, place the object with the irregular outline or contour parallel
to the picture plane. Fig. 252
or C.
instead of
One
of the greatest
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
131
and
FIG. 255.
FIG. 256.
It will
Offsets
from right
section.
is
in
one
ENGINEERING DRAWING
132
i.e.,
the section on
A-A
On axes through
as the front of the oblique projection.
the distances
behind and CF in front may
the centers C and
drawn
be laid
CE
When an
off.
FIG. 257.
base
be drawn in a similar
may
and measuring
convenient
offsets
way
for
from
it
figure,
and
it
should be
studied carefully.
FIG. 258.
Fig. 257
of oblique
Circle construction.
FIG. 259.
"Cabinet" drawing.
an
is
difficult to
represent in orthographic.
drawing may either be plotted, or may be
drawn approximately, on the same principle as Fig. 241, by
erecting perpendiculars at the middle points of the containing
Circles in oblique
square.
In isometric
it
falls in
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
133
inscribed circles.
which
Axonometric Projection.
The
rr=Uk5--.
FIG. 260.
Dimetric projection.
pictorial representation,
When two
ENGINEERING DRAWING
134
A simple
is
cube.
(2)
(3)
is
is
(4)
is
from
(3)
1/3.
view of (2)
a front view projected from
(3),
.the side
(2)
and
the projectors
1
being at tan" 1/6.
FIG. 261.
MON
it
shown. Make
one horizontal
Make
MS = 1/2 MO
and draw
SVD.
perpendiculars as
Then CD will be
axis.
section of
will
LO and GC back
horizontally to
LM at
A, then
AOB
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
To obtain length
OE and OF =
of vertical axis
135
lay off
OE'.
_^4^S$fe
f
J^
^'
FIG. 262.
The
shown
axial planes,
in Fig. 263.
FIG. 263.
These axes are for the isometric system of crystals. Axes for
may be constructed graphically in the
p*
FIG. 264.
FIG. 265.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
136
PROBLEMS.
The following problems
they are given
first,
two purposes;
methods of pictor-
*<M
hh
m
FIG. 267.
FIG. 266.
ial
and translating
orthographic projections.
FIG. 268.
in a space
FIG. 269.
FIG. 270.
used for a
still
and assign-
Some
if
desired,
of the figures in
be drawn in one of
Chapter VI may be
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
Do not show
137
when necessary
to explain
construction.
Group
I.
Prob.
Isometric Drawing :
1. Isometric drawing
of
264.
Full size.
FIG. 272.
FIG. 271.
2.
3.
4.
Bottom
FIG. 274.
FIG. 273.
5.
6.
Prob.
7.
8.
Isometric
6"=!'.
Isometric
Isometric
Isometric
drawing
of
brass,
Fig.
267.
Scale
ENGINEERING DRAWING
138
1/2"=!'.
Boffom
^/ens
FIG. 275.
12.
6"=!'.
13. Isometric
Full size.
FIG. 276.
FIG. 277.
II.
Isometric Sections :
Prob. 14. Isometric section of
Scale 3"=!'.
cap, Fig. 276.
15. Isometric section of
Scale
pulley, Fig. 277.
6"=!'.
Group
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
16.
17.
139
Scale
Scale
6"=!'.
FIG. 278.
III.
Oblique Drawing:
Prob. 18. Oblique drawing of block, Fig. 280, 30 degrees to
the left. Full size.
19. Oblique drawing of block, Fig. 281, 30 degrees to
Group
the right,
20.
full size.
FIG. 280.
21.
22.
mate)
Oblique drawing of column section, Fig. 283, 30
.
23.
degrees to the
24.
Oblique
Scale
left.
drawing
of
1/2"=
monument,
1
I'.
284,
Fig.
Scale 1/2"=!'.
30
ENGINEERING DRAWING
140
25.
26.
Full size.
left.
Scale
6"= I'.
FIG. 282.
FIG. 283.
FIG. 284.
Ttr Hfrai
tl^g
FIG. 285.
27.
28.
FIG. 286.
left.
Oblique drawing of
degrees to the
left.
Scale 1
Fig.
link,
1/2"=
bell-crank,
Scale 6"=!'.
287, 30
1'.
Fig.
288,
45
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
29.
Oblique drawing of
the right.
30.
141
30 degrees to
Full size.
FIG. 287.
FIG. 290.
FIG. 291.
31.
FIG. 292.
Fig. 292,
30 degrees
ENGINEERING DRAWING
142
33.
Oblique
drawing
of
34. Oblique
section.
Full size.
s-
T
*o
I-*"'
FIG. 294.
FIG. 293.
ftf"
==$
//*
S-4-'-
-a-7-
i
FIG. 295.
FIG. 296.
FIG. 297.
Group
IV.
FIG. 298.
3/4"=!'.
projection
of
Scale
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
143
ENGINEERING DRAWING
144
36. Cabinet
1"
projection
of
Fig.
296.
Scale
table, Fig.
297.
Scale
desk,
= !'.
of
3/4"=!'.
38. Dimetric projection of
Scale 1"=!'.
Roman
chair, Fig.
298.
J L
FIG. 300.
Group V.
Reading
exercises.
Reading Exercises.
is
now
methods
systems.
at a glance, others will require careful comparison of the different views before the mental image of the
object
is
clearly defined.'
CHAPTER
IX.
WORKING DRAWINGS.
A working drawing
some extent
descriptive title.
cabinet drawing are used to
(4)
working
drawing
is
is
so well
This statement
it.
is
of sufficient
examples, although there is no guide but the draftsman's judgment as to when added clearness might result by disregarding a
theoretical principle.
six-arm wheel, Fig. 301, be shown in section as if cut by a
the true projection would be as A; if cut by a plane
plane
B-B the true projection would be as B. Neither of these would
be good practical working drawings, the first does not show the
If a
A-A,
10
145
ENGINEERING DRAWING
146
The sectional
true size of the arm, the second is misleading.
A-A
B-B
or
on
would
be
better
if made as C.
taken
view whether
(NOT)
FIG. 302.
Section through a
rib.
leading.
Its
character
may
be
indicated
much
better
by
WORKING DRAWINGS
147
omitting the lining on the rib, as if the section were just in front
of it, as at B, or by running every other line across the rib
section, as at C.
an
illustration.
(NOT)
FIG. 303.
A symmetrical section.
Classes of
Working Drawings.
Working drawings may be divided into two general
assembly drawings and detail drawings.
classes,
detail
drawing
made.
From
it
ENGINEERING DRAWING
148
it.
The grouping
of the details
is
entirely
requirements of the
it
is
same material or
Thus forgings may be grouped on one sheet, bolts
character.
information are
views,
ambiguous, or
and
Order of Penciling.
In penciling a working drawing the order should be as follows
first, lay off the sheet to standard size, with border (1/2 inch),
and block out space for the title; second, plan the arrangement
:
by making a
ance of the sheet; third, draw the center lines for each view, and
off the principal dimensions.
In Chapter VI the
on these lay
was given that the view showing the charactershape should be made first. The different projections should
however be carried on together and no attempt made to finish
one view before drawing another. Fourth, finish the projections,
general principle
istic
WORKING DRAWINGS
149
lines
FIG. 304.
Stages of penciling.
All
often convenient in preventing the overrunning of ink lines.
unnecessary erasing should be avoided as it abrades the surface,
of the
paper so that
dirt catches
FIG. 305.
more
readily.
Stages of inking.
Order of Inking.
First, ink all circles, then circle arcs; second, ink the straight
lines in the order,
horizontal, vertical, inclined; third, ink center
lines; extension
and dimension
lines; fourth,
stages of inking.
all
ENGINEERING DRAWING
150
DIMENSIONING.
After the correct representation of the object by its projections, the entire value of the drawing as a working drawing lies
having a space
Some
left for
the figure.
line for
dimension lines.
It is common practice among structural
draftsmen to place the dimension above the continuous line as
in Fig. 346, but it is not recommended for machine or architectural work.
Dimensions of course always indicate the finished size of the
piece, without any reference to the scale of the drawing.
Dimensions should read from the bottom and right side of the
sheet, no matter what part of the sheet they are on.
Dimensions up to 24" should always be given in inches. An
exception
is
again noted
in
structural
practice.
Over 24"
WORKING DRAWINGS
Fractions must be
The diameter
made with
of a circle should
151
FIG. 306.
Example
of dimensioning.
Extension
if
possible.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
152
NOT THUS
h*H
"/H
-UTI-
Hh/
(D
FHl-fHl
@
FIG. 307.
Dimensions.
surface,
Another
finish
mark,
adoption as a standard,
is
individuality, and,
lines is to
be finished.
Some
Some
must be added
WORKING DRAWINGS
number required
finish,
kind of
fit
of
153
(as force
fit,
drive
fit,
etc.),
Supplement
it.
alike,
The bill of material is a tabulated statement placed on a drawsome cases, for convenience, on a separate sheet, which
ing, or in
remarks."
drawing
Title.*
right
the size of the drawing. For 12"xl8" sheets the space reserved
may be about three inches long. For 18"x24" sheets four or
four and a half, and for 24"x36" sheets five or five and a half
inches.
full
is
condensed.
"The
154
ENGINEERING DRAWING
WORKING DRAWINGS
155
on the
print.
it
sending
out.
Contents of
Title.
In general the
title of
contain:
(1)
Name
(2)
General
of
machine or structure.
name
of parts (or
FIG. 309.
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Name
of purchaser,
if
simply
"
details").
A record strip.
special machine.
FIG. 310.
(8)
Numbers;
number is
of
the drawing,
of
the order.
The
filing
ENGINEERING DRAWING
15G
Every drafting room has its own standard form for titles.
In large offices this is often printed in type on the tracing cloth.
Figs. 310 and 311 are characteristic, examples.
Sometimes a title is put on with a rubber stamp, and inked
over while wet.
GENERAL NOTES.
WORKMANSHIPMATERIAL
CONTRACT.
SHEET
No,
ASSEMBLING PAINT-
SHOP PAINT
FIELD PAINT
BUILT BY
FIELD CONNECTION*
F.O. B
SHIP
__^
FIG. 311.
DRAWINGS FINISHED
time
is
ness,
is
desirable.
FASTENINGS.
In every working drawing will occur the
necessity of representing the methods of fastening parts
either with
together,
WORKING DRAWINGS
The
Helix.
helix
157
one revolution
is
If
angle less than 90 degrees) it will generate a cone and the curve
made by the moving point will be a conical helix. When the
angle becomes 90 degrees the helix degenerates into a spiral.
FIG. 312.
2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 /O///2/
into a
The
on the
conical helix
is
drawn
measured
axis.
Screw Threads.
The
helix
is
is
not often
ENGINEERING DRAWING
158
Two
nut.
FIG. 313.
Forms
of Threads.
Screws are used for fastenings, for adjustment, and for transmitting power or motion. For these different purposes several
different forms of thread are in use.
The United States Standard
FIG. 314.
flats
filled
bolt.
the
In
WORKING DRAWINGS
The sharp
recommend
V
it.
at 60 degrees
159
is still
The square
fA)
SHARP V
STANDARD
U. S.
SQUARE
-P
WH/TWOGTH
KNUCKLE
FIG. 315.
Forms
of screw threads.
A right hand thread advances away from the body when turned
clockwise.
left hand thread is always marked plainly "L H,"
and
is
FIG. 316.
by the
direction of slant.
Conventional threads.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
160
"" UUill
WfiMffi
4/T/l/l/j/M/Vl
4^-n/U/llllvl
FIG. 317.
^W^^^
.-V-
fjTWK'^i^
iuU-Sm 4|%Wi%
4/1^474^AiA4/
^H^lMWJ>
Hiwk-
Stages in drawing
threads.
shown
in Fig. 317.
For screws less than perhaps one inch in diameter, the thread
shapes are omitted and one of the conventional forms of Fig. 318
The lines are drawn
used.. A is a very common convention.
with a slight slant (one-half the pitch), and spaced by eye. The
FIG. 319.
Tapped hoi
spacing need not be to the correct pitch, but to look well should
The
heavier, for effect.
beginner's usual mistake of exaggerating the slant must be careIt is a question as to whether there is
fully guarded against.
WORKING DRAWINGS
any necessity
drawn
all,
161
and
in
much good
straight across.
side.
C is
a convention that does not look like a thread, but that can
rapidly, and is understood by all workmen.
Fig. 319 shows the conventional representation of' tapped
In showing a tapped hole
holes in plan, section and elevation.
be
made
FIG. 320.
In
as the part represented fits the invisible side of the screw.
tapped holes not extending through the piece, the "drill point,"
or shape of the
When two
bottom
always be shown.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
162
Dimensioning Threads.
a thread
between
is
U.
threads.
machinists
is
the
S.
misunderstanding
in these
inch.
There
is
very
it
"
little
may
danger
be safer,
threads
per in."
FIG. 321.
U.
S.
to
mean
A
holes
and threaded
holes.
bolt heads
WORKING DRAWINGS
163
shows the U. S. Standard hex. head, and the standIn drawing a hex. head three
ard square head bolt and nut.
faces are shown, and in a square head, one face.
Fig. 321
DIMENSIONS OF
U. S.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
164
LLTJ
I
FIG. 322.
a distance 1
~ezz& *
1/2D + 1/8".
outside corners.
point to the base will give points for the
remainder
CTTJ
from the
The
figure.
LCD
r
FIG. 323.
Locknuts.
inclined face
is
shown
WORKING DRAWINGS
165
Cap screws differ from bolts in that they are used for fastening
two pieces together by passing through a clear hole in one and
FIG. 324.
screwing into a tapped hole in the other. The heads are the
same thickness as the diameter of the bolt, but are usually
somewhat smaller in diameter than bolt heads. Some cap screw
ENGINEERING DRAWING
166
six different
SQUAP
OVAL FILLISTER
FIG. 325.
Studs.
FLAT FILL/STEP
BUTTON
COUNTERSUNK
Cap screws.
WORKING DRAWINGS
167
two parts
in relative position,
being screwed through one part and having the point set against
the other. They are made with square and hex. heads, whose
thickness and short diameter are equal to the diameter of the
LOW HEAD
REGULAR
FIG. 326.
Studs.
FIG. 327.
HEADLESS
Set screws.
screw, with low head, and headless, as shown in Fig. 327; and
with points of different shapes for different purposes, Fig. 328.
POUND
FLAT
set screw,
CONr
CUP
FIG. 328.
FLAT
moving
POUND
FIG. 329.
parts.
FILLISTER FRENCH
Machine screws.
in
of
ENGINEERING DRAWING
168
A new
ALLEN HEADLESS
LAG SCREW
COLLAR SCREW
5ET SCREW
DRIVE SCREW.
WOOD SCREWS
SHOULDER SCREW
CARRIAGE BOLT
HANGER BOLT
EXPANSION BOLT
EYE BOLT
WING NUT
TURN BUCKLES
FIG. 330.
\F/af Tops\
Pound
Bottoms
Bottoms
Threads
FIG. 331.
Complete Threads
Tops and Bottoms
Round
tin*
J."na *T~~ ^ 32
Taper per
f/"of
Length
V~ Number o, Threads
per /"'
WORKING DRAWINGS
169
ENGINEERING DRAWING
170
Pipe
size,
S/ZE OF
PIPE:
'A
M
'
73
'A
'
*t
/O
FIG. 332.
of standard
Cast iron
fittings.
XX,
.587".
The dimensions
manufacturers.
Fig.
fittings.
WORKING DRAWINGS
171
deducing
Coup/mg
Union
L-A/Cap
gfa.
^_
A'
Ji
~w
'76
/xl
*JL
FIG. 333.
Malleable
3O TEETH
FIG. 334.
fittings.
CAST
Iff
ON
FULL SIZE
172
ENGINEERING DRAWING
/O P., 48
r.
FIG. 336.
"
WORKING DRAWINGS
173
Gears.
While
it is
it is
P/TCfi
3S TEETH
Cut bevel
gear.
N(<>
S/NGLE THBEAO
HARDENED STEEL
"c.P.
HARDENED STEEL
FIG. 338.
gears and toothed wheels the teeth are never drawn on the wheel.
For cast gears the pitch circle, addendum circle and root circle
are drawn, and the full sized outline of one tooth, Fig. 334.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
174
is
full
Fig.
337
is
is
worm
gear.
On assembly drawings
FIG. 339.
CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS.
The methods of drawing screw-threads and gears just considered would be called conventional, as they do not represent
real outlines of the objects.
Other conventions are used for
electrical apparatus, for materials, etc.
made
is
of different materials
by using
shown
can be
different characters of
cross-hatching.
symbol
is
An example
of this
WORKING DRAWINGS
175
LEATHER
(OTHER FLEXIBLE MATERIALS)
of materials
entirely impracticable to
GLASS
FIG. 340.
Symbols
LIQUID
it
INSULATING
MATERIAL
Fig. 340 gives conventions for a number of different mateThose in the first line are accepted by practically all who
use conventional cross-hatching. There is much variation in
rials.
Bureau
U.
of
S. N.,
who
of Construction
by
name
of the material
ENGINEERING DRAWING
176
SQUARE SECTION
FIG. 341.
(6)
(M)
're
nL2Zref7f
|(M)
O.C.5hut.
D. C.
Ser/es
>.C.
Compound
Pnase
Dynamo
TwoPnase
Alternator
e
leraforor Motor
6-6
-0n
TT
31
_j4Crossings
C[
AAAAAAA
Resistance
Orcv/t Breaker
^AAA^V
Vanaffi/e
Converter
Transformer
I
/nsfrvment
Transformer
5.^
^ST:
n
&/?
7:
Jl
Jl
11
R;I
^./?
5.^-
'
*Yor5tor
Sw/fches
FIG. 342.
Connection
Connect/on
Connection
WORKING DRAWINGS
Fig. 341
shows a number
of conventional breaks
177
and other
useful symbols.
shown much
better
its
by breaking out a
whole length.
piece
It
may
is
be
in a dimension.
Very short
made
freehand.
number
COMMERCIAL
SIZES.
always be specified.
Chain.
Give diameter of rod used.
Electrical Conduit.
Same
as pipe.
per inch
when
and
free.
Tapered Pieces. Give size at small end, and taper per foot.
Tubing. Give outside diameter and thickness.
Wire.
Give diameter by gage number or in thousandths of
an inch.
Wire Cloth.
of wire.
12
ENGINEERING DRAWING
178
Wood
Screws.
head.
Special.
name and
Manufactured articles or
catalogue number.
fittings, give
manufacturer's
CHECKING.
Before being sent to the shop, a working drawing must be
checked for errors and omissions by an experienced checker, who
in signing his
To be
it.
1.
3.
necessary.
all the dimensions
Check
by
4.
by
scaling, and,
where advisable,
calculation also.
WORKING DRAWINGS
5.
Go over each
piece
179
specified.
6.
7.
Look out
"
for
interferences."
is
correct
and that
been allowed.
8.
When checking for clearances in connection with a mechanical movement, lay out the movement to scale, figure
the principal angles of motion and see that proper
clearances are maintained in all positions.
9.
See that
all
10.
11.
checking,
12.
STRUCTURAL DRAWING.
The term "structural drawing" is always understood to mean
working drawings and details for steel construction, such as
bridges, roof trusses, skeletons of tall buildings, etc.
Structural work differs from machine work in that
it is
made
up of rolled shapes
The function of the
made
solid black.
Fig. 343 shows the Osborn symbols for riveting, which are
so universally used that no key on the drawing is necessary; and
Fig. 344 shows rivets in larger scale.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
180
The general
rules for
is
a favorite instrument
FIG. 343.
FIG. 344.
On
spaces
left in
the
lines.
in feet
and
inches.
WORKING DRAWINGS
181
"
Bent plates should be developed, and the stretchout" length
When
the
left
A
This
bill of
piece,
always draw
it
from
may be
attaches
it
lower flange.
PROBLEMS.
The
is
commenced.
an object must be drawn to the same scale, but
different objects on the same sheet may be drawn to different
All views of
scales.
sheets.
I.
of course.
Prob.
1.
Prob.
2.
Draw
cap
screw;
182
ENGINEERING DRAWING
WORKING DRAWINGS
183
ENGINEERING DRAWING
184
Prob.
2.
fillister
(Continued.)
head
FIG. 347.
Prob.
3.
Pipe Fittings.
sheet
draw a
2" T.
drawn.
WORKING DRAWINGS
Prob.
4.
185
sure supply
a city
FIG. 348.
Group
II.
Prob.
1.
Prob.
2.
projection, with
necessary views.)
Make a freehand working sketch of the casting,
Fig. 349, showing the location of all dimensions,
according to the rules for dimensioning, thus
Same
ENGINEERING DRAWING
186
Prob.
3.
Freehand sketch
of
yoke (A)
The
holes to be
punched.
Prob.
4.
Same
FIG. 350.
FIG. 340.
Prob.
5.
Prob.
6.
Same
Additional practice
may be had by
FIG. 351.
Group
III.
FIG. 352.
WORKING DRAWINGS
Group
IV.
Prob.
Machine
1.
187
Parts, etc.
of
Prob.
2.
Working drawing
FIG. 354.
FIG. 355.
Prob.
Prob.
3.
4.
to be
table
Fig. 357.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
188
ABC
A'
UL
ZF
a?
7J
It
4.
FIG. 356.
ABC
//f
7J7
M.
3%
4-
8
FIG. 357.
WORKING DRAWINGS
FIG. 359.
189
ENGINEERING DRAWING
190
sis
Section on
AA
FIG. 360.
Column 5ecfion
ABC
F~
22" 26
24" 28
28" 33"
L
jj.
22"
/6
7"
/P
7"
8"
/e"
FIG. 361.
20
WORKING DRAWINGS
FIG. 362.
FIG. 363.
191
192
ENGINEERING DRAWING
WORKING DRAWINGS
Prob.
5.
Arms
at
Prob.
6.
Prob.
7.
193
Working drawing
Working drawing
size at the
hub.
Secin the
FIG. 366.
Suggested sizes
(a)
(b)
(c)
24" dia.
Prob.
8.
Prob.
9.
13
(e)
60" dia.
(f)
36" dia.
2 7/16" bore.
194
ENGINEERING DRAWING
WORKING DRAWINGS
195
Prob. 10.
Ibs.
Ribs 45 degrees.
Working drawing of roof truss from sketch, Fig.
per sq.
in.
362.
Prob. 11.
Prob.
12.
18,
sizes given.
FIG. 368.
Group V.
Prob.
Fig. 366.
Prob.
3.
of milling
from
Prob.
4.
detail
machine
The sketch
but
is
is
vise
not a
given to show
196
ENGINEERING DRAWING
IS
rt.rw
=5
^^
>
c\ ^0
S*
gj^||i^^j|to
;/^_j
f/M^
WORKING DRAWINGS
Prob.
5.
197
of center grinder,
from
Prob.
6.
shown
FIG. 370.
Prob.
7.
Prob.
8.
of gas engine
mixer from
Group VI.
Prob.
Checking.
Fig. 373
1.
incorrect in several
is
places both
in
Prob.
2.
Group VIII.
Prob.
1.
Check
Fig.
Miscellaneous.
198
ENGINEERING DRAWING
WORKING DRAWINGS
M/xer /eeve
C0sf/rv/i
FIG. 372.
FIG. 373.
An
199
ENGINEERING DRAWING
200
Prob.
2.
3.
Prob.
4.
Prob.
5.
specifications assigned.
A
A
FIG. 374.
An
CHAPTER
X.
TECHNICAL SKETCHING.
From its long use in connection with art the word "sketch"
has come to suggest the impression of a free or incomplete or
careless rendering of some idea, or some mere note or suggestion
for future use.
This meaning is entirely misleading and wrong
in the technical use of the word.
A sketch is simply a working
drawing made freehand, without instruments, the quick expresof graphic language, but in information adequate and
sion
complete.
So necessary to the engineer is the training in freehand sketchmight almost be said in regard to its importance that the
preceding nine chapters have all been in preparation for this one.
Such routine men as tracers and detailers may get along with
skin and speed in mechanical drawing, but the designer must -be
able to sketch his ideas with a sure hand and clear judgment.
In all mechanical thinking in invention, all preliminary designing,
all explanation and instructions to draftsmen freehand sketching
ing, it
is
the
mode
of expression.
the engineer, and inventor, designer, chief draftsman, and contractor, with all of whom time is too valuable to spend in mechanical
execution,
must have.
may
occurrence.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
202
the public schools, training the hand and eye to see and represent
form and proportion. Those who have not had this preparation
should
drawing lines with the pencil, until the hand
practice
Sketching a vertical
FIG. 375.
FIG. 376.
vertical lines
from
line.
Sketching a horizontal
drawn downward,
Fig. 375,
line.
and horizontal
lines
An
or 2H pencil sharpened to a long conical point, not too
sharp, a pencil eraser, to be used sparingly, and paper, either in
note book, pad, or single sheet clipped on a board, are all, the
materials needed.
TECHNICAL SKETCHING
203
Much ingenuity
a square. Sometimes a plumb line is of service.
often required to get dimensions from an existing machine.
is
ings
necessary,
sketch
is
made.
in the observation of
is
memory
,*!
rv^
FIG. 377.
The
204
additional views
ENGINEERING DRAWING
may
Dimension Lines.
After the sketching of the piece is entirely finished it should be
gone over and dimension lines for all the dimensions needed for
Dimensions.
Up
TECHNICAL SKETCHING
205
finished
surfaces
if
rough
379
illustrates
Fig.
measuring a curve by
offsets.
FIG. 378.
It
It
is
many
at
all.
FIG. 379.
Measurements by
offsets.
sketch,
and
the
ENGINEERING DRAWING
206
forgotten.
#f
mjttd
3ld2%jjiigTtt
Mfep
L!
'i;._j-.
J-4_._u- L
Hffi
HrLtiibittiramTON
h:n^;!Ti:i^WiVy^:q
jTiTt^j^fei^iT
dmhr
.-L4-{_i>4-4-i.-i
4-j_4-U4_LX4J_L.L44.|
-H-i-rT-rH-H
1
-
f-j-t-i-f-a-t-^
-i--
i-
j_ i _j..!_ t
--;-,-
J- T -L4-UJ-U 4-H-i-|-.-
^^-H-H-H^-f-^-FW 5
-mH-bnrtT-:^-H--|rtr:-ti^Ski
ffi^U^S "i^Pp
^TWtllW
iiLjbH^^
FIG. 380.
being laid
An
of
some
orthographic projection cannot be read intelligently by a workman. Often again a pictorial sketch
may be made more quickly
and serve as a better record than
orthographic views of the same
piece would do, and the draftsman who can make a pictorial
sketch with facility will find abundant
opportunity for its
advantageous
use.
TECHNICAL SKETCHING
207
Axonometric Sketching.
Since measurements are not made on sketches there is absolutely no advantage in sketching on isometric axes 120 degrees
apart and making an unnecessary distortion. A much better
effect is gained and the distortion greatly lessened by drawing
the cross axes at a much smaller angle with the horizontal, Fig.
It
381, and foreshortening them until satisfactory to the eye.
is legitimate in such an isometric sketch still further to decrease
the effect of distortion by slightly converging the receding lines.
Objects of rectangular outline are best adapted to sketching in
axonometric projection.
FIG. 381.
When
drawn
it is
120
and the
may
be
vertical axis
is
being given.
Oblique Sketching.
obtained.
is
ENGINEERING DRAWING
208
Geometrically,
it is
FIG. 382.
from the eye to the object, with the vertical plane, or "picture
plane." There is a distinction between "artist's perspective"
and "geometrical perspective/' in that the artist draws the
object as he sees it projected on the spherical surface of the
retina of his eye, while geometrical, or mechanical perspective
FIG. 383.
is
their distance
TECHNICAL SKETCHING
209
It will
in the picture,
FIG. 384.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
210
marking with the thumb the length of pencil which covers a line
of the model, rotating the arm, with the thumb held in position,
until the pencil coincides with another line, and estimating the
proportion of this measurement to the second line, Fig. 385.
The sketch should be made lightly, with free sketchy lines, and
no lines erased until the whole sketch has been blocked in.
FIG. 385.
point, a little thought will show that the vanishing point of any
system of parallel lines is the projection on the picture plane of
their infinite ends, the eye
looking farther
the line of vision is parallel to the lines.
and farther
out,
till
line
Evidently
in the center of vision.
An
it
This
is
is
of
TECNHICAL SKETCHING
211
with the cone of rays. C shows the picture plane detached and
set forward in order that it may not interfere with the plan when
revolved.
revolved.
FIG. 386.
Parallel perspective.
FIG. 387.
Angular perspective.
made only
212
ENGINEERING DRAWING
FIG. 388.
showing the finding of the vanishing points for the two series of
horizontal lines by drawing lines through the station point parallel to them; C the picture plane moved forward bringing with it
FIG. 389.
perspective sketch.
P.P.
TECHNICAL SKETCHING
213
projections.
Fig. 389 gives an application of perspective sketching, showing
construction.
Fig. 390 contains a selection of perspective sketches to be
sketched in orthographic.
FIG. 390.
Perspective sketches.
CHAPTER
XI.
to read or
technical work.
Each
same
its
own
makes
fications.
These specifications have equal importance and
weight with the drawings.
Architecture is one of the fine arts, and in an architect's drawings there is an evidence of artistic feeling in their make up,
produced in part by the freehand work and lettering upon them,
that gives them an entirely different appearance from a set of
machine drawings.
The present day fad
of over
running corners
is
however a
Kinds of Drawings.
Architectural drawings
classes
may
(2)
(3)
Working Drawings.
(1)
214
215
216
ENGINEERING DRAWING
FIG. 393.
FIG. 394.
pencil rendering.
217
218
ENGINEERING DRAWING
FIG. 395.
FIG. 396.
pen drawing.
wash drawing.
219
Display Drawings.
The object
express the ideas of the architect more fully. Fig. 392 illustrates
a plan of this kind, employing poche and mosaic; "poche"
meaning simply the blackening of the walls to indicate their
"
relative importance in the composition, and
mosaic " the
rendering, in light lines and tints, of the floor design, furniture,
on the interior, and the walks, drives and gardening of the
etc.,
exterior.
The
architect
it
Preliminary Sketching.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
220
by
"
tipping" or
'
"
floating," as described
AILCH1TECTV1LAL
EAfcTHMM'SECTlOrt'
'COflCRETE-lH-SECTIOrt-
FIG. 397.
Symbols
on page 267.
SYMBOLS
>TA6E5WMAKIN6>CONCRCfE*yM80l
Working Drawings.
All the general principles in
Chapter IX regarding working
drawings are applicable to architectural working drawings.
The assembly drawings are plans, elevations and sections. The
plans of a building of the size of an ordinary house would be
drawn to the
scale of
1/4"=
1',
larger buildings to
1/8"=
size,
1'.
only
Plans.
221
the
Lamps and
Bracket Outlet;
Bracket Outlet
in
center
4- 16
center
S
SE
Lamp Receptacle.
Fan Outlet.
'
Electrolier Switch
Cx3
"
Outlet.
Panel
Meter Outlef.
Distribution
'
Transformer
.o center
indicates H.R
Mam or
Branch
Branch
Pole Line.
Riser.
fa
f~"V
Buzzer Outlet.
Telephone Outlet;
Watchman Clock
Secondary
Ti'me
Outlet
J Watchman
of
Run Exposed
Public Service
Points.
Station Outlet.
Clock Outlet.
GO
Circuit
Bell Outlet.
|g
[[)
S*
JXJ
Outlet.
(S)
Arc Lamp
C P Incandescent Lamps.
One
S2
S3
16
Ceiling
indicates
Standard
<
Numeral irt
number of
Tloor Outlet
in center
>
Standard
2 Gas Burners
Combination
indicates 4-16 C P. Standard Incan^
descent Lamps and 2 Gas Burners.
Spa)ting
Tub*.
Door Opener
in
Specifications.
Battery Outlet.
|l|l||
Circuit-for Clock, Telephone , Bell or other Service, run under floor , conccolad.
\ Kind of Service wanted ascertained by Symbol to which line connects
( Circuit for Clock, Tele phone. Bell or other Service, run under floor above concealed.
\ Kind of Service wanted ascertained by Symbol to which line, connects.
f
Note
If
be designated by
letters
or numbers.
Me.ghts of center of
Outlets (unless otherwis
'
,
specified
Rooroa
Living Roo
Off.ce*
Corridor*
Chambers
WllEING PLANS
feeders, branches and distribution
plans.
plan* , .it i* desirable that they
S'-6"
S'-O"
6'-0"
6'- 3'
4 -0 1
COPYRIGHT -l0
-I9O7
FIG. 398.
THE
UNITED
5TATCS-
ENGINEERING DRAWING
222
construction.
Ilfadr
^"TT^
:::-:;;::."
FLOOR.. PLAM
FIR.3 7
'
FIG. 399.
The
I-
L E
'
4-0*
different
223
5E
COM
s
CA
FLOO
L e
R_
r- 4-0"
PUAN
RESIDE MCE /.
MR.-A-F.-BR.OOKS
MEDIA OHIO
X-Y-Z ARCHITECT
DE
FIG. 400.
Figs.
CATVR.
ILL
floor plans,
224
ENGINEERING DRAWING
FIG. 401.
FIG. 402.
An
The
visualizing
225
FIG. 403.
Section of sub-station.
Sections.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
226
elevation, as in Fig. 402, is often suffiThis cutting plane, as the horizontal, need not be continucient.
ous, but may be broken so as to include as much information as
section/'
possible.
Fig. 403
sub-station shown
is
full section,
Details.
made
any
part.
Often
some
"=i-o"
An
isometric detail.
in
may
Stair details
Dimensioning.
As
in
227
construction.
most convenient
accessible points,
in the
not affect the general dimensions.
study of the dimensioning on the figures of this chapter will
be of value.
all
in the specifications
FIG 405.
stair detail.
On
drawings.
on the drawing
Lettering.
There are
two
by the
first,
Office Lettering,
ENGINEERING DRAWING
228
divisions.
items:
(1)
Name and
(2)
Kind
location of structure.
(3)
Name and
(4)
Date.
(5)
Scale.
(6)
Name and
address of architect.
(8)
(9)
Office record.
(7)
(sometimes put on
CHAPTER
XII.
Maps
in general
may
be
classified as follows:
may
229
ENGINEERING DRAWING
230
Plats.
or a city plat.
The
of
first
drawings
cise
and
day
and
is
simplicity.
Its information
should be
clear,
con-
The
ornamental
in
A Farm
Survey.
The
plat of a farm survey should give clearly all the information necessary for the legal description of the parcel of land.
It
should contain:
(4)
(5)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(7)
(8)
Certification.
(6)
Fig.
Names
of
drawing.
231
PLAT
OF svxYfr of
Oit.OT-9-
TKACT8
MAD/SOM THSf>.
LAK CO.
'
atove p/0f
ff3/p29c/
/{?
be correct
o.
SCALE /''ZOO'
Co.
FIG. 406.
S,
Sur
farm
plat.
Plats of Subdivisions.
232
ENGINEERING DRAWING
lots
precision.
'
^3
^-&Ffi&-^
CF TH
"**
r'
FIG. 407.
R DOT y ESTATE
COLUMBUS.
O.
city subdivision.
When
FIG. 408.
map.
-I =!
JJ
_l
_J J
-J -I _l -J
_J
JJJJJ=! s^J-iZSJS_l
=! =r:
J r! J
dd
_JJ S^l =i =;
_J
=! zd =J
FIG. 409.
A shade
line
233
map.
JJ J
JMM
ENGINEERING DRAWING
234
City Plats.
and
street
improvements.
is
rr
FIG. 410.
sewer map.
they
unnecessary information, and hence will not include
details as to sizes of lots, location of
monuments,
etc.,
all
the
which are
They
are usually
to a
235
maps
are
made
in con-
A study of Fig. 410, a sewer map, will show the general treatment of such plats. The appearance of the drawing is improved
by adding shade lines on the lower and right hand side of the
blocks, i.e., treating the streets and water features as depressions.
A few of the more important public buildings are shown, to
The various wards, subdivisions or districts
facilitate reading.
be
shown
may
by large outline letters or numerals as illustrated
in the figure.
Topographical Drawing.
to the vegetation.
FIG. 411.
(3)
The
relief,
and
depressions.
The
which
relief,
general either
body
illustrated
ENGINEERING DRAWING
236
412
Fig. 413 is a
414
is
the
same
surface
shown
Fig.
map
with hill shading by hachures. Contours are drawn as fine, full
lines, with every fifth one of heavier weight, and the elevations in
Fig.
is
contour
of this area,
and
FIG. 412.
feet
marked on them
datum.
made
in
On
brown.
FIG. 413.
The showing
of
effect
237
FIG. 414.
strokes for
steeper slopes. The rows of strokes should touch the pencil line,
to avoid white streaks along the contours.
Fig.
416
is
a topographic
map
of the site of a
proposed
filtra-
FIG. 415.
map
as the
ENGINEERING DRAWING
238
Water Lining.
for reproduction
will
Saraft
J Potre/f
FIG. 416.
is
better to omit
shore line
is
it
drawn
C/ara3 Me Comb
Contour
map
rather than do
first,
it
hastily or carelessly.
The
lessened.
is
of lines
is
A common
mistake
is
to
make
239
rippled.
FIG. 417.
Water
lining.
Topographic Symbols.
in topographic
drawing
may
be
(2) Relief
(3)
Water
(4)
Vegetation.
When
of
man.
and depressions.
relative elevations
features.
color
is
is
done
We
ENGINEERING DRAWING
240
State Line
E/ectric Railway
County Line
-7/^v7f#~)^.
~*Tvnn~ei*~
Township L/ne
City ortt/lage
C/ry or
T
Bridge
T T
Hedge
nfifflr
AA/WNA/VW
Fet
Ferry
Privafe ffoads
^'
ffai/ or
Worm fence
W/re Fence
F
.
Sc/?ot?/
mL.S.5.
Life-sav/na
Station
Culture.
or t/r/////?? we//.. .O
Gas
O// We//.
We//.
Ho/e....
-cj>-
A/umber of we//s,
...)&
thus,
-?-
>
*;
/g
--
Oil
Determined
E/evafion
Dam
FIG. 418.
Dry
Quarry
Church
Dot/b/e Track
ffai/roads
O/'/
&
5faf/'on
Triangu/ofiorr
Foraf
Smaf/
x B.M.
Bench Mark M/fJeor
SfoneSence
Sing/e Track
Location, n'a
'
Jill
'w
*,
Levees
Te/egrap/? or
Te/epnor/e
Mud flat
Sand
FIG. 420.
Relief.
241
Fig.
symbols used
Water
in the
development
relief.
In Fig. 422
is
shown some
of the
commoner symbols
for vege-
Lock
Jrjfermiftenf
Streams
Dry Lake
Fresh Marsh
Submarine
Sa/t Marsh
FIG. 421.
Cortfot/rs
Submerged Marsh
Water
T/ata/ F/at
features.
by the amount
of ink used.
For instance, in a map made for
military maneuvering a cornfield might be an important feature,
or in maps made to show the location of special features, such as
A common fault
The symbols
of the beginner
is
to
make symbols
too large.
for grass,
line, as
ENGINEERING DRAWING
242
symbols.
In drawing the symbol for deciduous trees the sequence of
strokes shown should be followed.
> *
*--^
Meadow
t,i
ft
Deciduous
'>
O>
j)
C>
Oak Trees
Trees^
**-:<
Evergreen Trees
Cleared Land
Q O
O
O O Q O 0>
(5
***V*
*s<x --ovi
Willows
frisS
f {
& c?o
C?
tttuu
Orchard
rr^vrrur
.t,
Corn
FIG. 422.
Cultivated
,i,
^-
a,
^, .u
Land
y^y^Vi
*>i^
iiii
f
Tobacco
Vineyard
Vegetation.
map
vertical
Roman
letters
preferred.
for land features,
and inclined
243
244
ENGINEERING DRAWING
245
state
1
Some
territory in the
ment.
Profiles.
in use
in the
made
is
obtained
ENGINEERING DRAWING
246
which
of grades.
/b/rtf ofExcavation
6o/d M// /. 34.0 / \
H/gbest
/.
+40
33
35
36
37
38
Miles
FIG. 425.
Profile.
impossible to make.
33
34
35
36
37
Miles
FIG. 426.
just
below the
Profile.
(Vert,
profile proper.
and
common
247
CHAPTER
XIII.
As has been
and
is
easier to
work
on.
left
its lines
traced.
Water will ruin a tracing, and moist hands or arms should not
come in contact with the cloth. The habit should be formed of
keeping the hands
off drawings.
It is a good plan, in both drawing
and tracing on large sheets, to cut a mask of drawing paper to
cover all but the view being worked on. Unfinished drawings
penwipers or cloths.
The tracing is a " master drawing" and should never be allowed
to .be taken out of the office, but prints may be made from it by
one of the processes described below. Any number of prints
may be taken from one tracing.
Blue Printing.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
250
paper
is
scales) 2 oz.,
water
8 oz.
subdued
light.
To make a blue
print.
Lay the
FIG. 428.
between paper and cloth. See that no corners are turned under.
Expose to the sunlight or electric light. If a frame having a
hinged back is used, Fig. 428, one side may be opened for examination. When the paper is taken from the frame it will be a
bluish gray color with the heavier lines
lighter than the background, the lighter lines perhaps not being distinguishable. Put
hang up to
dry.
An
overexposed print
The blue
color
prolonged washing.
whites cleared by dipping the print
containing a solution of potassium bichromate (1 to 2
crystals to a gallon of water), and rinsing thoroughly.
*'
"
treatment will bring back a hopelessly burned print.
oz.
of
This
To be independent
and dried
rolls,
and
in
some machines,
one operation.
Prints too large for a frame
printed,
washed
in
may
pasted together.
In an emergency
which has been written with a sheet of carbon paper back of it,
so that it is printed on both sides.
Van Dyke paper is a thin sensitized paper which turns dark
brown on exposure and fixing, which is done by first washing in
water, then in a bath of hyposulphite of soda, and washing
again thoroughly. A reversed negative of a tracing may be
made on it by exposing with the inked side of the tracing next
to the sensitized side of the paper.
This negative, if printed on
blue-print paper will give a blue-line print with white back-
ground.
"
so as to
transparentized
print in one-half to one-third the time, by a solution sold by the
dealers, or by a solution of paraffin cut in benzine.
"
little
gum
tint
ENGINEERING DRAWING
252
may
to
line
may
by turning
it
The benzine
will
and washing
again.
it
red in a
weak
Any
white paper
may be
"
give a good blue print, with the
transparentizing solutions"
mentioned before, and a machine called the " mechanigraph "
is
now on
mimeograph,
too well
etc.,
known
Drawing
for Reproduction.
purposes.
of illustrations for
are reproduced
by photo-lithography.
Line drawings are usually reproduced
by the process known as
zinc etching, in which the
is
drawing
photographed on a process
plate, generally
zMMvmmmz^
FIG. 429.
Drawing
FIG. 430.
which
is
254
ENGINEERING DRAWING
FIG. 431.
Drawing
for
if
a very smooth
FIG. 432.
drawing and Fig. 430 the same drawing reduced one-half. Fig.
431 is another original which has been reduced two-thirds, Fig.
the etching
is
finished.
the plate, which breaks up the tints into a series of dots of varying
size.
Screens of different fineness are used for different kinds of
paper, from the coarse screen newspaper half-tone of 80 to 100
lines to the inch, the ordinary
tone of 133 lines, to the fine 150
minimum
in.
with a
price of $1.00,
and
256
ENGINEERING DRAWING
wax
plate.
FIG. 433.
Maps and
A wax
O.I.
plate.
large drawings are usually reproduced by lithogwhich the drawing is either photographed or engraved
on a lithographic stone, and transferred from this either to another
stone from which it is printed or in the offset process to a thin
sheet of zinc which is wrapped around a cylinder, and prints to
a rubber blanket which in turn prints on the paper.
raphy, in
CHAPTER
XIV.
B
sometimes found.
FIG. 434.
to use
is
a hard Arkansas
first
(a)
and
This is
as indicated on the dotted lines of (b), (c) and (d).
done by screwing the nibs together until they touch and, holding the pen as in drawing a line, drawing it back and forth on the
stone, starting the stroke with the handle at perhaps 30 degrees
with the stone, and swinging it up past the perpendicular as the
257
ENGINEERING DRAWING
258
line across the
stone progresses.
exactly equal shape and length, leaving them very dull. They
should then be opened slightly and each blade sharpened in
turn until the bright spot on the end has just disappeared,
holding the. pen as in Fig. 435 at a small angle with the stone
and rubbing it back and forth with a slight oscillating or rocking
motion to conform to the shape of the blade. The pen should
be examined frequently and the operation stopped just when the
FIG. 435.
is
had best practise by sharpening several old pens before attempting to sharpen a good instrument.
After using, the stone should
be wiped clean and a drop of oil rubbed over it to
prevent
hardening and glazing.
by
Prof. C. L.
Adams.
259
out of an old ruling pen by first rubbing the point very blunt,
then grinding the blades together to a conical shape, and finally
shaping a ball end on the blunted point. This pen will make a
line
somewhat
pens.
it
similar to that
made by
Its
Line Shading.
Line shading, the rendering of the effect of light and shade by
"
ruled lines, was referred to in Chapter VI as an accomplishment
not usual among ordinary draftsmen." The reason for this is
that it is not used at all on working drawings and the draftsman engaged in that work does not have occasion to apply it.
FIG. 436.
To execute line shading rapidly and effectively requires continued practice and some artistic ability, and, as much as anyOften the
thing else, good judgment in knowing when to stop.
simple shading of a shaft or other round
to the effectiveness of a drawing, and
member
will
may even
"
"
another view, or a few lines of surface shading on a
will
show
its
position
and character.
add greatly
save making
flat
surface
in per-
fect condition,
tints in
is
equal.
pen
is
ENGINEERING DRAWING
260
then the pen changed slightly and several more drawn. Fig.
437 is an application, illustrating the rule that an inclined
illuminated surface is lightest nearest the eye and an inclined surface in shade is darkest nearest the eye.
in Fig. 438.
^ ShadeSnt
FIG. 437.
FIG. 438.
line
'is
"brilliant line"
ABC
D
FIG. 439.
Fig.
polish
if
439
is
is
3"
Cylinder shading.
The
effect of
261
To avoid a
B
FIG. 440.
FIG. 441.
Shaded
Cone shading.
FIG. 442.
Spheres.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
262
442 shows three methods of shading a sphere. The brilliant point and shade line may be found by revolving the projecting plane of the ray passing through the center, about its
Fig.
FIG. 443.
FIG. 444.
surfaces.
263
side by springing the point of the comthe brilliant point is used as center. In (c), the
cut" method, the taper on the horizontal lines is made
In
(b)
"wood
by starting with the pen out of perpendicular and turning the
handle up as the line progresses.
In the application for letters patent on an invention or discovery there is required a written description called the specification, and in case of a machine, manufactured article, or device
for making it, a drawing, showing every feature of the invention.
If it is an improvement, the drawing must show the invention
separately, and in another view a part of the old structure with
the invention attached. A high standard of execution, and conformity to the rules of the Patent Office must be observed. A
pamphlet called the "Rules of Practice," giving full information
and
ENGINEERING DRAWING
264
all
their teeth
etc.,
shown,
but screw threads
in orthographic,
axonometric,
265
Only
in rare cases
is
by the
Office.
are lettered "Fig. 1," "Fig. 2" etc., and the parts
designated by reference numbers though which the invention is
One view, generally "Fig. 1,"
described in the specifications.
The views
is
Official
FIG. 446.
men.
The requirements
for
1/2
447
is
an example
and several
reduced to
size.
drawing
the board.
is
First,
266
ENGINEERING DRAWING
WITNESSES:
FIG. 447.
patent
office
drawing.
267
face down,
down on
set,
colors.
before,
with
it
it is
made
may
is
in light washes,
first
with a
color.
If 'air
ENGINEERING DRAWING
268
Mounting on Cloth.
It
is
are used:
Hot mounting is best for both heavy and thin paper. For
heavy paper, tack down mounting cloth with another cloth
under, put 1/2 pint library paste with 1/2 oz. water in pan
and bring to boil. With broad brush paste back of drawing or
print quickly, working from center out, turn over and place on
Have hot iron ready and iron print from center out, in
cloth.
circular motion, ironing fast until edges are stuck, then removing
tacks to release the steam and ironing till dry. Never iron on
the back, as the steam formed will cause blisters.
Cold paste 'may be used for hurry work, applying it to the
cloth instead of the paper, and ironing as before.
For mounting thin paper. The print to be mounted
face
in,
on a large
paper
may
is rolled,
be used),
hot paste applied starting at end, the print rolled off on the
If cold
cloth, and followed up as fast as unrolled by hot irons.
Never attempt to apply
paste is used apply it to the cloth.
cold paste on thin paper.
Methods
of Copying Drawings.
Drawings are often copied on opaque paper by laying the
drawing over the paper and pricking through with a needle
point, turning the upper sheet back frequently and connecting
the points. Prickers may be purchased, or may be m,ade easily
by forcing a fine needle into a soft wood handle. They may be
used to advantage also in accurate drawing, in transferring
measurements from scale to paper.
Transfer by Rubbing.
This method is used extensively by architects, and may be
used to good advantage in transferring
any kind of sketch or design to the paper on which it is to be rendered.
The
original
is
made on any
paper, and
may
is
be worked over,
satisfactory.
Lay
269
a piece of tracing paper over the original and trace the outline
Turn the tracing over and retrace the outline just
carefully.
as carefully on the other side, using a medium soft pencil (perhaps
Turn back to first position and tack
or 2H) with a sharp point.
down smoothly
move
while rubbing.
Very
manner.
this
If
the drawing
P&fffeGtoss
FIG. 448.
same
figure or detail
rubbing
it
whose
light
may
ENGINEERING DRAWING
2fO
is
convenient.
FIG. 449.
Pantograph.
The Pantograph.
The principle of the pantograph, used for reducing or enlarging
drawings in any proportion, is well known. Its use is often of
It consists essentially of four bars, which for
great advantage.
any setting must form a parallelogram, and have the pivot,
FIG. 450.
Suspended pantograph.
enlargement
Drawings
may
is
2ft
sufficiently accurate
shown
in Fig. 450.
for reduction
FIG. 451.
Enlargement by squares.
About Tracings.
Sometimes it
same
figure
may
pencil eraser.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
272
make
Preserving Drawings.
made on
method
much
drawings washable.
Tracings to which more or less frequent reference will be made
should be filed flat in shallow drawers. Sets of drawings preserved only for record are often kept in tin tubes numbered and
filed systematically.
made
fire
better.
Fireproof storage vaults should always be provided in connection with drafting rooms.
FIG. 452.
Miscellaneous hints.
temporary adjustment
ting a
its
string,
center at 0,
which
moves from B
to D.
the
273
If much ruling in red ink is done, a pen for the purpose with
nickel plated or german silver blades is advisable.
steel edge to a drawing board is made of an angle iron planed
straight
and
set flush
steel
With
may
this
be done.
edge and a
These are
CHAPTER XV.
as a general treatise
on the
classiEngineering Drawing.
books is given both to supplement this book, whose
scope permitted only the mention or brief explanation of some
subjects, and as an aid to those who might desire the recommendation of a book on some branch of drawing or engineering.
language
of
fied list of
Architectural Drawing.
Ware,
Wm.
R.
2 v. 9 1/2x12 1/2.
Scranton, 1906.
Part
I,
Part
II,
Clarence
Martin,
33
pi.
9 1/2x12 1/2.
A.
Details
$2.00.
Bates
of
&
Building
Construction.
Guild,. 1905.
10
Issued in parts of
Snyder, Frank M.
Building Details.
$2.25 net.
N. Y., 1906
each, 16x22.
pi.
buildings,
architects.
Descriptive Geometry.
Church, Albert E.
286 pp., 6x8 1/2 rev. ed.
$2.25 net.
This book has been a standard ever since its original publication in 1864.
The present revision is by Geo. M. Bartlett.
6x7 1/2.
$2.00.
comprehensive elementary
274
treatise.
W.
C.
Elements
of Descriptive
275
248
Geometry.
Wiley, 1902.
$3.00.
warped
surfaces.
Logue, Charles H.
6x9.
pp.,
McGraw-Hill, 1910.
$2.50.
Grant,
6x9.
Phila.
practical
gears.
An
Formulas
Stutz, Charles C.
in Gearing.
pp., $2.00.
fold-
Co., 1907.
Handbooks.
A great many
tables, formulas,
limitations.
Among
the best
known
of these reference
following:
American
ed. in chief.
reference
methods and
Architects'
and
A Stanley.
513 pp.
of
Shop
$3.00 net.
Builders'
Pocketbook,
15th ed., 1661 pp. $5.00. Wiley, 1908.
The standard architects' reference book.
F.
E.
Kidder.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
276
Cambria
Steel.
Structural Steel
Phila., 1907.
A standard book for structural steel designers.
$1.00.
Pocket Companion containing Useful Informaand Tables appertaining to the Use of Steel as manufactured
Carnegie.
tion
by the Carnegie
Civil
1257 pp.
19th ed.,
Engineers' Pocketbook, J. C. Trautwine.
Trautwine Co., Phila., 1909.
$5.00 net.
The best known reference book for civil engineers.
Electrical
1599 pp.
$5.00.
"A
engineers."
Handbook
Myron
of Cost Data.
H. P.
Gillette.
1841 pp.
$5.00.
For
civil
Wm.
Kent.
8th ed.,
Wiley, 1910.
"
A reference book of rules, tables, data, and formulae, for the
use of engineers, mechanics, and students."
Universally
known by mechanical engineers.
Mechanical Engineers' Reference Book. H. H. Suplee.
3rd
ed.,
$5.00 net.
922 pp.
to
Lettering.
of Lettering.
"
manual
for students
and designers."
277
and Students.
1895.
letter.
noted here.
Unwin, William
Part
I,
Part
II,
C.
Elements
of
Machine Design.
&
Co., 1910.
Cathcart,
W.
Part
Machine Design.
Fastenings, 6x9 1/2, 291 pp.
E. L.
I,
$3.00 net.
Van
Nostrand, 1903.
$3.00.-
Elements
of
Machine Design.
446 pp.,
Wiley, 1909.
text-book with discussion of the fundamental principles of
design.
cal
Reid (John S.) and Reid (David). A Text-book of Mechanidrawing and Elementary Machine Design. 439 pp., 6x9.
Wiley, 1910.
Contains an
$3.00.
drawing them.
Mechanism.
Robinson, S. W. Principles of Mechanism. A Treatise on
the Modification of Motion by means of the Elementary Combina18
ENGINEERING DRAWING
278
tions of
Mechanism, or
$3.00.
Wiley, 1900.
Treatment mainly
pp.,
Wiley, 1911.
$2.50.
"
Dunkerley,
Mechanism.
S.
Longmans, Green
2nd
ed.,
$3.00.
&
Co., 1907.
A modern text-book on the kinematics of machines, used in
English colleges.
Perspective.
Ware,
Wm.
R.
1900.
An
exhaustive work.
Longfellow,
and Painters.
Mifflin
&
Wm.
8x11,
P. P.
Co., 1901.
practical
An
architects.
Wilson, Victor T.
$2.50.
Wiley, 1900.
Mathewson, Frank E.
ing Drawings.
1908.
5x8,
77 pp.
and
their application
An
Rendering.
ise.
By
a well-known architect.
architectural draftsman.
of every
279
McGoodwin,
Henry.
Architectural
Shades
and
Shadows.
Sheet Metal.
Kittredge, Geo.
W.
pi.,
6x9.
$2.50.
C.).
Stereotomy.
119 pp.,
Wiley, 1902.
Contains practical examples of the application of stone cutting in architectural and engineering structures.
Warren,
S.
For
E.
pi.,
engineering students.
Structural Drawing.
Morris, Clyde T.
veying.
The
Principles
Wiley, 1908.
and Practice
of Sur-
$3.00.
I, 546 pp., Plane and Topographic Surveying.
$2.50.
V. II, 432 pp., Higher Surveying.
Another standard work with very full discussion of drafting-
V.
room
practice.
Tracy, John C.
Wiley,
Plane Surveying.
$3.00.
1907.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
280
H.
Geo.
Follows,
book
of
Dictionary of Mechanical
Eng. News, N. Y., 1906.
Universal
$1.00.
better uniformity.
ing.
Reinhardt, Charles
3rd ed., 42 pp., 11
W.
The Technic
pi.
$1.00.
Frank T.
well
A Text-book of
Topographical Drawing.
D. C. Heath & Co., 1908.
arranged book on ink and color topography, with
$1.50.
practical problems.
Wilson, H. M.
6x9.
$3.50.
INDEX
INDEX
Blue printing, 249
Bolts, 162
A. L. A. M. standard, 165
A.
Acme
threads, 159
Air-brush, 255
A. L. A. M. standard bolts, 165
Alignment,
246
profile,
test for, 7
Alphabet of
lines,
39
Alteneder, Theo., 5
bottle holder, 22
Arc, to rectify, 49
through three points, 48
tangent to two
lines,
48
C.
Architect's scale, 11
Arkansas
oil
Artist,
66
1,
stone, 257
B.
machines, 251
mounting, 272
to change, 251
48
Compass, 7
beam, 18
use
of,
31
Cones, development
development
of,
283
105
of oblique, 108
INDEX
284
Cones,
intersection
with cylinder,
112
shading, 260
Conic sections, 50
Conical helix, 157
Conjugate axes, 52
Copying drawings,
by
by
by
by
by
by
pantograph, 270
pricking, 268
248
architectural, 226
of threads, 162
on sketches, 204
on structural drawings, 180
problems for, 185
Dimetric projection, 133
Display drawings, 215
maps, 232
hairspring, 7
plain, 7
Cross-hatching, 80
conventional, 175
instruments for, 19
Curve, ogee, 48
to ink with circle arcs, 54
Curve pen, 17
Curves, 14
of,
sphere, 107
truncated cone, 105
Dimensions, 150
Dividers, 7
269
use
41
proportional, 17
use of, 27
Dotted section, 80
Dotting pen, 21
Double curved surfaces, 100
development of, 107
shading, 262
Drafting machine, 20
Drawing boards, 9
patent office, 265
steel edge for, 273
transparent, 269
Cycloid, 55
Drawing from
shading, 260
description, problems,
98
Drawing paper, 15
pencils, 13
Drop
D.
E.
226
Elbow, development
of,
pen, 8
Descriptive geometry, 66
Elevations, 223
103
Ellipse, 50
INDEX
Ellipse, parallelogram
method, 52
285
Heart cam, 57
Helical spring, 158
Helix, 157
Ellipsograph, 51
Hill shading,
Hook-spring bows, 8
Hot mounting, 268
Hyperbola, 50, 55
Hypocycloid, 55
Epicycloid, 55
Erasing shields, 22
Exercises, in orthographic projection, 73
in reading, 144
in sketching, 213
in use of instruments, 42
F.
lines,
236
I.
Ink, drawing, 13
for printing
frozen,
stick,
on
cloth,
272
46
13
38
Instruments,
list of, 4,
patterns
selection of, 4
of,
spring bow, 8
use of, 23
Flat scales, 12
Flexible curves, 15
Floating, 267
Involute, 56
ellipse,
K.
Kelsey triangle, 22
G.
Gardener's
Gears, 173
Good
form, 23
Gore method of development, 107
Grouping, 148
H.
Hachuring, 237
Half section, 79
isometric, 129
problems, 95
Half-tones, 255
Handbooks, 275
Headless set screw, 167
L.
Lengthening bar, 33
Left-handed person, 25
Lettering, 58
architectural, 227
books on, 276
on maps, 242
58
INDEX
286
draw perpendicular, 30
drawing, 15
Lithography, 256
Logarithmic spiral curves, 14
Lock nuts, 164
profile,
248
Whatman's, 15
tracing, 220,
M.
Machine drawing, 145
books on, 277
Parabola, 50, 54
Patent
screws, 167
Pencil, 24
for sketching,
reproduction of,
Mechanical drawing, 2
Mechanigraph, 252
Mechanism, books on, 277
Millwork details, 226
Mosaic, 215
Mounting on cloth, 268
tracing paper, 267
compass, 32
eraser, 15
pointer, 13
Penciling, order of, 148
Pencils, 13
Pens, border, 17
curve, 17
dotting, 21
drop or rivet, 19
double, 16
for lettering, 13, 59
Payzant, 18
railroad, 17
ruling, 7
use of, 36
Shepard, 18
Swede, 8
Perspective, 65, 122
p
books on, 278
parallel, 210
rendering, 215
sketching in, 207
Photo-mechanical processes, 252
Pipe, dimensions of, 169
measuring, 205
Ogee curve, 48
Old Roman letters, 228
Order of penciling, 148
Order of inking, 149
66,
to sharpen, 257
angular, 212
projection,
202
to sharpen, 24
N.
P.
265
Payzant pen, 18
229
256
Pantograph, 270
of,
Patterns, 100
classification of,
Orthographic
145
drawing, 263
office
example
Maltese cross, 44
Mapping pens, 14
Maps,
245
to mount, 268
to stretch, 265
122,
fittings,
170
threads, 168
Pivot joint, 5, 6
Plans, architectural, 220
INDEX
230
234
287
city,
Projection, sectional, 77
Protractor, 19
subdivisions, 231
Pyramid, development
Plats,
Problems,
Assembly and
detail drawings,
195
of,
R.
Railroad pen, 17
Record strip, 153
Red ink, 248, 273
Reducing glass, 254
Relief,
Auxiliary projections, 91
Bolts, screws and pipes, 181
Development
of cones, 117
cylinders, 116
Revolution, 81
problems, 96
to isometric position, 122
prisms, 115
pyramids, 116
Dimensioning, 185
Revolved
Half sections, 95
Rivets, 180
cylinder
and
cone, 119
prisms, 118
surfaces and planes, 121
surfaces and planes, 121
two
cones, 121
Machine
105
parts, 187
Rondinella triangle, 22
truss, 183
Rubbing a copy, 268
Roof
Ruling pens, 7
to sharpen, 257
use
37
Ruled
surfaces, 100
Rules for dimensioning, 150, 151
Miscellaneous, 197
S.
Scales, architects', 11
engineers', 11
flat,
12
triangular, 12
use of, 34
Screws, machine, 167
various, 168
problems, 93
INDEX
288
Section liners, 19
lining,
80
conventional, 175
Swede pen, 8
Swivel pen, 17
Symbols, for materials, 175
architectural, 220
culture, 240
electrical, 176, 221
oil and gas, 242
relief,
240
180
isometric, 129
riveting,
on maps, 232
on patent drawings, 264
topographic, 239
T.
T-square, 9, 10, 11
59
architectural, 215
206
in inking, 149
in penciling, 148
holes, 160
Technic and standards, books on,
280
Technical sketching, 2, 201
Test for alignment, 7
Test for triangles, 11
Threads, forms of, 158
Tapped
tacks, 12
Tinting, 267
Tipping, 267
Titles,
64
228
on maps, 242
on working drawings,
architectural,
182, 183
153,
Surfaces, classification
Thumb
use of, 25
Table, A. L. A. M., bolts, 165
Sketching, 201
in
vegetation, 242
water features, 241
wiring, 221
100
155
INDEX
Transfer by rubbing, 268
Transition pieces, 209
Transparentizing, 251
Trial
method
of dividing
line,
W.
28
Triangles, 10
Warped
special forms, 21
test for, 11
Wash
29
Water
Water
Water
use
of,
Triangular scales, 12
Triangulation, 107
True length of lines, 84, 85
problems, 97
U.
U.
289
S. Geological
S.
surfaces, 100
drawings, 215
reproduction
paper, 251
Vanishing points, 209
of oblique lines, 213
Vegetation symbols, 242
255
symbols
238
Wax process, 255
Wedge point pencil, 24
features,
for,
241
lining,
Whatman
paper, 15
Worm
thread, 159
Z.
V.
Van Dyke
of,
Zange
triangle, 22
Zone method
of'development, 107
GENERAL LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIABERKELEY
LD
21-100m-l,'54(1887sl6)476
1930
16057
vy UNIVERSITY QF
**
CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
i