Blackwell Publishing Ltd.Oxford, UK and Malden, USAIJTDInternational Journal of Training and Development1360-3736Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

2005March 2005916278ArticlesWorkplace learning in Malaysia: the

learners perspective

International Journal of Training and Development 9:1

ISSN 1360-3736

Workplace learning in
Malaysia: the learners
perspective
Mazanah Muhamad and
Khairuddin Idris
This paper offers a scenario of workplace learning as practiced
in Malaysia. Based on survey research, the article describes
learner profiles, learning provision and pattern. The analysis
shows that Malaysians participate in formal workplace learning as part of their employment activities. Workplace learning
in Malaysia is contextual, promoted by the political-economic
agenda of a nation aspiring towards fully developed status.
Workplace learning is also affected by factors such as learners
socio-cultural, economic and psychological status, and
employers role and support.

Introduction
Located in Southeast Asia, Malaysia is made up of Peninsular West Malaysia, bordered
by Thailand to the north and Singapore to the south, and East Malaysia, located on
Borneo Island. About 80 percent of the nations population of 25.45 million resides in
West Malaysia. Malaysia is a democratic country that has undergone tremendous
growth and prosperity over the last two decades. After 47 years of independence from
the British, it is currently one of the most developed countries in Southeast Asia.
Malaysia is a multiracial society consisting of 60.7% Malays, 25.3% Chinese, 7.4%
Indians and 6.6% other ethnicity. The population is religiously diverse, with Islam,
Buddhist, Hindu, Christian and other faiths represented. Native Malays are typically
Muslim; Islamic values and beliefs influence their culture heavily. Most Chinese are
Tao Buddhists. Indians are predominantly Hindu. Malaysia has a young population,
with a median age of 23.9 years (Government of Malaysia, 2001). Life expectancy is
71 years for males, 76 years for females (Department of Statistics, 2004).
r Department of Professional Development & Continuing Education, Faculty of Educational Studies,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main St., Malden, MA 02148,
USA.

62 International Journal of Training and Development

Agriculture was the dominant sector of the economy until about 20 years ago. Since
then, the thrust of the Malaysian economy has shifted to industrialization. The countrys gross domestic product (GDP) is MYR 418,044 million (1 USD = MYR 3.80). MYR
denotes Malaysian Ringgit, the Malaysian currency. Malaysias main export is electrical and electronic products. The average income of the population is MYR 2,472
monthly (Government of Malaysia, 2001). At that wage, Malaysia is moving towards
becoming a middle class society. Political stability, as well as economic and social
environment, has contributed to the countrys progress.
Malaysia aspires to be a fully developed nation by 2020. Towards that end, the
government has deemed human resource development the primary thrust for national
development, as reflected in various policies, programs, and strategies. One such
strategy is the promotion of workplace learning, as highlighted by the establishment
of the Human Resources Development Fund. Workplace learning is defined as efforts
that workers undertake to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes. Despite the governments promotion of workplace learning, little is known about the practice. Who
participates in workplace learning? Who provides learning opportunities? How does
learning take place? Why should employees participate in workplace learning? What
are appropriate learning outcomes and challenges? What influences learning practices? To inquire into workplace learning practices, specifically addressing the above
questions, the Malaysian government awarded a grant to a group of researchers from
University Putra Malaysia, under the Intensified Research in Priority Areas (IRPA)
program. This article presents the findings of the nationwide survey. It is part of a
larger study that examines adult and lifelong learning practices from the learners
perspective in various spheres: workplace, institutions of higher learning, community,
and informal self-directed learning efforts.
The following section examines the existing workplace learning context in Malaysia.
This section is followed by a literature review on workplace learning, research methodology, findings and discussion, and the conclusions and implications of the study.

The context: human resource development agenda

Human resource development is a key strategy in Malaysias development effort. This
goal is manifested in their education and training agenda. Othman (2001) reviewed
education and training agendas in Malaysia from the 1960s through the 1990s. During
that time, the government implemented seven five-year plans. In the 1960s, education
and training were geared toward nation building and economic development; agriculture, industrial science and technology were the main foci. In 1971, Malaysia introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), a long-term planning effort (20 years) aimed
at eradicating poverty and restructuring society in order to benefit from equitable
participation in social and economic development. During the 1970s, education and
training were aimed at preparing human resources for the implementation of the NEP.
According to Othman (2001), in the 1980s Malaysia geared education and training
toward consolidation, embedding efficiency as a variable in meeting manpower
requirements to achieve the objectives of NEP. The country progressed from an
agricultural-based economy to one based on manufacturing activities. Soft skills
became an important dimension in the development of the labor force in the 1990s. To
achieve balanced and equitable development, the NEP was followed by the National
Vision Policy (NVP) in 1991. One policy introduced in the NVP addresses the development of Malaysia into a knowledge-based society. In 1990, the concept Vision 2020
was introduced to guide the country toward becoming a united and developed nation
by 2020.
Currently, Malaysia is executing the 8th Malaysia Plan or 8MP (20012005). The
Eighth plan will incorporate the strategies; program and projects designed to achieve
the NVP objectives of growth and strengthen economic resilience as well as create a
united and equitable society (Government of Malaysia, 2001: 3). The policies and
strategies of the 8MP are aimed at achieving sustainable growth and resilience. The
plan addresses challenges resulting from increased globalization and liberalization, as
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Workplace learning in Malaysia: the learners perspective 63

well as the rapid development of technology, especially information and communication technology (ICT). During this period, the thrust of human resource development
will be the creation of a strong human resource base to support the development
of a knowledge-based economy and enhance productivity and competitiveness
(Government of Malaysia, 2001: 150).
Competition at global and regional levels is expected to intensify following the
implementation of the World Trade Organization (WTO), the ASEAN Free Trade Area
(AFTA) and the intensification of bilateral initiatives. To meet global competition,
domestic industries need to enhance their productivity, efficiency and innovation.
According to the 8MP document, Rapid technical changes and the need to enhance
competitiveness required employers in all sectors to retrain and upgrade skills of their
workers (Government of Malaysia, 2001: 150). To finance training, the coverage of the
Human Resources Development Fund (HRDF) was expanded.
The HRDF is a regulation enacted by the Malaysian government that mandates
employers in the private sector to contribute 1% of their total salary emolument to the
fund. The Human Resources Development Berhad, the trustee to HRDF, promotes the
retraining and upgrading of private sector employees (in line with business needs
and the national economy). Employers may claim rebates for their employees participation in training programs. Between 1993 and February 2004, the HRDF Berhad
recorded 8603 registered employers that contributed to a levy collection of MYR
1,373,106,562, and payments of grants of MYR 957,964,219. In this period, there were
4,015,653 approved training places for a total of MYR 1,640,3341,514 in various training
schemes (Ministry of Human Resources, 2004). Formal training programs for public
sector employees are carried out by employers and by private training providers
(Azillah & Mazanah, 1999). Many public training providers were set up, and other
formal workplace learning programs initiated, as allocated by the government under
the human resource development program. One of the most established public training institutions in Malaysia is the National Institute of Public Administration (INTAN).
This institutes mission is to develop human resources in the public sector through the
provision of quality training (National Institute of Public Administration, 2002).
The above review of government legislation, policies and programs highlights
Malaysias commitment to strengthening human development efforts through education and training. These efforts include long-term plans such as the NEP and NVP,
and short-term five-year plans (1MP to 8MP). These plans are evidence of the nations
political will to promote workplace learning as a strategy for becoming a knowledgebased economy, and enhancing productivity and competitiveness.

Literature review
This section examines some theoretical perspectives on workplace learning. These
include desirable elements such as collective, experiential, self reflective and contextual learning. A case study on local workplace learning serves to provide another
perspective on this process in practice.
The changing workplace, stiff competition and environmental changes require
workers to be highly competent and adaptable. Technological advances, especially
in ICT, have changed traditional notions of the workplace. Todays work environment has become more virtual and technology dependent. Workers are expected
to be highly competent in dealing with the tools of their trade, and with different
cultures. According to Matthews (1999), A workplace is understood to include the
physical location, shared meaning, ideas, behaviors and attitudes which determine
the working environment and relationships. Argyris and Schon (1978) observe that
organizations are working within an environment marked with instability. Hence,
learning must be continuous, not periodic or irregular. Adult education has become
a prominent focus in the age of the dynamic workplace. Training and development,
human resource development, re-education, retraining and retooling are some of the
terms echoed in organizations striving to upgrade the knowledge and skills of their
workers.
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Learning is always situated in a certain context, for example, a workplace (Illeris &
Associates, 2004). According to Senker and Hyman (2004), learning at, through, and
from work has always taken place. This workplace learning refers to the efforts that
employees undertake to acquire and share knowledge. Garavan et al. (2002: 61) define
workplace learning as a set of processes which occur within specific organizational
contexts and focus on acquiring and assimilating an integrated cluster of knowledge,
skills, values and feelings that result in individuals and teams refocusing and fundamentally changing their behaviour. Workplace learning can thus be interpreted
as context-based and culturally bound. What an individual learns is defined by the
requirements of their tasks within the organization.
Raelin (1997), Watkins (1995; 1996), Marsick and Watkins (1990) and Resnick (1987)
assert that work-based learning is context-based. The authors distinguish between
different forms of learning, namely formal, informal and incidental. Formal learning is
generally organized by the institution for its workers. Training programs, mentoring,
and programs that promote the pursuance of a certificate are examples of formal
learning. Informal learning takes place outside a formal institutional setting. Incidental
learning is usually unintentional (generally a byproduct of an activity). This can
happen when one learns from mistakes, or gains insights while performing a task.
Collective learning
The promotion of collective learning activities is one way that an organization can
exploit the knowledge of individual workers. Workers engaged in collective learning
reformulate their concepts, and put them into practice. Raelin (1997), Watkins (1996),
Marsick and Watkins (1990) and Resnick (1987) view learning in the workplace as a
social activity. Individuals within a group learn collectively when they are able to share
what they know. In their study, Marsick and Watkins (1990) found that managers do
better when they work in teams and make shared decisions. Watkins (1996: 91) maintains that organizational learning becomes significant when learning is a collective,
interdependent experience.
Experiential, self reflective and learning in context
In their discussion of action learning, Marsick and Watkins (1990) reflect on the relationship between experience and learning. Learning is enhanced when a task at hand
is combined with reflection and group interaction. They maintain that people are likely
to jump to conclusions when a problem is put to them. By reflecting and doing group
work, problems tend to be reformulated, allowing individuals to view problems in
new ways. As such, solutions can be brought to another level, potentially addressing
the real or underlying problem.
Experience alone may not be enough to solve problems in the ever-changing workplace. Resnick (1987) distinguishes between formal school learning and out-of-school
learning. She points out that school learning is individualized, as contrasted to the
social learning of work. School learning consists mainly of pure thought activities,
as opposed to tool-related work activity. Further, school learning is merely symbolic
when compared to the reality of work, and is inherently general, while work is
situation-specific. It can thus be concluded that learning in schools does not fulfill the
requirements of work, as such learning is detached from the reality of the outside
world. Of particular concern is the fact that work-related training programs are using
classroom models of teaching, resulting in detached and generally non-applicable
knowledge. This is a problem in the ever-changing workplace, as people may not be
able to work around breakdowns or unanticipated problems.
Darrah (1995) shares this opinion of the inadequacy of learning organized away
from the workplace. In a case study he found that workers did not benefit from
training classes a company organized. However, workers clearly learned powerful
lessons through daily life on the production floors (Darrah, 1995: 40). Problems are
inevitably encountered in the workplace. Workers may discover that they do not have
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Workplace learning in Malaysia: the learners perspective 65

the capacity to solve a problem, especially if the problem is something they have never
seen before. Further, the solution to a problem may not exist at the organizational level.
Such a problem can serve as a jolt that triggers workplace learning.
For people to be able to solve problems, they need what Resnick (1987), quoting
Gentner and Stevens (1983), describes as a mental model of the system. Workers need
to understand the working parts of a system and how these parts relate to each other.
More often than not, understanding of a system, in particular how the individual fits
into it, is typically something that people have to learn for themselves (usually informally or incidentally).
Considering the dynamism and complexity of the workplace, workers may conceptualize their positions and practice them. This entails the identification of parts, such
as the nature of tasks and their purposes. By understanding the parts, self-understanding
can be developed through experimentation. By manipulating tasks, workers can
determine what works and what works best. Continued practice in doing what works
best provides the experience necessary to reinforce knowledge. As Raelin (1997)
points out, this knowledge, for all intents and purposes, remains tacit in nature. It
belongs solely to the individual worker. Reflection is required to make this knowledge
explicit, so that it can be shared and disseminated at the collective level.
A case study of local workplace learning
In a study of Malaysian companies involved in foreign ventures, Khairuddin (1999)
found that a globalizing Malaysian company needed five categories of knowledge:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Technical and industry appropriate for business.

Management systems appropriate to local conditions.
Local customs and culture.
Partner relations and collaboration.
Global business mindset.

Senior executives conveyed three modes of learning: learning from experience, scanning
and networking. Hands-on work and learning from mistakes were essential. People
learned by scanning through reading, benchmarking and walking the streets. They
networked with peers and counterparts to learn about globalization. Sharing and
dissemination of information occurred through personal interaction, formal training
and conferences, and an organizational mechanism. This mechanism included electronic media such as telephones and Intranet, and procedures such as reports, gateway
committees and task analyses.
In general, the literature reviewed indicates that workplace learning is organizationally situated. How individuals learn is linked to the situational nature of the organization. In todays rapidly changing and multi-tasked working environment,
pinpointing learning content can be difficult, as needs can change quickly and drastically. Learning must be continuous, and encompass both formal and informal
approaches. Workplace learning need not be task specific in nature, as all types of content may be beneficial given the ever-changing demands of work. Of course, determining appropriate amounts, types and levels of learning and training can be extremely
difficult. Most estimates tend to under-report the total amount of workplace learning
occurring in an organization (Riddout et al., 2002). Informal learning is generally underrepresented, as reports emphasize formal learning activities such as training.

Methodology
Residents of Peninsular Malaysia 21 years old and above comprised the study population. The adult population was defined as Malaysians of voting age. Three thousand
adults were sampled, as specified by the research sponsor. Sampling utilized a national
frame from the Malaysian Statistics Department. Four states (Kedah, Selangor, Trengganu, and Malacca) were randomly selected, respectively representing the northern,
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central, eastern and southern zones of Peninsular Malaysia. Districts were further
randomly sampled for each state. 750 respondents were sampled from each state.
Stratified sample selection was conducted according to the countrys social economic
profile (gender, ethnicity, age, and urban/rural). Respondents for each stratum were
randomly sampled.
Guided by the research questions, a questionnaire was custom developed from the
literature reviewed. The draft instrument was improved based on feedback from 11
respondents. The instrument was pre-tested on 32 respondents, and then analyzed for
reliability. Questions on workplace learning sought information on respondent demographics and socio-economic profiles, learning providers (who, where), program features (duration, what and how they learn), and learning motive, impact and challenge.
Questions on learning motive had a 34-item scale. The instrument also sought to
measure psychological attributes such as self-esteem and attitudes towards learning.
Self-esteem was assessed with 24 items guided by the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale
(2001). Questions on learning attitude had a 10-item scale. The instrument used a
Likert scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Trained enumerators collected
data by personally interviewing respondents at their homes. Each interview took
about 30 minutes. Enumerators recorded responses on the questionnaire, and later
transferred the responses onto Optical Mark Reading (OMR) forms for scanning and
database storage. Data were analyzed for descriptive and inferential statistics using
the SPSS program. In total, valid responses were obtained from 2262 respondents.

Findings and discussion

This section reports and discusses the studys findings on workplace learning (which
forms only one of Malaysian adults learning spheres). The study shows that 1318
(58.27%) of the 2262 adults (21 years old and above) surveyed were working. This
figure is slightly less than that reported in the 8RM mid-term review (Government of
Malaysia, 2004). According to that report, the proportion of the population in the
working age group 1564 in 2003 was 62.7%. This discrepancy may be due to two
factors: a different category of respondents, i.e. 21 years old and above for the present
study and 1564 years old for the 8RM; and the study data were collected at respondents homes on working days, not in the workplace, so those who were working may
not have been included.
Learner profile
Demographic and socio-economic profile
Workplace learning activities may be conducted by organizations at the workplace, or
outside the work premises. Of 1318 working respondents, only 340 (25.79%) reported
participating in any form of workplace learning in the last year. By ethnicity, there was
higher participation by native Malays (24.75%) and Indians (24.07%) (Table 1). Participation in workplace learning by women was slightly higher than that of men (Table 1).
This suggests that both genders have almost equal access to workplace learning.
Most participants in workplace learning were between 21 and 50 years old; participation seemed to decrease with age. Generally, Malaysians have to retire at 56,
especially in the case of public employees. The data imply that workplace learning
participants were those in active employment. A majority (280 respondents, or 82.35%)
had at least completed high school (O-level or A-level equivalent), compared to only
117 respondents (34.4%) with tertiary education. Participation seemed to increase with
the level of education. In the United States, all the National Longitudinal Survey data
from 1970 to 2000, as well as Panel of Income Dynamics from 1976 to 1993 indicate
more learning at work by respondents who have completed more schooling (Stern
et al., 2004). In Norway, Skules (2004) survey of 1300 employees also revealed that
education is an important pathway to what he refers to as learning intensive jobs.
Participation in workplace learning was higher for individuals proficient in English
(Table 1). Participation in all spheres of adult education higher learning institutions,
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Workplace learning in Malaysia: the learners perspective 67

Table 1: Demographic profile

Characteristics
Race
Malay
Chinese
Indian
Others
Total
Gender
Male
Female
Total
Age
2130 years
3140 years
4150 years
5160 years
>60 years
Total
Education
No schooling
Primary school
SRP/LCE/PMR (Middle school level)
SPM/MCE/SPVM (O-level equivalent)
STPM/HSC/STA (A-level equivalent)
Diploma
Degree
Master
PhD
Professional certificate
Others
Total
Language proficiency*
English
Bahasa Malaysia
Tamil
Mandarin

Number
working

Number
participate

Percentage

917
271
108
22
1318

227
35
26
2
340

24.75
12.92
24.07
9.09
25.79

900
418
1318

223
117
340

24.77
27.99
25.79

455
346
296
165
56
1318

132
104
74
29
1
340

29.01
30.06
25.00
17.58
1.79
25.79

57
261
214
446
53
113
113
21
1
27
12
1318

0
21
39
143
20
49
42
13
1
9
3
340

0.00
8.05
18.22
32.06
37.74
43.36
37.19
61.90
100.00
33.33
25.00
25.79

631
1265
93
256

229
333
23
33

36.29
26.32
24.73
12.89

* Respondent may be proficient in more than one language.

workplace and community tends to be higher for those proficient in English

(Mazanah et al., 2003). Although Bahasa Malaysia is the national language, multiethnic Malaysians speak different languages. The second language, English (a colonial
legacy), is widely used as a medium of instruction, and in the private sector. In
todays globalized and technological world, more learning opportunities and
resources are available in English. Therefore, individuals proficient in English have a
better chance of participating in workplace learning.
Participation in workplace learning is higher among full-time workers (Table 2).
Public employees show the highest levels of participation (60.48%), implying greater
available opportunities. Through various policies and programs, the government has
a significant amount of political power and budgetary allocation to implement its
human resource development agenda (Government of Malaysia, 2001). For example,
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Table 2: Employment status, job category and income

Characteristic
Employment status
Self-employed
Part-time worker
Public employee
Private sector employee
Others
Total
Job category
Manager/Director/Principal/Chief
Executive
Officer/Education Officer/Executive
Assistant Officer/Junior Executive
Others
Not stated
Total
Income (MYR per annum)
<5,000
5,00010,000
10,00120,000
20,00130,000
30,00140,000
40,00150,000
50,00160,000
60,00170,000
70,00180,000
80,00190,000
90,001100,000
>1,00000
Not stated
Total

Number
working

Number
participate

Percentage

373
16
210
692
27
1318

11
2
127
197
3
340

2.95
12.50
60.48
28.47
11.11
25.79

56

14

25.00

87
35
373
767
1318

47
23
72
184
340

54.02
65.71
19.30
23.98
25.79

163
372
424
169
78
34
25
9
7
6
1
5
25
1318

13
57
130
72
28
14
6
5
2
1
0
2
10
340

7.97
15.32
30.66
42.60
35.89
41.18
24.00
55.56
28.57
16.67
0.00
40.00
40.00
25.79

INTAN, the leading public employee training institution, trained 40,856 participants
(or 260,430 participant days) in 2002 (National Institute of Public Administration,
2002). Among job categories, participation is higher among executive/assistant
executive positions (see Table 2). In the local context, officers (including education
officers/graduate teachers), and executives are in the mid-level management and
professional categories. Assistant officers and executives are at a junior level. Income
data suggests that participation in workplace learning is accessible to all income
groups. However, participation tended to increase with income up to the MYR 60,001
to MYR 70,000 per annum bracket. In the public sector, employees in top management
or professional positions fall into this income bracket.
Psychological profile
Psychological attributes such as beliefs, values, attitudes and perceptions about oneself
(or about learning) can affect participation in workplace learning activities. Cross
(1981) viewed these attributes as crucial for participation. Darkenwald and Merriam
(1982) identified them as dispositional barriers. Likewise, James (2003) found that
low self-esteem could be a barrier to participation in learning. In the present study,
respondent psychological profiles were assessed through self-perceptions of self Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005.

Workplace learning in Malaysia: the learners perspective 69

esteem and attitudes towards learning. All respondents perceived themselves as possessing positive self-esteem; the majority (86.2%) scored in the medium range (Table 3).
The ANOVA test shows significant differences in reported self-esteem between different age and income categories. In terms of income, those that earned between MYR
50,001 and MYR 60,000 reported the highest levels of self-esteem, as indicated by the
highest mean value (Table 4).
In general, participants indicated positive attitudes towards learning. A high majority (89.4%) reported a positive attitude, while the rest (10.6%) ranked themselves as
very positive. The ANOVA test shows significant differences in reported attitudes
towards learning between different races (Table 5). A post hoc analysis using the Tukey
Table 3: Self-esteem
Self-esteem

Frequency

Percentage

Low
Medium
High

1
293
46

0.3
86.2
13.5

Total

340

100.00

Table 4: Self-esteem by age category and income

Characteristic

Mean value

Age category
2130 years
3140 years
4150 years
5160 years
>60 years
Income category in MYR per year
Less than RM5000
50,00110,000
10,00120,000
20,00130,000
30,00140,000
40,00150,000
50,00160,000
60,00170,000
70,00180,000
80,00190,000
>100,000

Significant

3.251

0.012

1.943

0.039

80.4167
80.7885
80.1081
78.9310
104.00
86.3077
81.4386
79.8692
80.0694
78.0714
81.7857
83.0000
76.4000
79.0000
79.0000
74.50

n = 340.

Table 5: Attitude towards learning by ethnicity

Race
Chinese
Indian
Malay
Others

Mean value

Significant

32.8571
32.1154
31.2455
31.5000

2.864

0.037

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25
20
15
10

Percentage

Frequency

30

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

5
0

r
e
r
nte / offic c ente
Ce
g
ing kplac e rainin
n
i
t
r
ra
W o tions
s T
a
yer
niz
plo
a
m
g
r
E
er o
Ot h

ls
es
io n
es
tels
es
H o s choo olleg olleg nst itut versiti
i
C
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ni
ic
l
c
g
e
i
t
l
b
U
n
i
a
n
Pu
lic
Pub Priv
trai
Pub
ate
Priv

ers
rted
Ot h repo
t
No

Frequency
Percentage

Figure 1: Place of learning.

test indicated a significant difference between the Malay and Chinese groups
(p = 0.034), with Chinese reporting a more positive attitude towards learning.
Provision of workplace learning
The majority of respondents (75.9%) indicated that they do not bear any cost for
participation in learning. Employers sponsored most workplace learning (58.2%), followed by government institutions (12.1%) and private institutions (7.4%). In line with
national human resource policy, public employers are allocated ample budgets for
workplace learning activities. Private employers may also utilize the HRDF. Numerous
public and private training providers and sponsors are available to complement
employers efforts.
Figure 1 shows that most learning activities were provided on the organizations
premises, at the workplace/office or a training center. An earlier study on adult
education providers in Malaysia showed that 72% of surveyed agencies had their own
training facilities (Azizan, 2001). The establishment of training institutions, and the
availability of learning facilities, makes it possible for workplace learning to be carried
out onsite so that employees and employers can enjoy the associated advantages
(Darrah, 1995). The present study shows that employers also organized training at
other premises, and sent participants to offsite training centers.
Program features
Duration
Most learning activities were short term, ranging from less than a day to two weeks
(Figure 2). According to the HRDF Berhad (2004), the average participant in 2002
put in 20.86 hours. Most employees cannot stay away from work for longer periods
without affecting job performance. Further, an adult learner has to fulfill many obligations; he or she has to find time for learning between work and family. Very few
respondents reported the continuous learning recommended by Argyris and Schon
(1978).
Content
Figure 3 shows content areas of workplace learning. Common content areas were
technical skills, motivation, educational information & general knowledge, and information technology. Technical skills refers to operational competencies directly related
to job requirements. According to a progress report on the 8MP, technical and quality
assurance/control courses constituted 36.7% of approved training places, and 33.3%
of HRDF fund disbursement, during the reviewed period (Government of Malaysia,
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Workplace learning in Malaysia: the learners perspective 71

35

100

30
25

Frequency

80

20

60

15

40

10

mo
nt
hs
612
mo
nt
hs
12
ye
ar
s
Co
nti
nu
ou
s
No
tr
ep
or
ted

mo
nt
hs

46

13

we
ek
s
34

we
ek
s

12

47

13

<

da
ys

0
da
ys

0
1d
ay

20

Percentage

120

Frequency
Percentage

Frequency
Percentage

Ed
uc

oti
va

tio
n

He
alt
So
h
c ia
ls
kil
ls
Re
lig
ion
Ar
ts
/c
Sp
u
or
lt u
ts
re
/r
ec
re
at
ion
Ot
he
rs

60
40
20
0

Percentage

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

120
100
80

Te
ch
nic
/S
In
al
for
e
sk
lf I
m
ills
m
ati
pr
on
ov
&
em
Ge
en
n
t
In
kn
for
ow
m
led
ati
on
ge
tec
Bu
hn
olo
s in
En
gy
es
gin
s/
ee
f
ina
rin
Co
nc
mm g / a
e
rch
un
it e
ica
c
tio
tu
re
n/
lan
gu
ag
e

Frequency

Figure 2: Learning duration.

Figure 3: Program content.

2004). A strong focus on educational information and general knowledge falls in line
with the national goal of developing K (knowledge) workers. The thrust on information technology is reflected in almost all government blueprints on human resource
development. In fact, the goal of a knowledgeable, highly skilled, computer literate
and strongly motivated workforce was spelled out as early as the 7MP (Government
of Malaysia, 1996). Azillah and Mazanahs (1999) study on employers and other training providers showed that they contribute to this goal by offering programs in appropriate content areas. Concentration on technical skills and information technology is
consistent with literature stressing the importance of learning that addresses the
challenges of an ever-changing workplace (Raelin, 1997; Watkins, 1995, 1996; Marsick
& Watkins, 1990; Resnick, 1987).
Learning method and media
The highest percentage of respondents who participated in workplace learning
reported that they attended didactic lecture or talk sessions. A talk (locally referred
to as a ceramah) is an instructor-led short presentation on a topic or issue, followed
by a question and answer session. Next were workshops (working meetings to achieve
common goals), short-term courses or training sessions, seminars/conferences/symposia, and so on (Figure 4). A similar frequency of methods was reported by training
providers (Azillah & Mazanah, 1999).
The learning media used for workplace learning were overhead projectors, computers, and whiteboards (Figure 5). This is consistent with the findings of an earlier study
72 International Journal of Training and Development

Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005.

v is
it
Fi
eld

Pr
ac
tic
al
De
mo
ns
tra
t io
n
Di
sc
us
sio
n
Ob
se
rva
t io
n

ina
r/c
o

Co
nfe
ur
re
se
nc
e/s
ym
po
siu
m

60
40
20
0

Percentage

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Le
c tu
re
/ta
lk
W
or
ks
ho
p

Frequency

120
100
80

Se
m

Frequency
Percentage

200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

60
50
40
30
20

Percentage

Frequency

Figure 4: Learning method.

10
0
OHP

Computer

White

Audio

board

visual aids

Video

LCD

TV

VC D

Others

Frequency
Percentage

Figure 5: Learning media.

of training providers (Azizan & Bahaman, 2001). Generally, the availability of computer facilities is in line with the governments ICT policy (Azillah & Mazanah, 1999).
Overall, data on method and media imply that workplace learning is structured and
formal. Few respondents reported informal learning modes, such as observation and
discussion. Numerous authors, such as Raelin (1997) and Resnick (1987), have implied
the limitations of formal learning.
Learning motives, impact and challenge
Adults participate in learning activities for various reasons. Merriam and Caffarella
(1999) reviewed studies on adult learning motives and participation models. Arshads
(1993) study of 456 Malaysian public employees attending training at INTAN identified ten motivational factors. Adanans (1998) research on teachers pursuing further
study revealed seven factors. The present study identified seven motives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

To acquire knowledge.
To meet workplace requirements.
For social welfare (to serve others and community).
To meet personal goals or interests.
To socialize.

Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005.

Workplace learning in Malaysia: the learners perspective 73

6.
7.

To meet external expectations, wishes or directives from employers.

To get away from work routines or alleviate boredom.

Table 6 displays the motives ranking. Most of these motives are consistent with those
identified by Arshad (1993) and Adanan (1998). The motive of acquiring knowledge
is also consistent with the findings of Garavan et al. (2002).
According to Azillah and Mazanah (1999), from the perspective of providers, most
training served to meet the goal of organizational effectiveness. In other words, an
organizations main concerns are with productivity and profitability. These concerns
are implied in participants responses with regard to learning impact. Learning
impacts such as enhanced work quality (62.9%) and increased knowledge (37.4%) in
Figure 6 are congruent with organizational intent. The mid-term review of the 8MP
reported an increase in productivity (as measured by value added per employee)
for all industries except selected services sub-sectors for 20012003 (Government of
Malaysia, 2004). As well as work benefits, accreditation and financial return, employees also gained self-satisfaction and chances to socialize from workplace learning
activities.
The majority (72.6%) of participants in workplace learning reported employer support. This included time off for participation and travel, advances on financial needs,
and availability of workplace facilities and equipment. These findings are congruent
with those on learning impact. It can be deduced that employers support workplace
learning in order to benefit from more knowledgeable and productive workers. Skule
and Reichborn (2002) reported that support and encouragement from management
promote learning through work.
Table 6: Learning motives
Learning motive
Acquire knowledge
Work requirement
Social welfare
Personal goal
Social relationship
External expectation
Escape/stimulation

Mean value*

Rank

4.3746
4.3352
4.1349
4.1258
3.8123
3.7233
3.3333

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

250

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Frequency

200
150
100
50

In

cre
as

ed

wo

he
rs
Ot

rk
pr
od
uc
t iv
it y
In
/qu
cre
ali
Be
as
ty
co
ed
me
kn
ow
mo
led
re
ge
op
en
Aw
m
ind
ar
Se
de
ed
lf-s
da
ati
M
d
sf
eg
or
ac
re
es
tio
e/c
oc
n
er
ial
Op
tifi
iz i
ca
po
ng
t
rtu
e
op
nit
po
y
rt u
to
nit
pr
ies
ov
ide
Ke
pt
se
In
cre
ab
rv
ice
re
as
as
ed
tw
inc
it h
om
cu
e
Im
rre
pr
nt
ov
a
ed
ff a
irs
so
cia
ls
ta
tus

Percentage

* Scale 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Frequency
Percentage

Figure 6: Learning impact.

74 International Journal of Training and Development

Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005.

The majority (74%) of participants did not report any workplace learning constraints. A few reported issues such as time constraints (5.3% reported inadequate time
for learning or busy/heavy workload), difficulty in understanding (3.2%), monotony
(2.6%), and lack of concentration (2.1%). These are common challenges for adult
learners.
To summarize, the survey found that about a quarter of the study group participated
in formal workplace learning. All ethnic groups, and both genders, had access to
workplace learning. Participation was higher among younger, better educated, higher
income workers, consistent with the profile of a typical adult learner (Merriam &
Caffarella, 1999). Individuals proficient in English were more likely to take advantage
of workplace learning opportunities. Participation was higher among full-time
employees, especially those in the public sector, and in mid-level management and
professional job categories. Workplace learning participants tended to display high
self-esteem and positive attitudes towards learning. These psychological attributes
support Crosss (1981) description of factors that promote participation. Participation
in workplace learning seemed to be influenced by learners socio-cultural, economic
and psychological situations.
The majority of Malaysian employers provided and supported workplace learning.
Most workplace learning was carried out within the environment of the organization,
and was generally formal, structured, and short term. Conventional methods such
as didactic and instructor-led strategies were used widely. Common content areas
included technical skills, motivation, work-related educational information/general
knowledge, and information technology. Generally, present data on workplace learning provision and features is consistent with the findings of an earlier study (Azillah
& Mazanah, 1999). Employees are most likely to participate in workplace learning in
order to acquire knowledge and skills to fulfill work requirements. Thus, workplace
learning contributes to increased productivity and quality. Learning provision,
program features, and learning motives and impact suggest that formal workplace
learning in practice is in line with Malaysias political-economic thrust, specifically
its human resource development agenda.

Conclusions and implications

Malaysians participate in formal workplace learning as part of their employment
activities. From the learner perspective, learning is contextual, promoted by the
political-economic agenda of a nation aspiring towards fully developed status. Workplace learning is affected by factors such as learners socio-cultural, economic and
psychological status, and employers role and support. The notion of workplace learning as a function of organizational productivity supports Merriam and Brocketts
(1998) contention that one major purpose of adult learning is work-related and organizational effectiveness. Political and economic imperatives direct the agenda of training and development in Malaysia. However, there are limitations to workplace
productivity when learning is viewed as a process of skills acquisition at all stages of
life development. Ideally, learners should be proficient in thinking, doing, and dealing
with life tasks and problematic situations. Hence, the challenge of workplace learning
lies in preparing workers to acquire higher-order skills, life enrichment, and risk taking
to become proficient in non-routine and frontier skills. In a rapidly changing workplace, these competencies are imperative.
Workplace learning in most organizations tends to be formal in nature. Even if
employees participate in informal workplace learning activities, these activities are not
typically recognized as learning. When informal learning is not reported as a training
and development activity, it is not given appropriate emphasis. Moreover, an organizations tendency to focus on formal learning activities may result in an unequal
distribution of resources. Organizations may provide funds, facilities and time off from
work for training and other formal learning activities, inadvertently de-emphasizing
collective learning activities. Formal learning activities in the form of training are
sometimes conducted off-site. As such, workers may find it difficult to adopt and
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Workplace learning in Malaysia: the learners perspective 75

readily apply new learning content (Darrah, 1995). The need to justify training funds
may also result in learning that is directly related to work requirements and work
performance (such as technical skills identified in the present study). Little emphasis
has been placed on enhancing work-life quality (health management, interpersonal
relationships, communication and general improvement of work and home life).
Understandably, while such programs cannot be linked directly to higher work performance, they nevertheless may contribute to the development of a quality workforce.
The extensive use of English in training programs, especially technical courses, may
marginalize workers who are not proficient in English. Malaysian organizations may
want to consider developing more courses conducted in the national language, Bahasa
Malaysia, or seek to improve the command of English among workers. While formal
language courses could address these needs, the situated context of language use must
be taken into account. Workers may learn English informally if they are encouraged
to use it in everyday conversations that are free from skepticism and ridicule. As such,
organizations should try to develop a culture that promotes the use of English.
It is very important for employees to be permitted to experiment with ideas. Mistakes in the workplace should be viewed as a part of daily work, and errors considered
opportunities for learning. The ever-changing nature of work necessitates a workplace
learning approach. While technical training can improve routine operations, it may
not assist workers when creativity and adjustments are required. Similarly, the complexity of the organization demands that workers be able to identify and solve problems holistically. Thus, workers need to understand the workplace and its systems,
such as culture and embedded knowledge.
Organizations need to commit to facilitating all forms of workplace learning. By
promoting a learning culture, organizations encourage workers to make tacit knowledge explicit. Through social processes, this knowledge can be disseminated to its
community of practice. This beneficial mode of informal learning is not evidenced in
the present study. Learning can be done on an individual basis, but it is enhanced
when workers have the opportunity to reflect and receive feedback. The sharing
of information contributes to an organizations knowledge about its internal and
external environment, better equipping workers to deal with complex and ambiguous
situations.
From a research standpoint, the utilization of a framework that can account for all
forms of learning that contribute to a holistic perspective on workplace learning as
suggested by Skule (2004) is warranted. Although informal learning constitutes the
most important way of acquiring and developing competencies at work (Illeris and
Associates, 2004; Skule, 2004), the present study only captured formal learning.
However, an earlier qualitative study by Khairuddin (1999) did record other facets of
workplace learning in Malaysia, the informal and incidental. There is a need for further
research that can more adequately reveal the reality of workplace learning in different
contexts and situations.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of other research team members:
Adanan Mat Junoh, Azizan Asmuni and Mazalan Kamis. They would also like to
thank Othman Omar, Sharan B. Merriam and two anonymous reviewers for helpful
comments on earlier drafts of this article.
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