01

A scientific investigation of the

environment

By the end of this chapter, you will be competent to...

investigate the natural environment and use it productively.

identify the features in the various man made environments

and use them productively.

be concerned about animals that are poisonous to man.

identify and use international scientific symbols.

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1.1 A scientific investigation of the environment

Sri Lanka, although a small country, it shows a bewildering range of climatic
diversity. Associated with this climatic diversity, we get a range of eco system
diversity. Forests, grasslands, rivers, streams, springs, mangroves are examples of
some such environments. We are also fortunate in that if we were to visit some of them
we do not have to spend a lot of time, distance or money to observe these environments. The reason is that we can travel from one environment to another which is
totally different environment in a matter of few hours.
These environments were not built in a day, nor did they appear at random. They
were built up by the mutual interactions of the living and non-living components
of a certain area, in association with the climatic factors such as , rainfall, humidity,
temperature and nature of the soil and nutrients in it. Therefore, the living organisms of
an environment, namely the plants and the animals show remarkable adaptations to
survive in this particular environment. In grade Seven, you have learnt about the
unique interrelationships in the environment. The environments you see to day have
been established over millions of years of time, through processes of evolution and
adaptations with the results of natural selection.
These environments have affected the livelihood and survival of the human communities. If so, the environments of our country are important not only biologically but
also socially and culturally and can be considered as our heritage. Mahaweli ganga,
Adams Peak mountain range, Sinharaja forest - all these are part of our heritage.
This diversity of environments have to be conserved for future generations. In order
to conserve them, we should have a knowledge about them. We have to understand
the delicate interrelationships found there. The destruction of one species or one
condition can have adverse effects on the entire ecosystem. Therefore, when utilising
them we have to act with a sound scientific understanding.
Do you know?
Sinharaja was named as a national heritage in 1988. In 1989 it was named as
a world heritage site.
There are two main types of ecosystems, namely aquatic ecosystems and
terrestrial ecosystems. Let us study them in more detail.

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1.1.1 Natural aquatic environments

Rivers, streams and inland water bodies are examples of natural freshwater environments. Let us investigate about each of these aquatic environments separately.
Rivers

Most of the rivers begin at the upper

catchment areas in the central hills and radiate
out, ending up in the ocean.
Most rivers are perennial, carrying water all
the year round, although the levels may
fluctuate. Some may even over flow during
the rainy season.
Fig 1.1 - A river
Some of the small rivers may dry up during
the dry season.
In the upper regions, the water is pure, clear and fast flowing. It is highly oxygenated.
As the river flows down to the plains, flow rate is reduced, silt and clay get collected
and water becomes less clear. As it approaches the coast line, the flow is slow,
sediment and silt load is high and water appears muddy.
When compared to forests, bio-diversity of rivers is not very high. But there are a
number of species which are adapted to the particular conditions. For example,
trout which can survive only in unpolluted water are found in water bodies in
Nuwara Eliya area. As the river flows down, diversity increases, and species such
as Lula and eel can be seen.
Do you know?
81 species of fresh water fish have been recorded in Sri Lanka
of which 44 are endemic. (IUCN 2007)

Some of the uses of rivers are, providing water for our daily needs, providing
water for agricultural activities, producing hydro-power by building dams across
rivers and as a medium of transport.
Assignment 1
Prepare a list of the uses of rivers.
Find out the rivers and streams around your locality. Investigate the uses
as well as the problems caused by these rivers and streams.
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River water gets polluted due to human activities such as release of industrial
effluents into these rivers, agriculture, destruction of forests and other consequences
of urbanisation and industrialisation. This is harmful to human as well as to the other
organisms living in the rivers.
Mining of sand from rivers is also a major problem at present. Extensive mining
of sand from rivers causes many problems such as slow erosion of the river bank,
deepening of the river basin, as a result, the springs that provide water to the close by
wells dry up, water bed goes down resulting in sea water flowing in, particularly in
areas close to lagoons, causing accidents to people who use the river for bathing,
washing etc.
Assignment 2
Prepare a list of pollutants which get added to water as a result of urbanisation
and industrialisation. Suggest measures that can be taken to minimise their harmful
effects.
Estuaries
Estuaries are places where the rivers fall in to the sea. (Fig 1.2)
Estuaries contain a mixture of saline and fresh water. It can be observed that the
river broadens out and divides into branches. Examples are Kalu ganga and Mahaweli
ganga. The load of sediment and silt brought down by the river is deposited at or near
the mouth making up triangular deltas (Fig 1.3). The sediment and silt deposited here
prevent the mixing of sea water and fresh water

.
Fig 1.3 - Delta

Fig 1.2 - Estuary

Estuaries show a greater biodiversity than rivers. Some of the species are fresh
water migrants that move from the river into estuaries, marine species, and are
permanent inhabitants adapted to tolerate low salinity. Many species of fish of
economic importance are common in estuaries. Salmon fish is an example.
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Lagoons
Lagoons are coastal bodies of brackish
water without permanent connection to the sea,
but may be connected to the sea during
certain seasons of the year (Fig 1.4). Lagoons
at Negombo and Puttalam are some examples.
Lagoons are separated from the deep sea by
sand dunes.

Fig 1.4 - Lagoon

Lagoons too, like estuaries are rich in biodiversity. They are good fishery grounds
rich in prawns,crabs and small fish.The mangroves in lagoons and estuaries are valuable resource. They significantly reduce sea erosion.
From the above facts, you may have realised that estuaries and lagoons provide
ample employment opportunities.
Let us investigate how the lagoon environment can be protected while using them
for our use.
Since a large amount of fishery resources are obtained from lagoons, their water
should be kept clean and protected from pollution. Due to the development of towns
around estuaries and lagoons, a large amount of industrial and domestic waste gets
released to these water bodies. Further, these unique surroundings attract tourists, as
a result of tourists centres are being established. Therefore it is important to use these
environments optimally. Some of the things that we can do to minimize the effects are;
avoiding distructive methods of fishing.
minimising pollution by mineral oils.
minimising pollution by soaps, detergents, shampoos and other domestic and
industrial effluents being added to water.
Riverine environments
Riverines are the environment found on the two sides of a river. Rivers overflow
during rainy seasons and form flood plains. The soil here is very rich since silt and
other organic sediments collect here. Therefore, in seasons when there is no rain,
these areas are used for cultivation. Also the clay soil found in these areas are used for
the tile and brick industry. Therefore, riverine environments are economically very
useful for human beings.
Inland waters
Natural ponds and lakes belong to this group. These are ecosystems containing
fresh water. Such inland ponds can be seen in the dry zone as well as the wet zone of
Sri Lanka.
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Tanks and reservoirs are man made inland water

bodies. They do not belong to the above category.
Inland water bodies provide habitats for aquatic
animals and amphibians as well as their food, breeding
grounds and protection.
Fish, frogs, toads, reptiles, birds and otters are
inhabitants of these water bodies. Flowering
plants like Lotus, Water lilies Nymphea, Kekatiya
Fig 1.5 Inland water
(Aponogeton) and various other plants which are used
as food and medicines are also some valuable resources found in these waters.
Oceans
Large percent of the earths surface is covered by
oceans. Although ocean water has a high salinity and
cannot be used for drinking purposes, it provides a
habitat for many living organisms.
Some such organisms are sea weeds (Algae), fish,
starfish, coral polyps and sea anemone.
(Fig 1.6)
Many marine forms such as fish and other animals
Fig 1.6 Marine organism
provide food for man. Example tuna, shark, seer,
sprats, loligo (Cuttle fish) and species of bivalves.
Marine plants are used in the production of food, pharmaceutical drugs, tooth
paste and paints. Algae and diatoms are some examples.
The high concentration of salts provide a good source of various salts.
Example: Common salt (Sodium chloride)
Epsom salt (Magnesium sulphate)
Oceans are vital in maintaining the water cycle. Electricity is generated using
the energy in ocean waves as well as the tides.
Therefore, oceans are rich in resources. The extent of ocean belonging to Sri
Lanka is about seven times the extent of the land, yet we have not utilised this resource
optimally.
Assignment 3
Prepare an article for a wall chart on the theme The ways in which we
could make use of the ocean.
Let us now consider some terrestrial habitats. We shall consider only the forests
and the grasslands in this respect.
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1.1.2 Natural terrestrial environments

Various types of forests and grasslands belong to this group called natural
terrestrial environments.
Natural Forests
Tropical rain forests
These are also called wet ever green
forests. They are found in highlands upto
900 m above sea level. The annual rainfall
is above 2000 mm, and the temparature
is high. Therefore, there is a hot - wet
climate here. Within the forests, humidity
Fig 1.7 - Sinharaja forest
is high. Almost no dry season. Many
streams and rivers also can be seen. Large
trees are about 40 m tall, thickly branched and form a canopy (Fig 1.7). Trees show
distinct stratification into three layers. If you examine a profile of these forests the
stratification can be seen easily. (Fig 1.8) Other examples of these forests are Sinharaja,
Kitulgala and Kanneliya, forests.
Many creepers and lianas wind around the
tree trunks which are covered with epiphytes.
Little undergrowth is found as light penetration
is low. Many economically important trees such
as Dipterocarpus (Hora), Keena, Kaledel,
Berrya (Halmilla) and Nadun are found. The
undergrowth consists of mainly ferns, selaginella
and some seedlings and undecayed layer of
plant leaves can be seen on the ground.

Fig 1.8 - A profile of tropical rain forest

Tropical rain forests show the highest biodiversity in the world.

Tropical rain forests can be considered as a unique environment for conserving the
Gene pool of our country. Only a small area of this type of forest cover is remaining
in Sri Lanka at present.
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Montane forests
These are found at heights of 900 m.
above sea level. Annual rainfall of about 4000
mm. This area is subjected to strong winds.
Therefore, trees are short and stunted. Trunks
are twisted and gnarled. Top of the trees form
a flat canopy. (Fig 1.9) No stratification can
be seen. Leaves are small. Common plants Fig 1.9 - A profile of montane forest
are wal sapu, veralu, mihiriya and dan
varieties. Tree trunks are moist. Hence, they are covered with lichen, mosses and
epiphytes.
Some species of monkeys, wild boar, deer, giant squirrel, loris and sambhur, as
well as many species of fish, amphibians, lizards and birds are found here.
Examples of montane forests are Pidurutalagala, Adams Peak, Kikiliyamana,
Knuckles range, Horton plains, Hakgala and Pattipola forest reserve. Most montane
forests are the water catchments for many rivers. Therefore, it is our responsibility to
protect them for the future generations.
Dry mixed evergreen forests
These are also known as monsoon forests.
They are located around 900 m above sea level in
the dry zone. Temperature is more than 30
degrees Celsius (30 oC) with an annual rainfall of
about 1250 - 1900 mm. These are found in the
dry, but not arid areas of the counrtry.
Fig 1.10 - A profile of dry mixed

Most plants found here are those which can

ever green forest
withstand long periods of drought. No marked
stratification can be seen. Evergreen as well as deciduous plants can be found. Trees
are short (20 m). Barks are thick and trunks are twisted. Roots penetrate deep into
the soil. Space between trees are fairly big, hence the forest is not very dark. It has a
well grown undergrowth. Common plants are weera, palu, burutha (satin wood),
kaluwara, kalumediriya, welang, halmilla, kohomba (margosa), kolon, kon
etc. (Fig 1.10)

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Animals such as leopards, deer, bear, different species of monkeys, giant squirrels
can be seen. These forests provide a good habitat for elephants. These forests are
found in Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Batticaloa, and Ampara districts.
This ecosystem once had covered most of the dry zone land, but now it is reduced
to a small extent.
If you get an opportunity to travel from Colombo to Badulla by train, you can
observe some of the above environments and note how they change from the low
country to the highlands.
Thorny shrubs and scrublands
These ecosystems are found in
northwest and south east of the
island. Temperature is higher than 34 degrees Celsius (34 o C), and annual
rainfall is below 1250 mm. Therefore, these
are called semi arid areas. Soil is dry and
sandy. Humidity is low. Day time is mostly
sunny.

Fig 1.11 - Thorny shrubs and woods

Plants in these regions are adapted to withstand the environmental conditions prevailing here. Some such adaptations are fleshy leaves, reduced number of leaves,
shiny leaf surface, stems store water, stems become photosynthetic and leaves and
stems posses latex. Some examples of plant types are nawahandi (euphorbia), daluk,
pathok(cactus), komarika(aloe), kaneru, andera, eraminiya. This type of
vegetations can be found in Mannar, Kilinochchi, Mulativu and Hambantota
districts.Wilpattu, Bundala sanctuaries, Madu area, Chundikulam, Madunagala.
Weerawila and Tissa are sanctuaries belonging to this category.
We have already studied about the natural forests of Sri Lanka, we can now
investigate how such ecosystems progressed into the major succession in the above
areas of the country.

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1.1.3 Natural grasslands

Grasslands exhibit characteristics between a forest and a desert. Grasslands
associated with a forest may show a few large trees. Horton planes is an example for
this. Grasslands can be found in every type of climatic zone. They are of four types;
Wet Patanas
Dry Patanas
Damana and Talawe
Villus
Gasslands are important ecosystems as they are the main catchment areas for
rivers as well as grazing grounds for animals. As well it is our responsibility to preserve
them.
Wet patanas
They are located arround 2000 m above sea
level. Rainfall is high and well distributed.
Therefore, they are moist throughout the year.
These are close to the forests, (Fig 1.12) Some
examples of wet patanas are Horton planes, Elk
planes, Moon planes, Sita eliya, Bogawanthalawa
Fig 1.12 - Wet patanas
and Bopath thalawa. Apart from grass, there are
isolated trees. Dominants are Ma Ratmal (Rhododendron). The main trunks and
branches of these trees are covered with the epiphyte Usnea (Old mans beard). In
addition Cyprus species and the fern Pteridum are commonly found. Soil is rich in
humus.
Dry Patanas
Welimada plateau, Knuckles, Deniyaya
and Rakwana are examples of dry patanas.
Except for small patches of forests in the
valleys, the rest of the area is covered with
this type of grasslands. The characteristic
grass variety is mana (Cymbopogan nardus)
Fig 1.13 - Dry patanas
(Fig 1.13). Dry patanas are more extensively
spread out than wet patanas. Very often in the dry season the grass catch fire resulting
in the soil being exposed and consequently getting eroded.
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Damana and Talawa

These grasslands are a consequence of chena
cultivation. The grasslands of the low country dry
zone are called Damana (Fig 1.14) and those in the
low country wet zone are called Talawa (Fig 1.15).
They can be seen in Polonnaruwa, Welikande,
Trincomalee and Kalutara districts. The vegetation
consists of grasses such as mana, iluk and bata
(cane) as well as trees such as diwul, palu, myla
and madan. This ecosystem has a diversity of large
grazing and browsing animals like the deer, buffalo
and is a popular habitat of elephants too.

Fig 1.14 - Damana

Villus
Fig 1.15 - Thalawa
These are wet grasslands found in the
flood plains of the rivers in the dry zone. In
areas where flooding occurs, villus are
formed in the abandoned ponds, lakes and
large water bodies. Villus are highly fertile
ecosystems.
It is very high in biodiversity and
density, comprising of large mamals such as
elephants, deer, buffalo, leopards and foxes,
Fig 1.16 - A beautiful scenery of a Villu
and birds such as peacocks, jungle fowl,
storks, seru, king fishers and hawks and a large range of fish, amphibians such as frogs
and toads and reptiles like common lizard and snakes.
After the rainy season, the villu areas get filled with water plants and make a
beautiful scene with the encircling forests. (Fig. 1.16) They are a fine attraction for
tourists. The villus filled with fish are a rich fishery resource for the villagers. The most
extensive villus of Sri Lanka are in the Mahaveli flood plains. Villu grasslands are fine
grounds for cattle farming. Examples are the cattle farms of Tamankaduwa.
Wetlands
These are located at a lower level in comparison with the other water bodies.
Water from the surrounding areas flow into these and get collected here. Wetlands
have a high soil water level. Once maximum water has been absorbed, the remaining
water collects and remains as a surface layer of water.

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Examples are Muthurajawela,

Bellanwila - Aththidiya sanctuaries
and Bundala reserve.The marshes
and other wetlands of Sri Lanka are
homeland to many animals and
plants. Many reeds, grasses and
small shrubs can be seen here.
In the past, wetlands were
considered as unfertile, mosquito
Fig 1.17 - Bundala reserve
breeding and unimportant lands and
were often used for dumping and
filling for various constructions. However, now their importance has been recognised
and efforts are been made to protect them. By studying the illustration given below,
you will understand why a wetland is considered as an important ecosystem.
Acts as a sponge for water
(Prevent flooding /Overflow)

Provides a habitat
for wild life

Wetlands/Marshes

Removes poisonous
pollutants

Improves natural beauty

The contribution of forests for the maintenance of organisms is very important.
Forests are the catchment areas for rivers. Forests contribute directly for maintaining
the water cycle and to provide a favourable climate. As you learnt in grade 7, the first
link in a food chain is plants. Forests provide habitats, food and breeding grounds for
a variety of organisms as well as maintain the oxygen - carbon dioxide balance in the
atmosphere.
By now you would have understood the importance of rivers, streams, oceans,
forests, grasslands and the other environments (which we have investigated in this
chapter) for our survival. Therefore, it is our duty to protect the wildlife and these
resources, and contribute in following the rules and regulations regarding the environment, avoid adding substances that are harmful to the environment, finally avoid using
environmental resources indiscriminately.
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1.2 Using man-made environments productively

1.2.1 Agricultural environments
Man started changing the environment to suit his requirements from the early
periods of civilization. In the earlier periods he depended mainly on hunting animals for
food, but this gradually changed to a dependence on plant crops which made him the
pioneer of agricultural ecosystems.

A chena cultivation

A tea estate

An animal farm

A coconut cultivation

A paddy field

A rubber cultivation

Fig 1.18 - Some agricultural ecosystems

When converting the natural environment to an agricultural system, man makes

the following changes.
The instances as where land is specially prepared for agriculture are seen
l
in tea cultivation, paddy cultivation, and vegetable plantations. Wet Patana areas of
Nuwara Eliya, Sita Eliya, have been used for potato cultivations.
l
Allocation of land for animal farming resulted in grasslands. Due to
constant grazing by animals, plant succession did not take place in these areas. An
example is the cattle farm at Ambewela.
Assignment - 4
Select any of the agricultural ecosystems stated above and list the special
features found in it.
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Check whether the following are included in your list.

1. Same type of crop grown in a large area of land.
2. Soil is prepared to suit a particular crop.
3. Using machinery and removing cover crops.
4. Providing irrigation facilities.
5. Providing transport facilities.
Now let us consider how the maximum production is obtained from an agricultural
system. Comparison of an agricultural environment with a natural environment will
help you to understand them. In order to figure this out you will have to recall what you
have learnt in grade 7.
Agricultural environment

Natural environment

1. Land has to be prepared before

cultivation.
2. One or two selected crops are grown.
3. Nutrients are removed from the plot when
the harvest is removed from the land.
4. Need to add fertilizer.
5. Need to provide water artificially.
6. Need to adopt various strategies to
control pests.
7. Need to take action to conserve soil.
8. Food chains are simple.

1. Prepared by natural means.

2. High diversity of plants.
3. Nutrients are retained as products
are not removed.
4. No need for extra fertilizer.
5. Water is available naturally.
6. Pests are controlled naturally.
7. Soil is naturally conserved.
8. Food chains are complex.

In order to get maximum benefit from an agricultural system, a great deal of attention
and commitment is needed. Water and suitable fertilizers have to be provided when
needed. Suitable pest controlling methods should be adopted. If some disease is detected
it must be controlled immediately since the entire crop can be destroyed quickly.
If the same crop is grown continuously the harvest will get reduced. Hence methods
such as crop rotation and multi-crop agriculture have to be practised.
Assignment - 5
Grow some crop that you like in your home garden. Prepare a small plot for
this or grow it in a pot. Maintain a diary about how it was maintained till it started
bearing fruit.
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1.2.2 Industrial environments

The word factory is a familiar word to you, since you were small. Recall the
various industries in your locality.
Rubber and tea factories, factories for making synthetic clothes, tile factories,
brick factories and cement block factories are some examples. An industrial
environment is a system where all factors necessary for the production of a certain
product such as the machinery, raw materials, labour and energy resources are
collectively used to get out the finished product.
Industries are essential for the development of a country. Industries produce many
things which are needed for the improvement of the quality of life of the people.
Substances such as the tooth brush you use, soaps, medical drugs, garments,
processed foods, sanitary substances, furniture and even energy are produced in
specially designed man made industrial environments.
The products of such industries, just as they are useful some times may also have
certain harmful effects.
1. Noise generated from the factories
2. The poisonous gases, smoke and dust given out
3. Excess of heat given out and being released to the atmosphere
4. Release of unhealthy chemicals are some examples.
Due to the above mentioned reasons an industrial environment may not be very
suitable for residential purposes.
In order to minimize the harmful effects, it is necessary to get the approval of the
relevant state authorities and to maintain the approved standards when constructing
and maintaining an industry.
The Central Environment Authority, Provincial Councils and other local goverment
authorities are organizations working for this purpose. Also, laws and regulations have
been enforced regarding the raw materials used for the industry, release of factory
effluent, health and protection of the work force.
If you or any of your neighbours have been subjected to the ill-effects of
an industrial environment, you have the right to seek legal aid !
Assignment - 6
Find out information about organizations such as the Central Environment
Authority, Urban Development Authority etc. Write a short essay on how we can
contribute to help them to perform their functions more efficiently.
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From the above discussion it is evident that

the industrial environment has to be
properly maintained without pollution in order
to get optimum benefits.

1.2.3 Human settlements

Fig 1.19 - Well planned Industrial

In mans continuous efforts to change the enenvironment

vironment, constructing modern settlements take
a special place. Establishment of settlements associated with agricultural development
projects started with independence in Sri Lanka. Example , Gal Oya settlement.
As an example of rural settlements, the establishment of settlements associated
with the Mahaweli project can be quoted.
At the beginning of these settlements there were adequate basic facilities. With
time the population increased and problems arose. As an example space was limited,
sanitary facilities were not sufficient, and social and cultural differences were seen.
Urban settlements were born due to people migrating to the cities for various
needs as well as many development projects being established in the cities. Here,
again land and other facilities became limited creating many problems.

Insufficient
light

Lack of space

Insufficient
ventilation

Damage due to
sudden fires

Unorganised
urban
settlements

Diseases rising to
epidemic level

Social and cultural

problems
Insufficient
sanitary facilities

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Flooding
during rain

Improper sewage
disposal
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As a remedy for the above problems, plans are being drawn to build better planned
housing complexes. Accordingly, high rise flats are planned so that maximum use is
made of the existing land unlike in the unorganized settlements such as the slums.
Therefore, our motto for tomorrow should be planned cities.
Assignment - 7
Construct a model of a planned settlement using throw away materials.
In planning the above model make use of the criteria given below:
1. Making optimum use of the land
2. Sufficient light and ventilation
3. Adequate sanitary facilities
4. Road ways and water supply
5. Recreation and sports facilities
6. Safety and protection
7. Other daily requirements

Fig. 1.20 - Unplanned urban settlement

Fig. 1.21 - Planned urban settlement

From the discussion so far, you should be now able to understand how to make
optimum use of agricultural, industrial and human settlements productively and
scientifically.
It is very important to manage these human settlements in a proper manner,
in order to minimize the harms to the natural environments and to get the
maximum utilization of these settlements.
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1.3 Animals which are poisonous to man

Sri Lanka is a very fortunate country blessed with a rich biodiversity. People of
this country, over a long period in the history have maintained amicable relationships
with plants and animals, and have lived in harmony with the environment. However,
there have been experiences of various types of harm from animals, in various degrees.
In this context, harm from poisonous snakes is predominant.
Snakes are carnivorous animals predating on live prey. The purpose of the poison
or venom of the snake is to paralyse the prey so that it is easily swallowed. It also
serves as a protection from enemies. Attacks on human beings are mostly due to human
activities which disturb their habitats or life activities. Hence, it is important to understand
their habits in order not only to protect ourselves but also to protect the snakes since
they are exceedingly valuable in maintaining the natural balance of the environment.

1.3.1 Snakes
Snakes rank high among poisonous animals in Sri Lanka. Snakes are reptiles who
are legless, hence creep along the ground. They are carnivorous sometimes feeding on
prey which are much larger than its mouth. Their mouth and jaws are specially adapted
for this purpose. The lower jaw consisting of two halves is fastened by an elastic
ligament which can stretch enabling the mouth to be opened wide to admit large prey
into the mouth. Before the prey is taken into the mouth it is often paralysed by the
venom secreted by the poison glands.
Poison glands are modified
salivary glands and their ducts open
at the base of the two canine teeth
on either side of the mouth. This
poison is sent out by a canal and
injected into the body of the prey
by the canine teeth, which are called
fangs. Poison fangs are found only
in poisonous snakes.

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poison gland
nasal opening
poison duct
teeth
tongue

sheath of teeth

Fig 1. 22 - Poisonous teeth and Poison glands of

snakes

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Snake poison or venom is a protein solution. It contains enzymes and water. These
affect the nervous system or blood of the prey. Hence it helps to paralyse the prey as
well as in digestion.
Do you know?
The anti-venom vaccine that is given to snake bite victims is also used to prepare
drugs for leprosy, asthma and measles.
Ninety six species of snakes have been recorded in Sri Lanka. Among these only
five species are highly poisonous.
They are; i) Cobra
ii) Two species of kraits
iii) Two species of vipers
Features and habits of the above snakes.
1. Cobra (Nagaya)

Fig 1. 23

Can be found anywhere in Sri Lanka.

Length: about 130 - 200 cm.
Special features: Upper side of the body is light brown,
or grey-black. There are white or yellow stripes at
intervals. It has a hood which can be expanded. There
are two black spots on the underside of the hood,
and a m shaped mark on the upper side.
Habits: During the day it gets about looking for food,
while at night time they hide in termite hills, rat holes
or piles of firewood.

2. Indian Krait (Common Krait) (Thel Karawala)

Fig 1. 24

Length: About 90 - 110 cm.

Special features; Highly poisonous species of snake.
Upper side of the body is blackish brown. Body is
shiny as if well oiled. It even preys on other non
poisonous snakes.
Habits: Gets about in the night looking for food. During
the day time it hides under decaying leaves, loose
soil or dry grass. Fond of watery habitats.
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3. Sri Lankan Krait (Mudu Karawala)

Length: About 90 cm.
Special features: Highly poisonous snake. Body is
blackish purple. Has ring-like white bands across the
body.
Habits: Looks for prey in the night. During the day hides
under decaying leaves, logs or piles of stones. When
frightened, coils up and hides the head in the coil.
Fig 1. 25

4. Saw-Scaled viper (Weli Polanga)

Length: About 30 - 45 cm.
Special features: Head is triangular. Has a white birds
foot shaped mark on the head. Upper side of the body
is grey- brown and has diamond shaped marks. .
Habits: Nocturnal. During the day hides in loose soil,
drying leaves or shrubs. It jumps forward when attacking
a prey and recoils to the original position.
Fig 1. 26

5. Russells Viper (Thith Polanga)

Highly poisonous snake.
Length: About 80 - 120 cm.
Special features: Upper part of the body is reddish-brown.
The under-side is yellowish - white. In the centre of the
body, and on either side there are three rows of black
dots.
Habits: A special feature about this snake is their loud
Fig 1. 27
hisses as a warning sign before striking. More active in
the night but can be seen during the day as well.
The venom of saw scaled viper and Russells viper travel slowly along the blood,
and cause harm to the blood system. The symptoms of these snake bites are
blood in urine, bleeding from gums, bleeding under the skin, vomiting blood, blood
in the faeces, severe pain around the wound and swelling.
Identifying highly poisonous snakes
It is important to be able to identify poisonous species of snakes from the non-poisonous
species. The following features are useful for identifying these species;
Shape of the head.
Nature of the scales on the upper side of the head, body and tail.
Nature of the tail and body features
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Table 1.1

Body features
1. Shape of head
2. Nature of scales
3. Tail

Vipers

Cobra and Kraits

Shape of a spoon
Large
Long

Triangular
Small
Short, blunt

Now let us find out about the mildly poisonous and non-poisonous types of snakes.
Mildly poisonous and non-poisonous snakes
Several species are mildly poisonous, and the symptoms of their stings are festering
around the wound, severe pain and swelling. This situation persists for a few days. It
may affect the kidneys but is not fatal. Eg. polong thelissa, mukalang thelissa, pala
polanga.
Do you know ?
Deaths due to the venom of Merrems hump
nosed viper have been reported. Although
considered as a highly poisonous species, it is a
mildly poisonous, nocturnal type.
Fig 1. 28 - Merrems hump nosed viper

Certain other species such as Cat snake (Mapila), Mal Karawala, Ahatulla have
very lightly poisonous venom. They cause a slight pain, slight swelling which wears out
after a few hours.
Non-poisonous snakes
In Sri Lanka, there are 59 species of non-poisonous snakes. The myth that Snakes
are poisonous makes people destroy any snake they meet. Therefore, it is important
to be able to identify the non-poisonous types. Even the non-poisonous types are
carnivorous. Some of them such as python, rat-snake and checkered keel ball swallow
their whole prey.
Assignment - 8
Get information from your elders about the various ideas they have about snakes.
Using books and other resources (teachers) identify the myths from the above
information and prepare a booklet.
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What we can do to prevent snake bites

Sri Lanka, being a country with lush greenery will harbour snakes in any part of
the country. Paddy fields, bushes and jungles provide the necessary food, warmth and
protection for snakes. Therefore our first focus should be to protect ourselves from
the snakes around us, instead of indiscriminate killing of these snakes which is a precious
gift of nature. We can carry out a few but important practices for this purpose.
The reason for the presence of snakes around us and getting exposed to their
stings and bites are largely due to our own neglect. Therefore it is important to follow
some simple precautionary measures to avoid harm from snakes. Some of them are as
follows;

Keep our environments clean - There are many piles of rubbish around us. Left
over food is part of the rubbish. Rats and toads gather around these in search of
food. Snakes chase after these prey and get into rubbish heaps for this reason.
Avoid collecting piles of used newspapers, books etc. Snakes also like all other
reptiles prefer warmth. The warmth inside piles of newspapers etc. may attract
snakes.
Clean up old termite hills, rat holes around your house for they can attract snakes.
Do not pile up left over bricks, tiles in your back garden. They provide the necessary
warmth and protection for snakes.
Use correct protective gear when walking around places where snakes may be
found. When walking around in the night carry a torch and wear protective boots.
When walking on grass or shrubs, make a noise on the ground or beat the ground
with a stick. Although snakes have little hearing they are extremely sensitive to
vibrations on the ground. Therefore, snakes creep away from such places for their
own protection.
Do not touch snakes or insult them.

It is important to be aware of what treatment should be taken in case of snake

bites or stings.
What can be done when bitten or stung by a snake ?
In case of bites from strongly or mildly poisonous snakes, remove the patient
immediately to a state hospital. Following first-aids can be given until the proper
treatment is made available.
Reassure the victim
Make him comfortable to avoid any fear of excitment
Loosen the clothes if they are tight.
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Wash the wound well with soap and water. Cover with a clean piece of cloth (to
prevent bacterial infection).
If the bite is in the foot, do not move it, lift the victim when taking him to hospital.

What not to be done when bitten or stung by a snake ?

Do not suck out the blood from the wound with your mouth.
If the patient is unconsious, avoid giving anything orally.
Do not give king coconut, young coconut, fruit juice or drinks which contain alcohol.
Do not cut around the wound, put constricting bands or give Aspirin as a sedative.
The polyvalent anti-venom serum used in hospitals can be used for all five types of
snakes. It is given only when symptoms begin to appear.
1.3.2 Other poisonous animals
Among the poisonous animals around us Arthropods play an important part. Some
such Arthropods are wasps, hornets, bee, centipede, scorpion and tarantula.

wasp

hornet

Centipede

Scorpion

bee

Tarantula

Fig 1. 29

Wasps, hornets and bees are herbivores feeding on plant nectar. Therefore, their
poison is only for protection. They introduce poison into our bodies with their sting
placed at the posterior end of their body. When they sting the darts of the sting remain
in the body of the victim.
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Bee poison is not fatal, but wasps and hornets poison may be fairly lethal, sometime
may even cause death. As soon as a bee stings, removing the darts from the wound
can relieve the pain.
Wasps and bees collect honey in their hives. As long as we do not disturb them,
they do no harm us. By trying to collect honey from these hives, people get attacked
by these bees and wasps. Further, in order to chase them away, people try to destroy
their colonies and get attacked by these insects.
Centipede is a carnivorous animal. Centipedes have poisons stings to anesthetise
the prey as well as for their own protection. They remain inactive during the day, hiding
under stones or rotting leaves and become active in the night. So, most people get
stung by centipedes at night time.
Scorpion too is carnivorous. It is a solitary, nocturnal arthropod. It remains inactive
during the day under rotting logs of trees, rubbish heaps and stones. Poison is sent out
by a sting at the end of the tail. It too helps to anaesthetise the prey, to digest it, as well
as for protection. When man becomes a challenge they may sting them too.
Tarantula is a highly poisonous arthropod. The most poisonous forms have hairs
on their body. They can be found on coconut trees, palm trees etc. A special feature
about spiders is their habit of moving towards a danger.
Assignment - 9
Find out about traditional remedial methods in your town/village for stings by
poisonous Arthropods
In order to prevent or minimise harm from poisonous animal we need to
understand their habits and life activities.
Assignment - 10
Construct a poster showing the ways of preventing or minimising harm from
poisonous snakes and arthropods.
The poisonous animals which we mentioned above seem to be harmful to man,
but we cannot forget their environmental importance.

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1.3.3 The environmental importance of poisonous animals

The population of members of any species remain at a level that can be supported
by the environment. This is called balance in nature. Nature itself has certain ways by
which this balance is maintained. Presence of carnivorous reptiles and other poisonous
animals are one way which helps to maintain the environmental balance.
Carnivorous animals do a predatory function. Predators prevent the population of
their prey being increased beyond control.
Example:

Number of pests are kept under control by being eaten by snakes, tarantulas and
centipedes.

Number of rats, frogs, lizards and small snakes are kept under control by poisonous
snakes eating them.

Insects such as bees and wasps help in pollination of flowers which is important
for producing fruits.

So, it is clear that all the poisonous animals we have learnt up to now are part of a
food chain. They also contribute to increase the bio-diversity in our environment.
So, by destroying such animals we do a lot of harm to our environment. You may
by now understand the importance of protecting ourselves from them while considering
them as our eco-friends.

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1.4 International Scientific symbols

Pay attention to the symbols indicated below;

1
2
3
What is the message or order conveyed by each of the above symbols?
They are stated below;
1. Bus stop
2. Pedestrian crossing for children ahead
3. Hospital
Just like you, any person in any corner of the rest of the world too, will
understand the above message exactly the same way as you.
Man has been used symbols to communicate information in the past too. These
symbols were unique to each country, nationality, different groups and different areas.
Communication among people of different countries have become closer, due to current
trends in globalisation.
Therefore there is a need for developing these symbols according to
international standards to be acceptable to any citizen in any part of the world. This
enables any person in any country, nationality, whether literate or illiterate to understand
the messages given by these symbols.
Assignment - 11
Note the symbols indicated in various places and in labels of various packed
goods and write them down.
Try to understand the messages that are communicated by these symbols.
There is a need to understand and act according to the various messages given by
symbols in our dealings with places delivering services and goods, dealing with
equipment, travelling to foreign countries and seeking employment in various institutions.
Therefore, it is important to be knowledgeable about these symbols.

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In this chapter, let us consider some common symbols used in scientific laboratories, factories, medical field and in communicating weather information.

1.4.1

Symbols associated with science laboratories

A laboratory is a place where various kinds of chemicals, glassware and other

equipment as well as water and electricity are used. In working under such environment,
there is a tendency for various accidents to occur.
Many persons work in laboratories. Therefore, such places should be maintained
methodically. You should be especially more concerned regarding safety and discipline when working in a laboratory. Proper laboratory practices will reduce the number
of accidents and help to maintain the condition.
The use of symbols in laboratories is largely concerned with messages regarding
the safety and orderly maintenance of the laboratory.

Fig 1.30 - Students engaged in an experiment inside a school laboratory

Examine table 1.2 showing some symbols used in laboratories and the messages
conveyed by each of the symbols.
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Table 1.2 - Some symbols used in Chemistry laboratories

Symbol

Message conveyed by the symbol

Substance which can explode on catching fire or shock.

Oxidising (These substances provide oxygen which allows

other substances to burn more fiercely).

Highly inflammable.

Toxic. (These substances can kill. They may act when you
swallow them, or breathe them in or absorb them through your
skin).
Irritant (These substances are not corrosive but can cause
reddening or blistering of skin).

Corrosive (These substances attack and destroy living tissue,

including eyes and skin).

Eye wash (If some chemical enters the eye, a place for washing
the eye).
Emergency shower (A place for washing the body if a chemical
comes in contact with the body or in case of burns).

Assignment - 12

Examine the labels on the bottles / packing of chemicals in your school

laboratory and try to identify the above symbols indicated in them.
List out the properties of the substance as indicated by the symbol.

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1.4.2

Symbols associated with factories

The symbols used in factories help to ensure the protection of the workers of the
factory as well as visitors coming from outside. In addition they also give a direction
towards the orderly maintenance of the factory. Some such symbols and the message
conveyed by each is given in the table below. (Table 1.3)
Table 1.3 - Some symbols associated with factories

Symbol

Message / Order
No smoking

No entry

Do not touch

No eating or drinking

Fire exit or emergency exit

Eye protection must be worn

Wear protectors

Switch off when not in use.

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1.4.3

Symbols associated with weather information

Information regarding weather conditions are constantly provided to the public

through media. In the communication of this information many symbols are used. Some
such common symbols and the messages communicated by them are given in the table
below
Table 1.4 - Symbols used to interpret weather information

Symbol

Weather Information
Clear sky (night)
Sunny
Light rain shower (day)

Drizzle

Heavy rain

Thunder storm

Heavy snow
Do you know
Meteologists use certain symbols of International standard to record and map
out information regarding the weather.
Indicated below are some such symbols.

Symbol

Weather information
Light showers expected
Normal or heavy rain

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1.4.4 Symbols associated with the medical field

Symbols associated with the medical field convey messages to ensure the safety
and orderliness of the employees, patients, visitors and places such as hospitals,
operation theatres, medical laboratories.
Table 1.5 - Symbols used in the medical field

Symbol

Message / Order conveyed by the symbol

Wear masks
Wear gloves

Wash your hands

Danger, Biological hazard.
Example - Place where experiments conducted regarding
the pathogenic microorganisms.
Radioactive.
Example - Place where X-rays are used. Emission of
harmful rays.
The above descriptions of symbols were those commonly used in certain fields only.
Although they are indicated for specific fields, they can be used as and when necessary
in any other field too.
There are many more symbols that are in use, other than those you just have
studied. Identifying these symbols, acting accordingly will ensure your own personal
safety, safety of others, your environment as well as ensure the orderly maintenance of
the institutions concerned. Therefore, it is vital that you act with a knowledge of the
use of symbols.
Assignment 13
Identify places in your school, class room, laboratory where symbols can be put
up in order to make such places safer and orderly.
Construct some boards with appropriate symbols and place in suitable places in
the school with the permission of your principal.
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Exercises
(1) Students of Grade 8 joined a field trip to observe different types of ecosystems. Given below is a report prepared by them regarding the different
habitats.
Observations

Eco system

Observations

Ecosystems

05. Has a grass cover.

Few trees growing
randomly. Good
water seepage. Cool
climate, and windy.

01. Tree tops show clear

stratification. Ground
layers are dark. Many
streams and water
ways.

06. Ocean is separated

from a sandy dune.
Water is salty. Prawns
& crabs abundant.
Sonneratia and near
the shore.

02 Plants with fleshy leaves.

Posses thorns. Few
leaves. Dry winds.
Strong, intense sunlight.

03. Plants are stunted.

Trunks are hoisted with
knots. Epiphytes grow
on the trunks. Plants
such as walsapu, dan,
olives(Veralu) and
keena are common.

07. Fresh water habitat.

Water does not flow.
Many reeds along the
edges. Frogs, water snakes and fish are
abundant. Flowers
such as Olu & Manel
are common.

04. Trees spread far apart.

Undercover not very
dark. Has good undergrowth. Many trees of
economic importance.

08. Thin plant cover on

ground. Tall bushes
far apart. Dominants
are Mana and Iluk
grass varieties.

Select the suitable ecosystem that fits the description from those given below:
Montane forest, Tropical rain forest, Wet Patana, Dry Patana, Damana, Villu,
Thorny shrubs and woods, Talawa, Dry mixed evergreen forests, inland waters,
lagoons.
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(2) When we travel along the main roads in Sri lanka, we come across more
cultivated areas than natural forest areas.
I. Name the most common types of trees used for re forestation in the
Talawe grasslands in the low country wet zone.
II. What type of plants have been selected for reforestation in the up
country areas?
III. A single brown - plant hopper (Keedawa) infecting a paddy field can
destroy the entire field, but an insect infectation to a tree in a natural forest
will not destroy the entire forest. Give a scientific explanation for the above
phenomenon.
(3) State the factors that should be concerned as Sri lankans when constructing
an industrial environment.
(4) Read the following statements by several students on observing a serpent in
the school premises.
I. It is wrong to let it go, because there is a saying that Anyone who lets
a poisonous snake get away is a fool.
II. All snakes are not poisonous - so let us let him stay
III. Snakes hover aound the school because of the rubbish heaps we collect.
IV. Let us knock the ground with a stick. Then it will go.
V. Even if the snake is poisonous, it has a significant environmental value.
State briefly, your ideas about each of the above statements.
(5) Identify the given symbols and answer the following questions.

b
a
c
I. Write in order, the message given by each of the above symbols.
II. Write down one location where each of the above symbols should be
exhibited.
III. In a place where the symbol a is exhibited, there is a heap of broken
articles strewn around. Explain briefly the hazards that can be caused by this.
IV. What are things you should not do in a location where b is exhibited.
V. Sometimes indicating messages by symbols is more effective than by
writing - Give your ideas in favour of this statement.
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