Efficient Motor Use

Attention:
Contrary to popular belief, motors do not run on electricity!
Motors run on the pre-installed smoke from the factory.
The electricity only keeps the smoke in.
If the smoke gets out, the motor is no good!!!

INTRODUCTION
Motors and Engines are energy conversion devices:

Electric motors convert electrical energy to mechanical energy.

Engines convert chemical energy (gasoline, diesel, natural gas, etc.) to mechanical energy.

A 1 horsepower electric motor can provide the work of approximately 8 people.

Electric motors are a significant and important portion of most utilities load.
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Depending on the numbers used, anywhere from 50 to 65 percent of the electricity sold by
electric utilities is used to power electric motors.

Other utilities (natural gas) and fossil fuel suppliers would like to increase their market share
by promoting engine use over electric motor use. Competition for this market can be intense
depending on local fuel prices.

Efficiency of Electric Motors & Engines

Electric Motor - 50 to 95%
Gasoline Engine - 25%
Diesel Engine - 40%
Natural Gas Engine - 37%
Advantages of Electric Motors
Low initial cost. ($/Hp)
Relatively economical operation. ($/Hr)
Long life with a minimum of service requirements. (Hours)
Simple and efficient operation.
Low noise and exhaust emissions.
Compact size. (Hp/cubic inches)
Capable of withstanding significant temporary overloads. (100%)
Capable of being remotely started and controlled.
Easy to start and stop.
Advantages of Engines
Portability from location to location.
Simple speed control.
No electric demand charge.
No requirements for line extension in remote locations.

PRINCIPLES OF MOTOR OPERATION

All motors (AC or DC) are comprised of two important parts -- the stator or stationary part
and the rotor or rotating part.

All motor operation is governed by the interaction between stator and rotor magnetic fields.
The fields can be produced by a permanent magnet and/or an electromagnet.

Simple Electromagnet

Electromagnets are based on the principle that when

current is passed through a wire, a magnetic field is
produced around the wire in turn magnetizing the iron
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Electric motors operate on the principle that a current

carrying conductor (rotor) placed inside a magnetic
field becomes a magnet itself due to the interaction
from the stators magnetic field.

The basic principle of torque and motor rotation for a motor in its simplest form is shown by
using a permanent magnet and two electromagnets.

Motors Operate on the Principle of Alternating Magnetic Poles

The resultant force (and thus torque) produced by the opposing magnetic fields causes the
rotor to turn.

If the current direction in the electromagnet is changed every 180 degrees of revolution, the
permanent magnet will continue to rotate.
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ELECTRIC MOTOR PARTS

A. Motor Enclosures
The enclosure for the motor provides several important purposes;
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Hold the motor parts together

Dissipate the heat produced when the motor operate.

The enclosure may also be designed to protect the motor from the expected operating
environment.

Electric motors are required to operate in many different environments ranging from clean
and dry to extremely dirty, wet, and corrosive or from normal to very high temperatures.

Manufacturers provide a variety of motor enclosures designed to protect against various

types of adverse conditions.

Motor Enclosures (Examples)

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B. Stator

The stator is the stationary part of the

electric motor generally made of pairs of
slotted cores made of thin sections of soft
iron.

The cores are wound with insulated copper

wire to form one or more pairs of magnetic
poles.

When the copper wire comprising the stator

is connected to an electrical source, the
stator windings form electromagnets and
produce magnetic fields.

Stator Core
The stator may have several sets of
windings including running windings, separate starting windings, and separate windings for
operation with different voltages.

Simple 2 Pole Motor Stator (Example)

C. Rotor

The rotor is the rotating part of the electric motor. Induction motors generally contain a
squirrel cage rotor or a wound rotor.

Squirrel Cage Rotors

The squirrel cage rotor (derived from its appearance similar to an exercise cage for hamsters)
is made of conductive copper, brass, or aluminum bars that are parallel to the shaft and short
circuited by rings in which they are physically supported at each end. Bar size, shape and
resistance significantly influence the operational characteristics of this type of motor.

The magnetic field from the stator induces an opposing magnetic field into the bars on the
squirrel cage causing the rotor to push away from the stator's magnetic field.

Squirrel Cage Rotors (Examples)

Wound Rotors

The wound rotor motor operates on the same principles as the squirrel cage motor but differs
in the construction of the rotor.

Instead of shorted bars, the rotor is made up of windings which terminate at slip rings on the
shaft.

Connection of external resistance to the rotor circuit, via the slip rings, permits variation of
motor torque-speed characteristics.

Wound Rotor Induction Motor

Speed range variation of about 5:1 can be achieved by adding external resistance to the rotor
circuit. However, this is at the expense of electrical efficiency unless a slip energy recovery
circuit is used.

Prior to the advent of AC Adjustable Speed Drives, wound rotor motors were one of the few
options available for changing the speed of an AC motor. As AC Drives have become more
commonplace, wound rotor motors are not seen as often.

Advantages:

Speed Control from an AC Motor, High Starting Torque, Low Starting

Current

Disadvantages:

Expensive, High Maintenance Requirement of Slip Rings & Brushes, Low

Efficiency

D. Bearings

There are two types of bearings commonly used in motors: Sleeve bearings and Ball or
Roller bearings. Most manufacturers today supply sleeve bearings on their general purpose
motors with the option of upgrading to Ball or Roller Bearings.

Sleeve Bearings

Sleeve bearings are made of a soft metal

such as bronze or babbitt and are quieter
than antifriction bearings.

They cannot support thrust loads and are

designed to operate only with horizontal
shafts.

Oil is used to lubricate this type of

bearing, and supports the moving surfaces
with a thin film while they are turning.
Operation without sufficient lubrication
will cause immediate damage.

Sleeve Type Bearing

An oil wick, oil soaked yarn, or oil ring may be used to transport oil from a reservoir to
lubricate the bearing and shaft. An oil ring is a large loose fitting ring with its top half
resting on the shaft and its bottom half in an oil reservoir. The presence of these devices can
be confirmed via a filler plug in the top of the bearing.

Ball or Roller Bearings

Ball or Roller bearings use rolling

elements between the bearing housing
and the rotating shaft.

These bearings generally use grease as a

lubricant.

Some ball and roller bearings used in

motors are sealed and need no
maintenance, but many are unsealed and
require periodic re-packing with grease
from a grease gun.

E. Other Parts -Other motor parts with

specific functions include:
1.
2.

Ball or Roller Type Bearing

Conduit Boxes
Eye Bolts
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MOTOR SPEED/POWER/TORQUE
MOTOR SPEED
There are two common speed terms/ratings used in the motor industry;
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Synchronous Speed
Rated Speed.

Synchronous Speed

This is the speed at which a motors

magnetic field rotates.

Synchronous speed is the motors

theoretical speed if there was no load on
the shaft and friction in the bearings.

The two factors affecting synchronous

speed are the frequency of the electrical
supply and the number of magnetic poles
in the stator.

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Synchronous Speed is calculated as:

Synchronous = Theoretical No Load Speed

Synchronous Speed '

Where:
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120 X Frequency
Number of Poles

Frequency = Electrical frequency of the power supply in Hz.

Number of poles = Number of electrical poles in the motor stator.

Since the frequency of the power supply is usually fixed (typically 60 Hz), the number of
magnetic poles (or simply poles) is the principal design factor affecting motor speed.

Example:
A 4 pole motor is connected to a 60 hertz electrical supply. What is the synchronous speed of the
motor?
120 X 60 hertz
Synchronous Speed = ------------------- = 1800 rpm
4 poles

Motor Slip

The rotor of an induction motor does not rotate at synchronous speed, but lags this speed
slightly. This lag is expressed as a percentage of the synchronous speed called the "slip".
Slip '

Synchronous Speed & Running Speed

x 100
Synchronous Speed

Because the rotor "slips" with respect to the rotating magnetic field of the stator, voltage and
current are induced in the rotor.

The larger the slip, the higher the current induced in the rotor which creates a stronger
magnetic field allowing the motor to produce more torque.

As the motor load increases, slip and torque also increase.

Motors can be characterized as low, normal or high slip motors depending on their design.

Rated Speed

The speed listed on a motor nameplate is the

actual speed at the motor's rated power output and
not the motor's synchronous speed.

As load on an induction motor increases, the

actual operating speed of the motor decreases
slightly to allow the motor to produce more
torque.

The actual amount of the speed change is dictated

by the design of the motor and the amount of load
the motor must drive.
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When a motors operating speed is lower than

its rated speed, it is an indication that the
motor is overloaded or receiving low voltage.

High slip motors will have a rated speed

significantly lower than that of a low slip
motor.

Some applications like oil pump jacks and

large impact loads require high slip motors to
protect the drivetrain components.

Rated = Full Load Speed

MOTOR POWER
The motor industry rates their equipment differently than
manufacturers of other types of electric equipment.
Nameplate Power = Output
The rated mechanical power of a motor is given on the
manufacturers nameplate and quantifies the rate of work a
motor is capable of performing at rated operating speed
(the amount of load it can turn) without reducing its life.
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Motor manufacturers rate the output power of their

motors in units of horsepower (Hp), the measurement of power in the English system of
units.

Motor output power can only be measured accurately with a dynamometer or prony brake.

Input Power
The input power to a motor is the amount of electric power it consumes to operate and drive the load
it is connected to.
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Motor input power is commonly measured at the electrical supply to the motor using the
Metric system term for power of kilowatts (kW).
1 Horsepower ' 746 Watts ' 0.746 Kilowatts

The electrical power input to a motor can be measured with a watt-meter or a voltmeter,
ammeter, and power factor meter.

Determining Motor Output Power (Horsepower)

Factors that affect mechanical power output of a motor are torque and operating speed.
Horsepower '

Where:

Speed (in RPM) x Torque (in pound&feet)

5,252

Speed = Motor speed in revolutions per minute (RPM)

Torque = Amount of torque produced (pound-ft)
Slower motors must produce more torque to deliver the same mechanical power output.
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To withstand the greater torque, slow motors need stronger components than those of
higher speed motors of the same power rating.

Slower motors are generally larger, heavier and more expensive than faster motors of
the equivalent power rating.

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TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTORS

The amount of torque produced by a motor generally varies with speed.

This Torque-Speed characteristic depends on the type and design of a motor, and is often
shown on a Torque-Speed Curve/Graph.

Typical Motor Torque-Speed Curve

Some important factors indicated by a Torque-Speed graph include:

(a)

Starting torque - the torque produced at zero speed;

(b)

Pull-up torque - the minimum torque produced during acceleration from standstill to
operating speed;

(c)

Breakdown torque - the maximum torque that the motor can produce before stalling.

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MOTOR POWER CALCULATIONS

Ohms Law:

Volts = Amps x Ohms;

Horsepower-Kilowatt Relationship:

or E = I x R

1 Horsepower = 746 Watts = 0.746 Kilowatts

Watt's Law:
Single Phase:

W = E x I x p.f.

Three Phase:

W = Eav x Iav x p.f.av x 1.732

Resistance Loads (heating elements, incandescent lights), power factor (p.f.) = 1.0 (100%).

Inductive Loads (motors, fluorescent lights, etc.), power factor < 1.0 (100%).

Power Factor:

Actual Power
Watts
p.f. = ------------------------ = --------------------------Apparent Power
Volts x Amps

Efficiency:

Power Out
Efficiency = -------------------Power In

Input Power (Electric Meter):

Revolutions
kW = ------------------ x Kh x 3.6
Seconds

E x I x p.f. x eff.
Single Phase Motor Horsepower (output): h.p. = --------------------------746

Eav x Iav x p.f.av x 1.732 x eff.

Three Phase Motor Horsepower (output): h.p. = -----------------------------------------746

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MOTOR POWER CALCULATION PROBLEMS

1. The voltage measured to a single phase motor is 123 volts. The current measured is 9 amps. The
power factor was measured as 0.78. What is the power requirement of the motor in kilowatts and in
horsepower?

2. The voltages measured to a three phase motor are 453, 458, and 461. The current measurements
were 14.1, 13.9, and 13.8 amps respectively. The power factor was measured as 0.82. What is the
power requirement in kilowatts and in horsepower?

3. By timing the utility meter, the input power to a motor is found to be 3 kilowatts. Voltage
measured on the power supply was 125 volts. The current measurement was 27 amps. What power
factor is the motor operating at?

4. The power in to an electric motor is measured at the utility meter and found to be 5 kilowatts.
Measurements on the motor shaft indicate the motor is producing 3 horsepower. What is the
efficiency of the motor?

5. A single phase motor's power supply measures 238 volts. The current to the motor measured 54
amps. The motor operates with a power factor of 0.8 and the manufacturers listed efficiency is 90%.
What is the output power of the motor in horsepower and in kilowatts?

6. A three phase motor's power supply measures 200, 205, and 207 volts. The current
measurements in each phase are 24.2, 24.1, and 24.0 amps. The motor operates with a power factor
of 0.82 and the manufacturer's listed efficiency is 88%. What is the power output of the motor in
horsepower and kilowatts?

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CLASSIFICATION OF MOTORS

There are several major classifications of motors in common use, each with specific
characteristics that suit it to particular applications.

DC

Permanent Magnet
Series Wound
Shunt Wound
Compound Wound

Universal

Squirrel Cage

Split Phase
Capacitor Run
Capacitor Start
Capacitor Start/Run
Shaded Pole

Induction

Wound
Rotor

Single

Repulsion
Repulsion Start

Hysteresis
Reluctance

Synchronous

AC
Wound Rotor
Induction
Squirrel Cage
Polyphase

Synchronous
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Design A
Design B
Design C
Design D
Design E

DIRECT CURRENT (DC) MOTORS

DC motors are used in small power requirement applications where precise speed control is
required. The power requirements are generally not large since these motors are battery operated.
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Historically, prior to the advent of reliable AC Adjustable Speed Drives, DC speed control
was simpler, less costly and spanned a greater speed range than AC speed control systems.

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) MOTORS

Synchronous Motors
Synchronous Motors are constant speed motors most commonly used in very large industrial
applications or where exact speed, even with changing loading is required.
Universal Motors
Although most universal motors are operated on AC power, they can operate on either AC or DC.
Tools and appliances are among the most frequent applications.
Induction Motors
Induction motors are very robust and reliable, and are the most common type of motor in use.
Unfortunately, power factors tend to be poor for these motors when operated at less than 100 percent
of their rated load. They come in three phase and single phase designs.
Three Phase Induction Motors
Three phase induction motors are the most widely used motors in industrial and commercial
applications. They fall into two subclassifications
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Squirrel Cage Motors

Wound Rotor Motors

Single Phase Induction Motors

Single phase induction motors are used:
S
Where three phase power is not available (generally up to 10 horsepower).
S
For smaller sized motors (less than 1 horsepower) where three phase power is
available.
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There are several sub-classifications which describe their starting and running modes.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Split Phase
Capacitor Run (Permanent Split Capacitor or PSC)
Capacitor Start
Capacitor Start - Capacitor Run
Shaded Pole

Single phase motors do not generally produce enough torque at starting to turn themselves
and the connected load so they usually employ special starting windings to produce
additional torque during the starting period.

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THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

To facilitate the selection of three phase motors with different Torque-Speed characteristics,
NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) has assigned designations A, B, C,
D and E to describe standard characteristics of induction motors up to 200 horsepower.

Motors larger than 200 Horsepower are considered special purpose motors.

Design A motors used to be the industry standard prior to the advent of soft-start Design B
motors.

Today, Design B motors are the most common and suit the majority of motor applications
except where hard starting loads are encountered.

Design C motors are commonly used on hard starting loads like reciprocating pumps and
compressors.

Design D motors are commonly referred to as high slip motors and work well on
applications where the load fluctuates during operation.

The Design E category is relatively new and contains many of the newest ultra high
efficiency motors manufacturers are producing with very low slip.
Design
Type

Starting
Torque

Starting
Current
X FLA

Breakdown
Torque

Full
Load
Slip

high
to 180%

high
5-7

high
to 275%

normal
0.5 - 5%

fans, centrifugal pumps and

compressors, medium
efficiency

normal
to 150%

normal
4-6

normal
to 210%

normal
0.5 - 5%

Same as A, high efficiency

high
to 200%

normal
4-6

low
to 210%

normal
1 - 5%

Compressors, crushers,
conveyors, medium efficiency

very high
to 275%

normal
4-6

high
to 275%

high
5 - 8%

punch presses, shears, high

inertia loads, medium
efficiency

high
to 190%

very high
8-10

high
to 200%

low
0.5 - 3%

Same as A & B, very high

efficiency

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Typical Applications

Torque-Speed Curves of NEMA Design A, B, C and D Motors

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