THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA

Teacher Stress Among Catholic High School Teachers: Its Nature and Significance

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to the Faculty of the

Department of Education
School of Arts and Sciences
Of The Catholic University of America
In Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy

Copyright
All Rights Reserved
By
Carolyn C. Boyer- Colon
Washington, D.C.

2009

UMI Number: 3348447

Copyright 2009 by
Boyer-Colon, Carolyn C.

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Teacher Stress Among Catholic High School Teachers: Its Nature and Significance
Carolyn Christine Colon. Ph.D
Director: Shavaun Wall, Ph.D.
Teaching is a stressful occupation with potentially serious consequences for both the
individual teacher and the school in which that teacher works. However, to date research has
been limited in scope, focusing primarily on public school teachers. This study examined the
sources and manifestations of teacher stress in Catholic high schools and explored how these
teachers perceive the demands on them and their capabilities to meet those demands.
Furthermore, this study investigated two additional potential sources of stress for Catholic high
school teachers- the vocational aspect of their work as Catholic school teachers and their
relationships with parents.
Full-time teachers at four Maryland Catholic high schools comprised the sample for this
mixed methods, quantitative and qualitative study. First, a researcher-adapted version of
Fimian's 1988 Teacher Stress Inventory was anonymously completed by 191 teachers.
Additionally, a semi-structured interview was conducted with five randomly selected teachers
from each school. Analysis for the quantitative portion of the study included descriptive
statistics, one-way multivariate analysis of variances, and univariate F tests. An interview-guide
approach was adopted for gathering the qualitative data, and coding performed according to
Lofland and Lofland's (1995) model.
Results of the quantitative portion suggest the greatest sources of stress for Catholic high
school teachers were Time Management and Work-Related Stressors. The Relationships with
Parents and Vocation categories are not significant stressors for Catholic high school teachers.
The greatest manifestations of stress for the sample proved to be fatigue-related.
The qualitative portion revealed considerable variation among the teachers with regards to
their perceptions of the ministry aspects of their work. Coping strategies such as exercise,
prayer, and prioritizing tasks were described by the teachers as useful in mitigating the stress
they experience.
While there is still much to be learned about teacher stress in Catholic schools, this study is
significant in that it provides substantive information about how Catholic high school teachers
perceive stress in their schools and how they might be better supported in their role.

This dissertation by Carolyn C. Boyer-Colon fulfills the dissertation requirement for the
doctoral degree in Education approved by Dr. Shavaun M. Wall, Ph.D., as Director, and
Frank R. Yekovich, Ph.D., and Leonard DeFiore, Ph.D. as Readers.

;J-/Uv~%^CfX^f}} Qykll
Shavaun M. Wall, Ph.D., Director

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Frank R. YekovicVJ>hX>., Reader

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Leonard DeFiore, Ph.D., Reader

ii

Dedication
To my family: My parents for giving me the impetus to start this journey and my husband
and children for giving me the motivation to finish.

"When a child is given to his parents, a crown is made for that child in Heaven, and woe
to the parents who raise a child without consciousness of that eternal crown!"
Servant of God
Archbishop Fulton J. Sheen

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures

vi

List of Tables

vii

List of Appendices

viii

Chapters
1. INTRODUCTION
Background
Purpose of the Study
Costs of Teacher Stress
Prevalence of Teacher Stress
Theoretical Framework
Environment
Individual
Response.
Need for the Study
Significance of the Study
Research Questions
Study Hypotheses
Limitations
Definitions of Terms

1
3
3
5
8
11
12
13
14
17
20
21
21
22

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The Stress Concept
Occupational Stress
Teacher Stress
Teachers in Catholic Schools
Sources of Teacher Stress
Time Management
Work-Related Stressors
Professional Distress
Discipline and Motivation
Professional Investment
Relationship with Parents
Manifestations of Stress
Personal Effects
Professional Fallout

23
32
34
37
39
39
40
41
41
42
43
45
45
48

iv

3. METHODOLOGY
Description of the Sample
School A
School B
School C
School D
The Questionnaire
Definitions of Stress Source Factors
Definitions of Stress Manifestation Factors
Reliability of the Questionnaire
Validity of the Questionnaire
Research Design
Research Plan
Plan for Analysis
Hypotheses to Be Tested
Scoring of the Instrument and Tests of the Hypotheses

50
51
51
52
52
53
54
58
59
61
64
65
67
71
71

4. REVIEW OF THE FINDINGS

Findings from the Inventory
74
Description of the Subjects
74
Testing of the Hypotheses
76
Hypothesis One
77
Hypothesis Two
80
Hypothesis Three
81
Hypothesis Four
85
Hypothesis Five
88
Findings from the Interview
89
Sources of Stress
90
Lack of Student Motivation
90
Student Behavior
91
The Volume of Work
92
Overall Perception of Stress in the Workplace
94
Coping with Stress
95
Exercise
96
Prayer
....96
Prioritizing Tasks/Organization
96
Relationships with Parents
98
Parents Who Blame the Teacher
98
Demanding Parents
99
Parents Communicating with Students/Reinforcing Lessons
100
Partnership Between Parents and Teachers
101
Furthering the Mission of the Catholic Church
102
Vocation
104
Belief that Teaching in a Catholic School is a Vocation
104
v

Belief that Teaching is a Vocation

Administration
Enforcing Rules and Disciplinary Action
Supporting Teachers' Authority
Decision-Making
Offering Praise/Reward
5. SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH
Summary of the Study
Overview of the Findings
Question One
Question Two
Question Three
Question Four
Question Five
Question Six
Question Seven
Contribution
Recommendations for Future Research

vi

105
106
107
108
109
110

112
114
115
117
118
120
120
121
122
124
127

List of Figures
1. An Interactive Model of Stress

10

vii

List of Tables
1. Domains of Stress

54

2. Scores for Stress Source Factors

78

3. Scores for Stress Manifestation Factors

80

4. Scores for Sources of Stress Factors by School

82

5. MANOVA for Sources of Teacher Stress by School

83

6. Univariate F Tests for Stress Source Factors

84

7. Scores for Manifestations of Stress Factors by School

86

8. MANOVA for Manifestations of Teacher Stress by School

87

9. Univariate F Tests for Stress Manifestation Factors

87

10. Descriptive Statistics for Total Stress by School

88

11. ANOVA for Total Stress by School.....

89

viii

APPENDICES
Appendix
A. Teacher Inventory

133

B. Letter to Principals

.....138

C. Research Consent Form for Inventory

139

D. Research Consent Form for Interview

141

E. Interview Guide

143

F. Coding of Qualitative Data

144

G. Cross Tabulation for Demographic Variables

145

H. MANOVA for Stress Source Factors

150

I. MANOVA for Stress Manifestation Factors

160

J. Regression Analyses

171

K. Visual Representation for Teacher Stress Inventory Norms

185

L. ANOVA for Total Stress Scores

186

IX

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to those who supported me throughout the
course of this project:
To the Servant of God, Bishop Fulton Sheen, for inspiration.
To Dr. Wall, who guided me, encouraged me, and provided invaluable feedback.
To Dr. Yekovich and Dr. DeFiore for serving as readers. A special thank you to Dr.
Yekovich for his support and assistance and for encouraging all his doctoral students to
persevere.
To my mother and father, who helped me believe I could achieve this degree. Thank
you, Mom, for lovingly caring for my babies while I worked on my dissertation, and
thank you, Dad, for your critique.
To my children, none of whom is old enough to understand what this degree means, but
all of whom I hope will one day appreciate it!
And finally, to my husband, my champion. Thank you for your frequent reminders of
how proud you are of me!

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Researchers in the field of organizational stress have repeatedly identified teaching as
an exceedingly stressful occupation (Dunham, 1984; Dworkin, 1987; Gold & Roth, 1993;
Travers & Cooper, 1996; Vandenberghe & Huberman, 1999). Because no teacher is
exempt from demands, stress must be considered as an interaction between the demands
of the organizational work environment and the individual characteristics of the teacher.
Research into the particular stress of teachers is warranted not only because increased
levels of protracted stress are detrimental to the health and well-being of the individual
teacher, but also because of the serious implications sustained by the occurrence of stress
at the organizational level (Travers & Cooper, 1996).
While the type of school is often hypothesized to be linked to teacher stress, the
majority of teacher stress studies have sampled general education, inner-city public
elementary school teachers and special-education teachers. Additionally, there is
substantiation in the literature that teacher stress becomes more pronounced as student
age increases (Dunham & Varma, 1998; Travers & Cooper, 1996; Pratt, 1978). Whether
this is due to more serious discipline problems, a more isolating environment, or a
heavier workload for high school teachers than grade school teachers is unclear; however,
in light of the societal issues today's adolescents must deal with, it is clear that research
on the stress of high school teachers is warranted.
In addition to the sources of stress most commonly mentioned in the literature, there
have been increasing reports of negative parent involvement, sometimes termed
1

2
"helicopter" parents who interfere in their children's activities. Such acts of interference
are reported as occurring most often in suburban, middle-class areas (Dunnewind, 2005;
Marano, 2004; Rosenfeld & Wise, 2000; Wisemen, 2006). Empirical evidence
concerning this issue is limited, and thus far has been explored only in magazine and
newspaper articles and in television stories. Furthermore, examples of parental
involvement in governance issues are usually linked to student achievement and not
teacher stress. Therefore, research based inquiry is sorely needed.
Moreover, there is scarce research on the sources and manifestations of stress in
Catholic school teachers (Meza, 1981). According to statistics accrued by the National
Catholic Education Association, in the United States, more than 51,000 teachers educate
over 2,000,000 students in Catholic schools (McDonald, 2007). It is undoubtedly
important that the stress of Catholic school teachers be studied and addressed given the
substantial number of students these professionals must educate.
The final component of the study is to examine if there is something particular to the
vocational aspect of teaching in Catholic schools that may serve as a stressor to Catholic
high school teachers. This final area is of particular importance, inasmuch as the United
States Council of Catholic Bishops (2002) maintains that, Catholic schools have a unique
Catholic identity in which educators "provide young people with a sound Church
teaching through a broad-based curriculum, where faith and culture are intertwined in all
areas of a school's life." Proclamations such as these provide evidence that the Catholic
school teacher is charged with additional tasks besides the academic aspects of the

3
profession. This study will explore whether such added responsibilities contribute to
teacher stress in some manner.
The remainder of this chapter will be organized into the following ten sections:
(l)Purpose of the Study; (2) Costs of Teacher Stress; (3) Prevalence of Teacher Stress;
(4) Theoretical Framework; (5) the Need For the Study; (6) the Significance of the Study;
(7) Research Questions; (8) the Study Hypotheses; (9) Limitations of the Study; and (10)
Definition of Terms.
Purpose of the Study
The present study examines the self-reported perceptions of the sources and
manifestations of stress for Catholic high school teachers. Four suburban middle class
Catholic schools in the Baltimore-Washington metropolitan suburbs will be studied. To
assess the teachers' self-reported perceptions of the sources and manifestations of stress,
data will be gathered via a researcher-adapted questionnaire and augmented by interviews
with a subset of the population.
Costs of Teacher Stress
The costs of teacher stress may be considered as three-fold. First, there are costs to
the individual teacher; second, costs to the school; and third, costs to the community as a
whole. Teacher stress may be manifested in the individual by emotional symptoms such
as anxiety, depression, frustration, dissatisfaction, and burnout in extreme forms (Milstein
& Golaszewski, 1985). Behavioral manifestations may include alcohol and/or drug abuse
or excessive smoking, as well as withdrawal from teaching and absenteeism (Quick &

4
Quick, 1984). The individual may also experience difficulties with sleep patterns,
cardiovascular distress, and gastrointestinal troubles (Fimian & Santoro, 1981).
All of the symptoms listed above certainly have either a direct or indirect effect on the
school in which the stressed teacher works. Teacher turnover means that schools must
incur the costs of recruiting and replacing teachers who have left (Travers & Cooper,
1998). Moreover, any signing bonuses are lost when teachers decide to withdraw from
their post. Absences due to stress-related illnesses also cost schools monetarily, for
substitutes must be paid to cover the stressed teacher's assignments and work load.
Furthermore, the relationships the stressed teacher has with his/her students, colleagues,
students' parents, and faculty could be negatively impacted. A teacher suffering from
significant stress would be more prone to irritability and depression and so might take
his/her frustrations out on others (Gold & Roth, 1993).
Without longitudinal analysis, it is difficult to measure the effects teacher stress has on
the community as a whole. However, the education of pupils taught by stressed teachers
may suffer, with lasting consequences, in that students may fail to reach grade
benchmarks resulting in the need for remediation. Or worse yet, students may slip by
unnoticed falling further and further behind in their academic skills (Dworkin, 1987). In
public schools, the financial expense of teacher turnover or retention is borne by the
taxpayers. In Catholic schools, it is the parents and benefactors who must bear the
financial burden. Whatever the costs, be it financial, emotional, or educational, it is
necessary to obtain an understanding of the causes and manifestations of teacher stress to
prevent or manage the effects of stress.

5
Prevalence of Teacher Stress
For many years teaching has been considered one of the most stressful occupations
(Borg, Riding & Falzon, 1991; Hunter, 1977). Studies conducted in the United Kingdom,
for example, have found characteristic rates of roughly one-third of teachers surveyed
who have described their job as stressful or extremely stressful (Gold & Roth, 1993;
Kyriacou, 1987). Jongeling & Lock (2005) conducted a study for the State School
Teachers' Union of Western Australia in which more than half of the teachers surveyed
were determined to be at least moderately stressed. Recent data on the pervasiveness of
teacher stress indicates that in Western and Eastern countries, approximately 60-70% of
all teachers demonstrate stress symptoms and at least 30% demonstrate marked
symptoms of burnout (Rudow, 1999).
There is, however, a dearth of literature on teacher stress in Catholic schools. One
study was launched in Australian Catholic primary schools by DeNobile & McCormick
(2005) in order to investigate the relationship between job satisfaction and occupational
stress. Its findings indicate that on the whole, teachers in this sample were rather
satisfied with their jobs. According to self-reports, 74.1% of the respondents found
working in their current school to be mildly to moderately stressful, while 11% reported
experiencing extreme stress. When the authors compared these results to preceding
studies, they found that the levels of extreme stress reported by the Catholic teachers
were significantly lower than the 20-40% extreme levels reported in similar examinations
of public schools (DeNobile & McCormick, 2005). However, even if there is indeed less
stress reported by Catholic high school teachers, it is still valuable to know the nature of

6
any existing stress. In addition, it is important to explore if there is some stress specific
to the vocational component of teaching in a Catholic school environment. Furthermore,
inquiry into what stressors are affecting Catholic high school teachers is vital in order to
ensure that the best teachers are recruited and supported, and will allow administrators
and the entire school community-including parents- a better understanding of the
complexities and dimensions of teacher stress in the workplace.
Catholic schools are in existence to fulfill a particular mission-that of educating its
students in accord with specific Catholic ideals. Its purpose is three-fold: "to teach
doctrine, build community, and serve" (Kushner and Helbling, 1995). It is the seeking
and fulfillment of this mission of Catholic schools that makes the Catholic school
environment unique and therefore some of the demands on its teachers different from
those in public schools.
Although there have not been many investigations into teacher stress in Catholic
schools, there have been several inquiries into specific aspects of teaching in Catholic
schools. In a 2000 study of Catholic school teachers, Lacey (2000) examined how
selected teachers described their Catholic secondary teaching experience including their
reasons for teaching and staying in a Catholic secondary school setting. The findings
indicate that the majority of the respondents found the environment in Catholic schools to
be positive and perceived that the students who attended Catholic schools were more selfdisciplined. Additionally, these teachers perceived the parents of their students as
supportive of the teachers and the school's effort to discipline their children (Lacey,
2000).

7
Because parents pay tuition to allow their children to attend a Catholic school, it
would seem that they have a more vested interest in the operation and performance of the
school and its teachers. It is often assumed that Catholic schools have more supportive
faculty and parents than do their public school counterparts; that Catholic school students
have fewer discipline problems; that Catholic school teachers have higher job satisfaction
rates and improved retention (Hunt, Joseph, & Nuzzi, 2001). It should follow, therefore,
that Catholic school teachers should have less stress than what has been described of
public school teachers.
On the other hand, despite the higher job satisfaction rates of Catholic educators, there
are still some sizeable sources of discontent. According to Cook in Catholic Schools Still
Make A Difference: Ten Years of Research, Catholic elementary school teachers were
half as likely to be satisfied with their salary as were teachers in other sectors. Although
Catholic high school teachers were found to be more satisfied with their salaries than
their elementary counterparts, they were still less satisfied than public or other private
school teachers. The above authors further add that generally speaking, Catholic
elementary teachers make 54% of a public school salary while Catholic high school
teachers make 73% of a public school salary.
While there have been a handful of studies conducted that indicate there may be some
similar sources of stress in both Catholic and public schools, including organizational
constraints and demands (Drory & Shamir, 1988; Pine & Aronson, 1989); none have
evaluated the sources of stress and manifestations of Catholic high school teachers, none
have included investigation into relationships with over-involved parents potentially

8
being a source of stress for Catholic high school teachers, and none have employed
interview methodology in order to gather additional information about the sources and
manifestations of the stress of Catholic high school teachers. Finally, this study will also
investigate whether the responsibility of fulfilling the mission of the Catholic school
serves as a stressor for its teachers, which no prior inquiry has done.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for this study follows the interactive model of stress
(Sutherland & Cooper, 1991). This theory holds that stress may be described as the
"degree of fit" or interaction between the person and the environment. It is indeed
important to consider teaching as an environment with stress given the fact that stress
research has highlighted the fact that most teachers experience stress from time to time,
and that many teachers experience a great deal of stress fairly frequently (Boyle, Borg,
Falzon, & Baglioni, 1995). According to international reviews, stress has been explored
in the teaching profession in many countries, including Great Britain, Israel, Canada,
New Zealand, Australia, Finland, Japan, Nigeria, Taiwan, Zimbabwe and the United
States (Chen & Miller, 1997; Dewe, 1986; Kyriacou, 1987).
Stress is not just a result of environmental stressors. The relationship between the
person and the environment may result in the experience of stress. Sutherland and
Cooper (1990) maintain that stress occurs at the point at which the enormity of the stress
stimuli exceeds the person's wherewithal to resist. In order to deal with that experience
of stress, the person may endeavor to alter his or her environment or to alter his or her
reaction to the experience. Thus, coping occurs in order to achieve a balance between the

9
person and the environment. In view of the fact that stress may occur as a byproduct of
the relationship between the person and the environment, teacher environment, factors
and characteristics specific to the individual teacher, and teacher responses are explored
in the following sections. Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual framework to be utilized for
this study.

10

Fig. 1
An Interactive Model of Stress
(Adapted from Sutherland & Cooper, 1991)

ENVIRONMENT

POTENTIAL SOURCES
OF STRESS
(1) Time Management
(2) Work-Related Stressors
(3) Discipline and
Motivation
(4) Professional Investment
(5) Professional Distress
(6) Relationships with
Parents
(7) Vocation
* actual demand

BACKGROUND AND
SITUATIONAL
FACTORS
School and Neighborhood
Characteristics
Pupil Characteristics

INDIVIDUAL

RESPONSE

TEACHING EXPERIENCE,
COMMITMENT

Imbalance- distress,
pressure, or strain
COPING

age, sex, education

JUDGEMENT OF THREAT Overcome

i.e. cognitive appraisal
the problem
(perceived ability and
perceived demand)

UNABLE TO
COPE

Manifestations
of stress
Emotional
Fatigue
Cardiovascular
Gastrointestinal
Behavioral
(effects may be
short and or
long-term)

11
Environment
Each occupation holds distinctive factors which may cause stress for the individual.
In this model, those factors are termed environmental factors and include the potential
sources of stress. Research on teacher stress has enumerated a number of recurring
sources as potential stressors, as previously mentioned, including: workload not
commensurate with pay, relationships with pupils, lack of recognition and respect, and
poor school ethos.
Additional environmental factors that may affect teacher stress are background and
situational factors. Such factors include school and neighborhood characteristics, teacher
to pupil ratio, class sizes, inadequate resources, noise level, and unsuitable structural
aspects of the school building (Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978b). A study conducted by
Schoenfeld (1992) concluded that teachers who were employed in the most undesirable
school environments exhibited the most depressive symptoms, while teachers employed
in the most desirable school environments exhibited the least depressive symptoms.
French (1993) identified teacher to pupil ratio as a potential stressor. A key finding of
the study was that teachers working in schools with smaller teacher to student ratios were
more likely to report that class sizes were of little or no stress. Because they are privately
funded, today's Catholic schools in rural communities often boast smaller class sizes than
public schools and are usually housed in structurally sound buildings with adequate
resources.

12
Individual
A number of factors specific to the individual have been found to be correlated with
the manifestation of stress, be it positively or negatively. For instance, not all teachers
are equally committed to their job or view it as a vocation. Such a view may then color
one's reaction to a potential stressor. Maslach (1999) maintains that teachers who are
most committed to their work are at more risk of stress than those who are less
committed, for teaching is an essential part of their identity. Moreover, several studies
have examined how the individual characteristics of age, sex, teaching experience, and
level of qualification affect the teacher's experience of stress. Some such studies have
reported that these characteristics do not correlate significantly with perceived stress and
stressors (Cichon & Koff, 1978; Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978a). On the other hand,
Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1979a) found that male heads of departments reported higher
levels of stress than female heads of department and female classroom teachers reported
higher stress levels than male classroom teachers. Additionally, Hiebert and Farber
(1984) found that gender, age, and teaching experience were predictors of teacher stress.
From reports such as Youniss, Convey and McLellan (2000), it appears that with the
exception of their salary, Catholic school teachers are considerably more satisfied with
their working conditions. Since job satisfaction has been found to be negatively
correlated with stress to a moderate extent in past studies (Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1979b;
Laughlin, 1984; Schonfeld, 1990), it could conceivably follow that Catholic school
teachers enjoy lower stress as a result of their values and ideals.

13
Furthermore, given the fact that Catholic school teachers assume the responsibility of
transmitting the principles of the Catholic faith as well as instructing students in the
customary academic subjects, this profession is often called a vocation. If the Catholic
educators included in this study ascribe to the belief that their occupation is indeed a
vocation, it may be that they have a higher tolerance for stressors such as inadequate pay
as they feel "called" to serve God and others by being a Catholic school educator within
in the universal Catholic Church. Conversely, these teachers may believe that the added
responsibility of a ministry serves as a stressor within the profession.
Response
An individual's cognitive appraisal and coping responses are critical elements in the
interactive model. According to Travers and Cooper (1996), the individual is "an active
agent in his or her environment; someone who actively appraises the importance of what
is occurring to his or her well-being." Within this model, cognitive appraisal is then
defined as an individual's perception of the event leading to the experience.
Once a person appraises a situation as distressing, he or she may then employ tactics
to mitigate distress by either changing his or her environment or adapting to the situation
in some way. If this is accomplished, coping is achieved. If successful coping is not
achieved, stress symptoms may be exhibited by the individual. Such symptoms include
physiological manifestations, such as heart disease, fatigue and depleted energy reserves;
psychological manifestations, such as anxiety, depression, and frustration; and behavioral
manifestations, such as sleeplessness, excessive smoking, and absenteeism.

14
Need for the Study
In recent years, the role of the teacher has changed dramatically. No longer viewed as
simply a "purveyor of knowledge", the teacher must also assume the role of manager,
facilitator, and sometimes social worker. The make-up of the student body is becoming
far more heterogeneous and teachers are increasingly being called upon by parents and
administrators to be more and more responsible for the success of all their students.
Recent initiatives such as the No Child Left Behind Act, signed by President Bush on
January 8,2002, holds schools, and thus its teachers accountable for gaps in student
achievement. The federal government emphasizes the importance of the role of the
teacher in the education system due to the fact that "research has found teacher quality to
be a key determinant of student success" (U.S. Department of Education, 2002, p. 6).
The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, too, espouses the importance of
highly qualified teachers, "Catholic schools will be staffed by highly qualified
administrators and teachers and receive just wages and benefits" (USCCB, 2005).
However, master teachers are not going to thrive and may not even remain in
environments in which they perceive as stressful.
Furthermore, the substantially changing population of Catholic high schools may
impose stress on its teachers- an idea that has not yet been empirically addressed despite
the fact that the need to cope with change has been identified by stress researchers such
as Kyriacou (1998) as a stressor for teachers in public schools. In fact, Catholic schools
are subject to the same population changes as its public school counterparts are. For
instance, the minority population has more than doubled in the past 30 years. Whereas in

15
1970 minorities accounted for 10.8% of the Catholic school population, in 2007 it is at
25.7% (McDonald, 2007). Additionally, like the American public school system,
Catholic schools must serve students with a variety of special needs. Though what is
different for Catholic schools is that they often serve such students without the benefit of
a national or state-wide formalized system. Some Catholic high schools have chosen to
create unique programs offering support to students with special needs as an added
incentive to students who choose to attend that school. In many of these schools,
however, full-time special education teachers or school psychologists may not be
employed, leaving it to regular academic classroom teachers to provide the bulk of the
education and support (Bello, 1996).
Some changes, on the other hand, are unique to Catholic schools. Non-Catholic
enrollment in Catholic schools increased from less than 3% in 1970 to 13.8% of the total
enrollment in 2007 (McDonald, 2007). Not surprisingly, given this enrollment trend
many students and their families lack instruction and knowledge of the Catholic faith,
experience in a Catholic environment, and perhaps a shared commitment to the values,
ideals, and traditions promoted by a Catholic institution. Another concern is that the
number of American Catholic parents who choose to send their children to Catholic
schools has declined despite the fact that the percentage of Catholics in the United States
has not changed very greatly over time (Sander, 2005). This may be due in part to the
rising tuition costs for Catholic schools, and in particular, Catholic high schools (Harris,
1996). Such increasing tuition rates have given rise to a theory termed the "eliting" of
Catholic schools which is much debated in the literature. Baker and Riordan (1998)

16
found that over the past 25 years, Catholic secondary schools have come to enroll a
greater proportion of students from families with higher incomes. Although relationships
with parents has been explored in the teacher stress literature as a potential stressor for
teachers, the focus has always been on teacher interactions with parents who are either
disengaged from their students' learning, or low-income parents who perhaps cannot
provide for their children in the manner of middle or high income families. However, it
is often proposed in the popular press that interactions with higher income parents may be
a source of stress for teachers as well, especially if these parents have high levels of
education and increased levels of confidence and assertiveness in furthering their child's
status or level of achievement.
For example, recently published books such as Queen Bee Moms and King Pin Dads
by Rosalind Wiseman (2006), and articles such as The Overscheduled Child: Avoiding
the Hyper-Parenting Trap, by Rosenfeld and Wise (2000), describe the current trend
reported in the popular press of over-involved, typically suburban, middle-class parents.
Highly-credentialed parents have high expectations for their children and want to know
what the teachers are doing to ensure that their children meet such expectations.
According to a recent article in the Duluth News Tribune, some parents seem to believe
their child's grades are an indication of their parenting abilities (Dunnewind, 2005).
Whereas in years past, parents were content to leave the teaching responsibilities to the
teacher and support him or her in that role, the tide appears to be shifting. As previously
mentioned this idea is novel and no specific data on its relationship to teacher stress has
been conducted to date. Hence, it is one of the goals of this study to provide some data

17
on how the changing affiliation between parents and teachers may be a potential stressor
for teachers.
Although teacher stress studies have traditionally reported less stress for Catholic
school teachers than their public school counterparts, such studies are rather dated and do
not primarily focus on Catholic high school teachers. Exploration into the sources of
stress would be of value not only to Catholic school teachers, but also to Catholic school
administrators, who could then better address and alleviate issues related to teacher stress.
Furthermore, it is hoped that the present study may provide a guide as to which behaviors
and stressors need to be targeted for future research.
Significance of the Study
This study adds to the theory of stress by further exploring the interactive nature of
teacher stress. What has been lacking historically in teacher stress research is exploration
into the cognitive aspects of teacher stress which includes how an individual perceives a
demand as well as his/her ability to meet the perceived demand. The earliest stress
research focused primarily on a stimulus-response model, where stress is considered the
response to some environmental trigger. However, Lazarus' research into stress in the
1960s demonstrates the vital importance of including an individual's perception of the
experience of stress in any investigation. While prior studies have utilized the Teacher
Stress Inventory to measure the sources and manifestations of teacher stress, by
augmenting the data gleaned from the questionnaire with data gathered from interviews,
this study will address in more finite detail how teachers perceive the sources and
manifestations of stress in their school. Additionally, this study will examine how

18
teachers cope with the stress they experience, a key element in Sutherland and Cooper's
interactive model of stress (1991).
Furthermore, there is currently paucity in the research literature pertaining to teacher
stress in Catholic high schools. Much of the literature on Catholic schools emphasizes
that teachers in Catholic schools have a unique mission: they must educate their students
not only in the academics, but also in the spirit and tradition of Catholic ideals (Buetow,
1988; Congregation for Catholic Education, 1997; Jacobs, 1996; Shimabukuro, 2000).
However, no study has examined how teachers perceive this added responsibility. This
study will address this dearth by providing specific information about Catholic high
school teachers' perceptions of stress in the workplace as well as examine whether or not
the demands of the vocational component of teaching in a Catholic school serves as a
stressor.
This study will also enhance teacher stress research by its use of interviews to explore
teacher perceptions. Analysis of the sources of teacher stress includes inquiry into Time
Management, Work-Related Stressors, Professional Distress, Discipline and Motivation,
Professional Investment, and Relationships with Parents. Examination of the
manifestations of teacher stress incorporates investigation into Emotional,
Cardiovascular, Gastrointestinal, and Behavioral Manifestations.
According to NCES data, teacher turnover rates are higher in private schools than in
public schools. Luekens, Lyter, and Fox (2004) report that in 2000-01,21 percent of
private school teachers changed schools or left the teaching force since the previous
school year, compared with 15 percent of public school teachers. Based on principal

19
reports from the Teacher Follow-Up Surveys, low levels of administrative support,
dissatisfaction with salary, relatively greater problems with student behavior at school,
and relatively low levels of classroom and school-wide influence by teachers were cited
as primary causes for this turnover (Gruber, Wiley, Broughman, Strizek, and BurianFitzgerald, 2002). Specifically, teachers in Catholic schools were more likely than
teachers in other private schools to report strong dissatisfaction regarding their salary. In
addition, they were more likely to report low levels of input at the school level (NCES,
2005). As previously discussed, such environmental characteristics have been found to
be linked inextricably to teacher stress. Thus, investigation of teacher stress in Catholic
high schools is sorely needed and may help address this distressing trend.
This analysis is expected to aid Catholic high school teachers and administrators in
better identifying and alleviating teacher stress which might in turn improve retention
rates, raise teacher morale and satisfaction, and improve teacher relationships with
colleagues, students, administrators, and parents. The literature often cites common
grievances of Catholic school teachers including salary issues, and inadequate
participation in the decision-making processes within the school. Therefore, a study such
as this will aid in identifying what changes, if any, can be made within individual schools
to address specific teacher concerns.

20
Research Questions
The following research questions will be employed to investigate these issues:
1. What are the self-reported perceptions of the sources of stress for Catholic high
school teachers?
2. Do relationships with parents serve as a stressor for Catholic high school
teachers?
3. Does the vocational aspect of teaching in a Catholic school serve as a stressor for
Catholic high school teachers?
4. What are the self-reported perceptions of the manifestations of stress for Catholic
high school teachers?
5. What is the Total Stress Score for each of the schools involved in the study?
6. Are there differences among the Catholic high schools with regard to the teachers'
self-reported perceptions of the sources of stress, the manifestations of stress, and
the Total Stress scores?
7. How do Catholic high school teachers describe their experiences of stress and
their method(s) of coping with stress?

21
Study Hypotheses
The following hypotheses are studied in conjunction with the research questions:
1. The most significant sources of stress for Catholic high school teachers will
include aspects of Time-Management, Work-Related Stressors, Professional
Distress, and Relationships with Parents.
2. The most significant manifestations of stress as reported by Catholic high school
teachers will include Emotional and Fatigue Manifestations.
3. There will not be any significant difference with respect to the sources of stress,
the manifestations of stress, or the Total Stress Scores among the schools.
Limitations
This study is concerned with the self-reported perceptions of the sources and
manifestations of Catholic high school teachers. Because the study was conducted in
only Catholic high schools, the findings regarding the sources and levels of stress
may not be generalizable to those teachers working in other types of schools or in
other areas.
The study utilized a survey instrument to gather data on the manifestations and
sources of stress. While this method of data collection is limited with regard to
control of subject responses, an in-depth interview will also be conducted with
teachers to elicit more candid perceptions to serve as a means to explain the nuances
of their experiences of stress in the workplace.

22
Definitions of Terms
Coping:

the behavior exhibited by the individual with the intention

of bringing about a subsequent reduction in the experience
of stress (Travers and Cooper, 1996)

Coping Strategies:

the attempts that an individual teacher makes in order to

reduce a perceived threat (Kyriacou and Sutcliffe, 1978)

Demand:

comprises actual demand, perceived demand in addition to

perceived ability and actual ability. The perception of the
demand is further influenced by the individual's needs,
desires and immediate arousal level (Travers and Cooper,
1996)

Stressor:

the event or series of events that occur in the work

environment that an individual teacher has seen as being a
threat to his or her well-being or self-esteem (Kyriacou and
Sutcliffe, 1978)

Teacher Stress:

a negative response by a teacher usually accompanied

by potentially pathogenic physiological and
biochemical changes resulting from aspects of the
teacher's job and mediated by the perception that the
a) demands were being forced upon them
b) they are unable to or have difficulty in meeting the
demands
c) failure to do so threatens their self-esteem or well being
(Kyriacou, 1978)

Vocation:

the divine calling to follow a certain course of action in life

(Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1994)

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
While the preceding chapter outlined the purpose and the theoretical base for the
study, this chapter will present a review of the empirical literature from which this study
is derived. It is the intent of this study to examine the self-reported perceptions of teacher
stress in Catholic high schools. Therefore, this review will encompass investigation into
(1) the origin of the teacher stress concept; (2) teachers in Catholic schools; (3) the
sources of teacher stress; and (4) the manifestations of stress.
The Stress Concept
What we commonly call "stress" was not always referred to as such. In the
seventeenth century, the word "stress" commonly meant "hardship" (Hinkle, 1973). It
was from Robert Hooke's seventeenth century writings, in which he described how manmade structures such as bridges could be made to withstand heavy loads without
collapsing, that the idea of stress emerged as being related to an overload of demands on
an individual (Cooper & Dewe, 2004). This explanation of stress is considered the
engineering model of stress whereby stress can be endured up to a certain point; however,
when the stress becomes unbearable, psychological or physiological damage (or both)
may occur (Dunham, 1984).
During the nineteenth century George Beard, an American physician and neurologist,
asserted that the serious demands of nineteenth-century life may lead to an overload of
the nervous system. Beard (1882) termed this state "neurasthenia"- a "weakness of the
nervous system" characterized by symptoms such as anxiety, fatigue, and irrational fears
23

24
caused by the nervous system's incapacity to meet the demands of life. Consequently,
individuals could now be diagnosed with "neurasthenia"- an accepted scientific reason
for his/her inability to perform expected duties (Martensen, 1994).
Psychosomatic medicine is the study, diagnosis, and treatment of physical health
conditions stemming from emotional conditions. Popularized by Freud in the nineteenth
century, psychosomatic medicine propelled the investigation into the notion of stress at
the onset of the twentieth century. One of the leading pioneers was Walter Cannon, a
scientist who introduced the psychosomatic approach to the study of stress with his work
on "homeostasis" and the "fight or flight" concept.
The term homeostasis refers to the way in which the body attempts to maintain
equilibrium despite environmental variations and disturbances (Cannon, 1932).
Cannon presented four speculative tenets to describe the general features of homeostasis:
1. Steadiness in an open system, such as our bodies, requires mechanisms that act to
maintain this steadiness.
2. The regulating system that determines the homeostatic state is comprised of a
number of cooperating mechanisms acting simultaneously or successively.
3. Steady-state conditions require that any tendency toward change automatically
meets with resistance to that change.
4. Homeostasis does not occur by chance, but is the result of organized selfgovernment of processes.
This theory of homeostasis is important to stress research in that Cannon argued that if
the individual is to be effective, his/her environment must be stable. His influence on

25
stress research is noteworthy because it explains how stress itself occurs. Cannon is also
noted for his theory of the "fight or flight" response which is, in essence, what transpires
when our state of homeostasis is breached.
This "fight or flight response" refers to our body's primitive, automatic, inborn
response that prepares the body to "fight" or "flee" from perceived attack, harm or threat
to our survival. Cannon discovered that the sympathetic nervous system is responsible
for the human's fight or fight response. When threatened, the body releases hormones
such as adrenaline, which in turn affect our body. Increased heart rate and rapid
breathing are all side effects of such hormones being released by the body. In addition,
the circulation changes in such a way as to provide increased oxygen to those muscles
necessary for fleeing or fighting. A heightened level of awareness allows the threatened
individual to perceive the danger more quickly, and thus respond to it more precisely.
Cannon (1915) concluded:
Every one of the visceral changes that have been noted- the cessation of
processes in the alimentary canal (thus freeing the energy supply for other
parts); the shifting of blood from the abdominal organs, whose activities
are deferrable, to the organs immediately essential to muscular exertion
(the lungs, the heart, the central nervous system); the increased vigor of
contraction of the heart; the quick abolition of the effects of muscular
fatigue; the mobilizing of energy-giving sugar in the circulation- every one
of these visceral changes is directly serviceable in making the organism
more effective in the violent energy which fear or rage or pain may
involve (p. 216).
Based on this perception of the threat, the individual decides whether to fight or flee
from the threat. Once the danger has passed, the body may achieve internal balance, or
enter the homeostasis state yet again.

During Hans Selye's near sixty years of stress research, he observed that different
diseases and injuries to the body seemed to cause the same symptoms in patients. In
Selye's early work on the effects of stress, he injected ovarian hormones into rats, which
stimulated the adrenal glands, causing deterioration of the thymus gland, ulcers, and
ultimately death. Extending his theory to humans, he proved that a stress-induced
hormonal system breakdown could lead to so-called "diseases of adaptation," including
heart disease and hypertension. Selye later grouped these stress symptoms together and
identified them as part of a General Adaptation Syndrome or GAS (Selye, 1946). The
General Adaptation Syndrome was described as consisting of three stages, the first of
which is called alarm reaction, where the body detects the external stimulus. The second
stage, called resistance, includes defensive countermeasures against the stressor, where
the body adapts to or copes with the stressor. The final stage Selye termed exhaustion
and occurs when the body begins to run out of defenses and enters into exhaustion.
Selye's explanation of stressors and their effect on the body was the first of its kind
and made him world famous as a pioneer and expert on the study of stress. It was he who
is credited with coining the term "stress" (Selye, 1973). Selye defined stress as, "the
nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it." By "nonspecific", Selye
was referring to the stressor effect, meaning that it is unimportant whether the agent of
change an individual encounters is pleasant or unpleasant; rather what is important is the
intensity of the demand for change.
Another researcher who made noteworthy contributions to the evolution of the stress
concept was Harold Wolff. Like Selye, Wolff argued that stress was a "dynamic state

within the organism" in which the individual must adapt to some demand placed upon
him (Hinkle, 1973). Conversely, Wolffs theory of "protective reaction response" held
that the responses of an organism to stress are not chain reactions that begin with an
emotion and are followed by an altered function of the bodily organs, which in turn leads
to altered behavior. Instead, he postulated that changed emotions, bodily adjustments,
and behavior occur simultaneously; a declaration which stands in contrast to Selye's
General Adaptation Syndrome. With Central Intelligence Agency backing, Wolff and his
colleagues began a program to treat migraine sufferers. Migraines, as theorized by
Wolff, were caused by a disharmony between a person and his or her environment. His
hypothesis was that if a patient could be held in a specialized environment, and placed in
"a situation of frustration," then the old patterns of mental activity could be broken down
and new ones built. Subsequently, Wolff locked his patients in sensory deprivation
chambers from which they eventually emerged headache-free (Marcussen & Wolff,
1949).
Wolff held that the individual responds to stress in a way that is typical for him or her
and which is based in heredity; the inference being that the individual (and his/her
relatives) faces a demand in a way particular to him/her which is different from how
others may face the same demand. A specific protection reaction response may lay
dormant for indefinite periods of time until confronted with a specific threat which
triggers the response. The response may then become evident as an illness involving the
cardiovascular system, or metabolism, for example. Wolff continually emphasized the
idea that what a person may do in response to a threat may not be in keeping with what

he or she ought to do. Thus, the protective reaction response which serves one purpose
may be unsuitable in another (Mendelson, Hirsch, & Webber, 1956). Wolffs two-prong
notion that stress is chiefly a function of how an individual perceives a given situation,
and that this perception is based on a number of factors including individual needs and
past experiences would eventually give rise to a major movement in the development of
the stress concept.
Holmes and Rahe (1967) also had a major impact on psychosomatic medicine because
of their research ventures into stress and its related illnesses. From their lengthy
discussions with patients, these researchers determined that illnesses seemed to increase
following periods of both positive and negative stressful life changes. For instance, both
engagement and separation are considered to be stressful by Holmes and Rahe because
both require some sort of lifestyle change by the individual (Holmes & Rahe, 1967). To
assess these life changes, Holmes and Rahe created a self-administered questionnaire.
The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) requires the individual to report the
number of times they have experienced specific life changes over the course of the
preceding one-year period. By adding values to the events that happened within the past
year, Holmes & Rahe then showed how stress could negatively impact one's health.
There was much debate over the idea of stressful life events causing stress-related
illnesses (Cooper & Dewe, 2004). In presentation of the theory of stressful life events,
there was no real differentiation between positive and negative events (both were
presumed to cause stress to the same degree). Furthermore, instruments used to measure
stressful life events, such as the SRRS failed to take into account both chronic or

29
recurrent events and individual differences. Of greatest consequence, however, was the
criticism that the theory of stressful life events failed to provide for whether or not the
individual appraised an event as stressful (p. 45). The concept of appraisal thrust stress
research into a new realm.
What had seemed to be lacking in stress research until the 1960s was an explanation
for why the same demand might trigger different reactions in individuals. Richard
Lazarus (1966) was the first to address this dilemma with his work in the cognitive
appraisal processes. Until his time, much of the theory of stress revolved around the idea
of a stimulus-response model in which stress was the stimulus that caused a stress
response in the individual. During Lazarus' fifty plus years of research, he offered a
fresh perspective that demonstrated that individual attitudes, beliefs, expectations, and
motives influence assessment of the environment.
To evaluate the cognitive processes of individuals under stress, Lazarus and his
colleagues (Koriat et al., 1972) conducted two experimental sessions in which subjects
were shown four presentations of a film depicting wood-shop accidents. The film
depicted one man cutting his fingertips, another cutting his middle finger completely off,
and a third dying after being impaled through the midsection by a piece of wood. The
subjects viewed the film the first two times with no instructions. Prior to the third
presentation, however, half the subjects were instructed to detach themselves emotionally
from the accidents, and prior to the fourth viewing were asked to emotionally involve
themselves in the accidents more fully. The other half of the sample was given reverse
directions: on the third viewing they must involve themselves, while on the fourth, detach

themselves. The findings of these experimental sessions indicated that subjects could, in
fact, exert some degree of control over their emotional reactions to the accidents, as
evidenced by their self-reported emotional states and changes in heart rate (Lazarus,
1998a).
Three distinct types of appraisal are outlined in Lazarus' s cognitive appraisal theory:
Primary, Secondary, and Reappraisal (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Primary appraisal
determines the relevance of an event to the individual's well being. During this appraisal
one can either determine an event to be irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful. When
the individual believes an encounter holds no consequence to his/her well-being, it may
be categorized as irrelevant, meaning the individual perceives no personal effects in the
possible outcomes of the event.
Benign-positive appraisals transpire when the outcome of an event is believed to
include some type of benefit for the individual. Lazarus equates benign-positive
appraisals with emotions such as happiness, joy, love, exhilaration, or peacefulness (p.
31-32). Nevertheless, benign-positive appraisals may often be accompanied by feelings
of apprehension due to the feelings that the perceived beneficial outcome of the event
may eventually end. Additional feelings such as anxiety or guilt may ensue because of
the belief that one will eventually have to "pay" for one's good fortune (p. 32).
If the primary appraisal determined the event as stressful, it is then assessed as a
harm/loss, a threat, or a challenge. A harm/loss refers to an injury or damage that has
already been sustained by the individual (e.g., an illness). A threat refers to a harm or loss
that has not yet occurred, but is anticipated by the individual. Even when a harm or loss

31
has already been sustained, it is still somewhat connected to a threat due to the fact that it
often implies negative consequences in the future. What differentiates threat from
harm/loss is the fact that because the individual can anticipate the future, he/she can
create a plan to meet the difficulty- thus coping may be achieved (p. 33).
A challenge appraisal refers to the potential for growth, mastery, or some form of
gain. It, therefore, has much in common with threat appraisal because it also demands
the utilization of coping mechanisms. The difference between challenge appraisal and
threat appraisal lies in the idea that challenge appraisals are typified by pleasant emotions
such as excitement, enthusiasm, and elation; and threat appraisal are typified by emotions
associated with impending harm and is characterized by emotions such as trepidation,
worry, and resentment. Lazarus further stipulated that challenge and threat may occur
concurrently but must be considered as separate, although sometimes related, concepts (p.
33-34).
Secondary appraisal occurs after assessment of the event as a threat or a challenge has
taken place. During secondary appraisal the individual weighs his or her coping
resources and options. The level of stress and the magnitude of the reaction will be
determined by the interaction between the individual's perception of his/her coping
mechanisms (what can be done) and their primary appraisals of what is to be won or lost.
For instance, if the individual feels inadequate to meet a demand, the stress will be
considerable because the harm/loss cannot be overcome or prevented. If said individual
is highly invested in the outcome, this inadequacy to meet the demand could be
extremely demoralizing. Furthermore, even if the individual does believe he/she has the

capabilities to manage the outcome of the event, and if they are highly invested in that
outcome, they may still experience significant stress.
The last process in Lazarus' cognitive appraisal theory is termed reappraisal, which
refers to an altered appraisal as a result of newly acquired information. Such new
knowledge may consist of either new stimulus from the environment and/or a realization
created by one's own emotion. For example, while blatant fury affects others, it also is
noticed and reacted to by its originator. Such fury may in turn result in feelings of shame
or perhaps righteousness by the originator. Therefore, reappraisal may be considered the
cognitive appraisal performed as a result of some type of feedback provided after the
initial appraisals (p. 38).
Lazarus also influenced stress researchers in his close examinations of coping as a
process. Prior investigations had described coping as a set of traits, or a style; while
Lazarus defined it as, "constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage
specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the
resources of the person" (Lazarus, 1998). His definition incorporated three basic
principles. The first principle is that coping constantly changes throughout an event;
secondly, coping must be evaluated separately from its outcome; and thirdly, that coping
is what an individual thinks and does in response to demands placed upon him/her that
strain or exceed his/her capabilities (p. 201).
Occupational Stress
Following this increased understanding of the nature of stress, researchers began to
take an interest in exploring how one's occupation may affect well- being. Because

33
people spend such a large amount of their waking hours at work, it would certainly
follow that elements in the workplace may impact their health. Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn,
Snoek & Rosenthal (1964) believed that the necessity for investigation into occupational
stress grew out of the amplified role organizations played in shaping both individual and
social life. Such organizational structures dictated conformity among its employees and
reflected new ideas about motivation, satisfaction, and leadership. Conforming to a strict
set of standards, combined with constant demands to perform under rapidly changing
conditions could conceivably cause workers great distress in role conflict and role
ambiguity, according to these researchers (Kahn, et al. 1964, p. 6).
Despite Kahn and his colleagues' work, research into work stress made little
substantial progress for better than a decade (Beehr, 1998). What appeared to be lacking
was an adequate model of the variable involved in the work-stress interaction. Like early
stress research, early occupational stress research was based on a stimulus-response (S-R)
representation. Such a representation eventually gave way to the person-environment (PE) fit model, which depicts stress as occurring when there is a discrepancy between the
demands of the job and the abilities of the person to meet those demands. Subsequently,
many work stress models have been created based on this model, including the stress
cycle model (McGrath, 1976), the job demand-job control model (Karasek, 1979), the
general systems approach (Cox & McKay, 1981), and the interactive model of stress
(Sutherland & Cooper, 1991) to be used in the present study. The essential component of
each of these models is that stress (or strain, as it is termed in some models) occurs at the

34
point at which there is an imbalance between the demands placed on the individual and
the individual's ability to meet those demands.
The field of occupational stress is a relatively new field and as such, is still evolving.
Institutions such as the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in
the United States and the Institute of Work, Health, and Organizations (I-WHO) in
Nottingham, England, which not only conduct studies into work stress, but also educate
individuals as to the causes and possible solutions to occupational stress, can also be
credited with promoting increased attention to the field.
Teacher Stress
Given the attention paid to occupational stress within the past 50 years, research into
the specific stress of teachers has made significant gains. Kyriacou (1978) defines
teacher stress as a negative response by a teacher usually accompanied by potentially
pathogenic physiological and biochemical changes resulting from aspects of the teacher's
job and mediated by the perception that the
d) demands were being forced upon them
e) they are unable to or have difficulty in meeting the
demands
f) failure to meet those demands threatens their selfesteem or well being
Throughout the 1970s, a proliferation of writings on the stress of teachers emerged. It
is difficult to know exactly what prompted this new found awareness. However, many
researchers in England, where the first seminal studies were published, identify a report
published in 1976 as the starting point for research into teacher stress. This report was
published by the National Association of Schoolmasters/Union of Women Teachers

35
(NAS/UWT) and contained a very influential paper by Jack Dunham which outlined
teacher stress as being caused by role conflict, poor working conditions, and school
reorganization (Kyriacou, 1998). What was especially significant about Dunham's paper
was that it contained a presentation of data from teachers themselves, in which the
teachers (through both oral and written explanations) provided a succinct portrait of their
experiences of workplace stress (Dunham, 1976).
Over the next several years, additional studies and reports on the topic of teacher
stress emerged, including a 1978 questionnaire study in which four major sources of
teacher stress were identified: pupil misbehavior; poor working conditions; time
pressures; and poor school ethos (Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978). In the United States, the
notion of teacher stress also took hold as evidenced by seminal studies such as those
conducted by Coates and Thoresen (1976) and Phillips and Lee (1980).
The investigation of the unique stress of teachers is complex in that the very definition
of teacher stress depends on the understanding of a variety of factors and their influence
on the individual. Kyriacou (1998) outlines four concerns surrounding the notion of
teacher stress. The first concern is whether or not the term teacher stress denotes the
demands placed on the teacher or the emotional condition provoked in the individual
attempting to meet those demands. The second concern is whether or not to consider all
demands, or stressors, both those positive and negative, or to consider only those
stressors believed negative. Hans Selye (1928) coined the terms "eustress" (good stress)
and "distress" (bad stress) to differentiate between the two types of stress. Eustress, or
positive stress may be described by feelings of being challenged or stimulated. Certainly,

36
there are examples of such positive stressors in the teaching profession. For example,
teachers who are working towards a promotion to team leader may certainly entertain
such feelings as well as teachers who are being considered for an award or special mode
of recognition. The third concern involves how a teacher's cognitive appraisal and
coping abilities enter into the equation. A demand may only be negative if the individual
perceives it as such, and if a negative demand can be counteracted by a coping strategy,
the term stress need not apply. The fourth and final concern is how to explain the
relationship between the demands made on a teacher and that teacher's capability to meet
those demands (Kyriacou, 1998).
By the 1980s, teacher stress had become a major area of interest and research
throughout the world. Following the 1990's, research on teacher stress, in general, seems
to have waned. However, there have been some efforts, such as those reported by the
National Center for Education Statistics in their annual survey of American teachers and
schools to report issues of concern for teachers in Catholic schools.
Studies such as Boyle, Borg Falzon, and Baglioni's (1995) use statistical measures to
examine if perhaps delineated sources of teacher stress have either a causal link to
experienced stress, or if not a direct cause whether or not they serve to reduce or
exacerbate the experience of stress. Upon review of the various investigations into
teacher stress, it certainly seems important that any examinations of teacher stress include
an accounting of how teachers perceive the demands placed upon them- a crucial
component of the current study.

37
Teachers in Catholic Schools
Church-based documents on the topic of education repeatedly outline the fundamental
importance of the Catholic school teacher in building and maintaining the Catholic school
community (Congregation for Catholic Education 1982,1988,1997; National
Conference of Bishops, 1972,1976, 1990; Second Vatican Council, 1965,1996). In
1979, Pope John Paul II espoused that
...no Catholic school can be effective without dedicated Catholic
teachers, convinced of the great ideal of Catholic education. The
Church needs men and women who are intent on teaching by word and
example- intent on helping to permeate the whole educational milieu
with the spirit of Christ. This is a great vocation, and the Lord himself
will reward all who serve in it as educators in the cause of the word of
God (Pope John Paul, 1979).
Almost twenty years later, the Congregation for Catholic Education, a congregation of
the Roman Curia, still upholds the vital worth of the Catholic school teacher,
In the Catholic school, primary responsibility for creating this unique
Christian school climate rests with the teachers, as individuals and as a
community. Teaching has an extraordinary moral depth and is one of
man's most excellent and creative activities, for the teacher does not
write on inanimate material, but on the very spirits of human beings.
The personal relations between the teacher and the students, therefore,
assume an enormous importance and are not limited simply to giving
and taking. Moreover, we must remember that teachers and educators
fulfill a specific Christian vocation and share an equally specific
participation in the mission of the Church, to the extent that it depends
chiefly on them whether the Catholic school achieves its purpose
(Congregation for Catholic Education, 1997).
In addition to Church teaching and much of the literature concerning the nature of
Catholic education, teaching in a Catholic school is espoused as a personal vocation and
not merely a job (Buetow, 1988; Congregation for Catholic Education, 1997; Jacobs,
1996; Shimabukuro, 2000). For instance, according to Buetow (1988), Catholic school

teachers must be carefully trained not only within their academic discipline, but also in
their faith and personal growth and development. Moreover, the Catholic school teacher
not only has to educate his/her charges according to a set of prescribed curricula as does
the public school teacher, but they must also form their students in the Catholic faith in
"imitation of Christ" (Sacred Congregation for Catholic Education, 1977).
While the religious who are teachers may have a better grasp at understanding and
carrying out a twofold responsibility because of their lengthy and thorough training in the
faith, lay teachers are equally as responsible for educating in the way of Christ, and their
responsibilities continue to grow since the number of religious who actually teach has
declined dramatically over the past fifty years. During the 1930s and 1940s when
Catholic schools were enjoying very high enrollment rates, its staffs consisted primarily
of religious. By 1970, however, the percentage of lay faculty in Catholic elementary
schools was 53% and in secondary schools, 48%. By 1990, the percentage of lay faculty
had increased to 88% and 83% respectively, and most of today's Catholic schools operate
without any religious teachers at all (Schaub, 2000).
An analysis of the 2003-2004 National Center for Education Statistics survey on
American teachers and schools entitled the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) revealed
that on average, Catholic school teachers were more satisfied with the administrative
support they received than other teachers in the private sector and public school teachers.
Conversely, this report revealed that Catholic school teachers were more strongly
dissatisfied with their salary and the amount of input they had in decision-making
(Strizek, Pittsonberger, Riordan, Lyter, and Orlofsky, 2006).

39
Findings such as these from the SASS are especially problematic as Catholic schools
must now rely primarily on its lay teachers who must teach "as Jesus did" without benefit
of the faith training afforded to religious who teach. Thus, lay teachers in Catholic
schools may not only experience similar sources and levels of stress as do their
counterparts in public schools, but may also experience stress as a result of the additional
responsibilities they incur in promoting the Catholic ideal in both word and deed.
Sources of Teacher Stress
The literature on teacher stress repeatedly illuminates several key elements as
contributing factors to teacher stress. The following section will discuss six categories of
teacher stress: (1) Time Management, (2) Work-Related Stressors, (3) Professional
Distress, (4) Discipline and Motivation, (5) Professional Investment, and (6)
Relationships with Parents.
Time Management
In 2001, the then Department for Education and Employment (DFEE) of Great Britain
commissioned PriceWaterhouseCoopers (PWC) to undertake a review to identify the
main factors that determine teachers' workload in both England and Wales. This study
examined the workload of primary, secondary, and specialized school teachers and found
that on average, teachers worked fifty to sixty hours per week.
The Time-Management domain refers to the idea that teachers often feel pressured for
time, forsaking their "free" time to perform additional work duties. Therefore, this
forsaking "free" time is often related to a teacher's workload. In the literature, the ability
to maintain a sense of equilibrium with respect to time is sometimes cited as a coping

mechanism for relieving stress (Dunham & Bath, 1998; Travers & Cooper, 1996). It
follows then that those teachers who are unable to find time to relax during the school
day- if only for a few minutes- experience higher stress levels.
Work-Related Stressors
The number of tasks required of teachers beyond just instruction (grading papers,
writing reports, calling parents, chaperoning events, etc.) often cannot be completed
within normal school hours, and such difficulties would fall under the title of WorkRelated Stressors. The pace of the school day which often includes few breaks for
teachers also adds to their excessive workload (Kyriacou, 1987). Class size and the
number of pupils for whom teachers are responsible are additional factors within the
Work-Related Stressors category and have been found to be a source of stress in a
number of studies (Connors, 1983; Lowenstein, 1991; Travers & Cooper, 1996).
An extensive study conducted by researchers in England with teachers from the
University of Manchester corroborates the above findings that workload contributes to
teacher stress. This report also found that the increasing variety and number of tasks and
the additional demands outside normal school hours, which teachers were required to
perform, contributed significantly to their perceived levels of stress (Brown & Ralph,
1998). Dibbon's (2004) study on teacher workload in Newfoundland outlined the
increase in social expectations on teachers and the diverse nature of today's classrooms
as aspects of the workload that further tax teachers.

41
Professional Distress
Professional Distress refers to the respect and recognition teachers feel in the
workplace. In Travers and Cooper's (1996) investigation into stress in the teaching
profession, lack of status and advancement opportunities were not only considered as
sources of stress, but also as reasons for leaving the profession. Borg and Riding (1991)
found that teachers whose stress was caused by professional recognition needs were the
least committed to teaching. Professional Distress also encompasses the belief of
teachers that their salary is not commensurate with the work they do, which has been
found to be a source of stress and job dissatisfaction in a number of studies (Borg &
Riding, 1991; Travers & Cooper, 1996; Wilhelm et. al, 2000; Vance, et. al, 1989).
In Jongeling and Lock's (1991) study of Western Australian teachers, a general lack
of appreciation from the community at large were frequently stated as sources of stress.
The sense of limited or even non-existent support may intensify teachers' feelings of
isolation and reduce their ability to work effectively (Naylor, 2001).
Discipline and Motivation
Relating to pupils has often been cited as a stressor for teachers. The Discipline and
Motivation category includes student lack of discipline, as perceived by the teacher, and
pupil disorganization (Kyriacou, 1987). Acts of student misbehavior has been mentioned
as a source of stress in numerous studies (Beer & Beer, 1992; Montalvo et al., 1995;
Solmon & Feld, 1989) although less severe but repeated disruptions, such as calling-out,
has been reported to be a more significant source of stress than single major incidents of
misbehavior (Kyriacou, 1987).

42
Blase's qualitative analysis of the sources of teacher stress also highlighted student
behavior as a considerable source of stress (Blase, 1986). The data indicated that when
student misbehavior directly or indirectly hinders classroom management, thus negatively
influencing both teacher performance and student learning outcomes, teachers felt the
most stress. Furthermore, the group of teachers surveyed for this study felt very
frustrated by student apathy (Blase, 1986).
Professional Investment
How much control do teachers feel they have over their jobs? This question is at the
heart of this domain. Both the lack of opportunity to participate in decision-making, and
the feeling that one's opinions aren't valued have repeatedly been pinpointed as a stressor
for teachers. Decision-making has been found to have a significant relationship with job
satisfaction in a number of earlier studies (Powell & Schlacter, 1971; Seashore &
Bowers, 1963; Vroom, 1959). A study conducted by McGrath et al. (1989) determined
that a lack of participation in decision-making and little autonomy were positively related
to burnout in teachers (McGrath, et al., 1986). According to Levi (1981), a lack of
control over important job factors can lead to anxiety, depression, learned helplessness,
decreased motivation, and increased passivity.
The Professional Investment domain also encompasses the isolation a teacher may
feel, as they are the only adult in a room full of children for most of the day (Lortie,
1975). In fact, according to Carroll and Fulton (2004), more than 500,000 teachers left
the profession in the year 2000 because of feelings of isolation. In a study done by
Dussault, Deaudelin, Royer, and Loiselle, a sample of 1,110 teachers in Quebec were

43
administered French Canadian versions of the UCLA Loneliness Scale and Teacher
Stress Inventory. Analysis of the data indicated a positive and significant correlation
between isolation and occupational stress (Dussault, et al., 1999).
Relationship with Parents
Relationships with Parents may often contribute to the lack of appreciation felt
by teachers. In Naylor's 2001 study, teacher respondents reported that parents often
blamed the teacher for their children's lack of progress and treated them with contempt.
Such disrespect for teachers from parents was described in Jongeling and Locke's 1991
study as well, in which teachers reported they felt unsupported by the parents of their
students.
In 1970, Koob and Shaw criticized the paternalistic approach of management by the
clergy in the Catholic school system. "People accustomed to having control of their own
affairs in other areas of life are not likely to acquiesce in unilateral decisions by an
authority- whether bishop, pastor, or religious" (p. 46). While the old top-down approach
worked between the clergy and a predominantly uneducated immigrant Catholic
population, Koob and Shaw's criticism may still ring true today if reports by popular
literature are indeed accurate. Modern, highly educated Catholic parents may want to be
part of important decisions concerning their children's schooling instead of leaving such
decisions solely to school officials.

44
As parents become more visible and vocal in expressing themselves, more research is
needed to better understand and cope with this phenomenon; for instance, Gold and Roth
(1993) indicate:
Another group of parents insist that teachers are not well prepared and
are inadequate for the job. They believe their job is to keep a constant
watch over what happens in the schools. These parents are usually
highly critical and often verbally abusive of teachers. They complain
that their children are not challenged nor are they intellectually
stimulated. These types of parents are often a great problem for teachers
and contribute to their feelings of disappointment and disillusionment
that often lead to burnout if some type of intervention is not begun.
There is little reported on the relationship of unreasonable parents to
burnout, and this area needs special attention if measures are to be taken
in giving teachers support.
Each of the above described factors with the exception of relationships with overinvolved parents has been found to be a source of stress for other groups of teachers.
Nevertheless, based on previous findings that Catholic school teachers are more satisfied
with the support they receive from administration, have higher levels of job satisfaction,
and have negligible discipline problems with students, it is believed that the Discipline
and Motivation and Professional Investment domains will not be significant sources of
stress for this particular group of teachers. However, given that previous studies have
indicated Catholic school teachers are more dissatisfied with their salaries and
participation in decision making, combined with a changing or increasing workload, it is
believed that the most significant sources of stress for Catholic high school teachers will
include aspects of Time-Management, Work-Related Stressors, and Professional Distress
categories. Furthermore, since the majority of parent population in the sample consists of

high-income, high-achieving individuals, it is hypothesized that there will be evidence of

negative parent involvement as stressful for at least some of these teachers.
Manifestations of Stress
Personal Effects
The most common emotional reactions to stress highlighted in the literature are
depression, irritability, frustration, anxiety, and feelings of helplessness and/or insecurity.
In a study of teachers in the United Kingdom, Travers and Cooper (1996) found that
almost one-fourth of its subjects were suffering from levels of anxiety and depression
akin to psychoneurotic outpatients. Dunham's examination (as cited in Travers and
Cooper, 1996) concluded that frustration and anxiety were the two most common
emotional manifestations of stress. Frustration has been linked to headaches, sleep
disturbance, depressive illness, body rashes and hypertension, while anxiety has been
associated with feelings of inadequacy, loss of confidence and panic. In serious cases,
anxiety may lead to eye twitches, nervous rashes, and weight loss or gain (Travers &
Cooper, 1996).
Harmful behavioral manifestations of stress include cigarette smoking and alcohol
consumption. Although few studies of teacher stress have examined the link between
cigarette smoking and job demands, more general studies of occupational stress have
indeed found a positive relationship between perceived negative job demands and
cigarette smoking. For instance, Russek (1965) found that 46 percent of men in highstress occupations were smokers, as compared to 32 percent of men in low stress
occupations. Jennison and Johnson (1994) used datafromthe National Longitudinal

46
Surveys of older men to determine if a link existed between workplace stress and heavy
drinking and smoking in later life. Analysis of the data did in fact support the authors'
hypotheses that there was a significant positive relationship between occupational stress
and heavy drinking and smoking in the subjects' later life (Jennison & Johnson, 1994).
As the consumption of alcohol is often thought to relieve strain, it seems likely then
that individuals who experience stress in the workplace may drink more than individuals
who do not experience stress in the workplace. Indeed, Frone and his colleagues (1997)
found that job demand and role ambiguity in the workplace were positively related to
heavy drinking among employees who considered their work-role an important part of
their self. Likewise, Vasse and colleagues (1998) found that high work demands and
poor interpersonal relationships with supervisors and coworkers were positively related to
anxiety, which was in turn positively related to elevated weekly alcohol consumption. In
Travers and Cooper's extensive United Kingdom investigation, the following statistics
were derived from its sample of teachers from seven schools: 21% of teachers were
consuming the equivalent or greater than the recommended safe limit of units of alcohol
per week; 29% of teachers felt they should cut down on their drinking; 23.9% felt they
used alcohol as a sort of "stress release" (Travers & Cooper, 1996).
A causal link between occupational stress and cardiovascular difficulties has been
explored empirically for many years. Rosenman and Friedman (1958) concluded that
occupational stress plays a dominant role in the incidence of clinical coronary heart
disease. French and Caplan (1970) monitored and recorded the heart rate of 22 men for a
two-hour period while they were at work in their offices and determined that the mean

47
heart rate for an individual was strongly related to his self-reported perception of role
conflict in the workplace. A survey of secondary school teachers conducted by Kyriacou
and Sutcliffe (1978b) found that teachers reported several physiological symptoms
including heart palpitations and raised blood pressure. Such symptoms were echoed by
teachers in a 1984 examination in which teachers in three English comprehensive schools
were polled. These teachers reported physiological symptoms including sleep loss, overeating, palpitations, and high blood pressure (Dunham, 1984).
In 2003, a sub-group of the National Heart Foundation of Australia completed a
systematic review of the evidence of a link between psychosocial risk factors and the
development of coronary heart disease and/or acute cardiac events. This group
concluded that there is indeed "strong and consistent evidence" for a causal relationship
between work-related stressors and coronary heart disease (Bunker, Coquhoun, Esler,
Hickie, Hunt, Jelinek, Oldenburg, Peach, Ruth, Tennant, & Tonkin, 2003).
Gastrointestinal disorders have sometimes been cited as a problem for individuals who
consider themselves stressed as a result of events occurring in the workplace. According
to a 1979 investigation of "blue-collar" workers, perceived stress was positively related
to self-reported ulcers as well as hypertension and other heart disease risk factors (House,
Wells, Landerman, McMichael, & Kaplan, 1979). In addition, stomach upset such as
ulcers have been mentioned by many authors as a negative consequence of stress (Cooper
and Dewe, 2004 ; Dworkin, 1987; Farber, 1983; Travers and Cooper, 1997).
If left exposed to stress for extended periods of time, it is expected that burnout will
result (Dworkin, 1987; Farber, 1983; Nias, 1999). Maslach and Jackson (1984,1986),

two of the premier burnout researchers, accentuate the idea that burnout should be
considered a multi-dimensional construct consisting of emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment. Emotional exhaustion refers to
feelings of one's energy resources being totally depleted, feeling too worn-out to
continue. Depersonalization characterizes a negative or cynical attitude which may be
exemplified by a lack of interest or even dislike towards others. Reduced personal
accomplishment refers to the perception that one can no longer succeed and is usually
accompanied by feelings of low self-esteem and reduced confidence (De Heus &
Diekstra, 1999). The effects of stress and burnout have lasting effects not only on the
individual teacher's personal life, but on his/her professional life as well.
Professional Fallout
Research demonstrates that a teacher experiencing stress is more likely to be absent
from their job, and such absences may be either temporary or permanent. Temporary
absences, which are short and repeated absences, often take place during stressful times.
Permanent absences, such as early retirement, commonly occur after prolonged periods
of stress, or in a burnout phase (Rudow, 1999).
A teacher who is stressed may yell and feel frustrated with his or her students (Gold &
Roth, 1993). He/she may be unable to concentrate on tasks and become increasingly
forgetful. A teacher experiencing stress may incorrectly mark mistakes on student work,
misplace work products and put forth considerably less effort into their teaching.
Furthermore, he/she may procrastinate, failing to complete tasks, and/or meet deadlines
in a timely manner (Dunham, 1984; Gold and Roth, 1993).

The inability to maintain positive relationships with students, colleagues,

administrators, and parents is also a byproduct of the stress felt by teachers. Since the
emotional reactions to stress often include feelings of inferiority and irritability, it seems
logical that interactions with those around them would be affected. These stressed
teachers may argue, be unwilling or unable to support colleagues, or withdraw
completely from relationships (Dunham, 1984; Rudow, 1999). Students, in turn, may
feel that these teachers show little interest in them.
Dedication and commitment are often proselytized as characteristics the successful
teacher possesses. Stress, however, may drastically affect the dedication and
commitment of a teacher, leaving him/her pessimistic and distrustful. He or she may,
therefore, speak poorly of students, faculty members, or the overall school community
and environment. Furthermore, he/she may view coming to work as a loathsome burden
to be borne.
Schools which are typified by the characteristics of stressed teachers would certainly
negatively impact the environment for learning or working. Stress clearly affects both
the individual and the work environment with serious consequences for both, which is
why it is equally important to study the manifestations of stress as it is the sources of
stress. Because the symptoms of Cardiovascular and Gastrointestinal Manifestations are
considered most physically debilitating, they are often assumed to be most rare and
extreme. Therefore, it is expected that the teachers in the current sample will most
commonly identify symptoms in the Emotional, Fatigue, and Behavioral Manifestation
domains as being the effects of their perceived stress.

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
This chapter's purpose is to explain the methodology used in this research study.
Thus, this chapter describes the instruments used, presents the characteristics of the
participants in the study, and identifies the variables. In addition, the measures used for
analyzing and reporting the data will be discussed.
Description of the Sample
Four suburban Maryland co-educational Catholic high schools for students in grades
nine through 12 provided the sample of teachers for this study. One hundred ninety-one
full-time classroom teachers completed the Teacher Stress Inventory. In addition to the
inventory data, individual interviews were conducted with five teachers from each school
in the sample (n=20) to gather qualitative data.
Each school serves primarily White, middle-class families and is privately funded.
Tuition for each of the schools is greater than $10,000 a year. Financial assistance is
available at all of the schools through either an Archdiocesan financial aid program or a
program within the school. Catholic schools are not subject to the same reporting
standards as public schools, so demographic information on the schools related
specifically to student race, parent-income level and education are not readily available.
However, empirical findings demonstrate a positive relationship between parents'
educational attainment and the likelihood of sending children to a religious or private
school (Coleman, Hoffer, and Kilgore, 1982; Lankford and Wycott, 1992; Long and

50

51
Toma, 1988). A description of each of the schools in the study follows, along with an
explanation of the teacher participants in the study.
School A
School A serves a population of 1,160 students with an average academic class size of
22. Its programs consist of College Preparatory, Honors, Advanced Placement and
Special Education support. English, Religion, Mathematics, Social Studies, Language,
Science, Fine Arts, Music, and Technology are the disciplines currently taught at the
school. The school employs 67 full-time classroom teachers, and one Chaplain serves the
school full-time as part of the school's Campus Ministry team but has no classroom
teaching responsibilities. The tuition for the 2007-2008 school year was $13,700- the
highest of the four schools. Sixty-one full-time teachers were in attendance at the
administration of the TSI. Fifty-seven teachers in attendance completed the survey,
yielding a return rate of 95%.
SchoolB
School B has an enrollment of 350 students and a faculty of 29 full-time classroom
teachers. The academic disciplines include: English, Foreign Language, Mathematics,
Religion, Science, Social Studies, Technology, and Business. Like School A, School B's
programs include college preparatory, honors, Advance Placement, and special education
support.

This school also includes a Campus Ministry headed by a nun of the order in

which the school was founded. The tuition rate for the 2007-2008 school year was
$10,550 along with an activity fee of $150. 24 full-time teachers were present on the date

52
the TSI was administered and 22 completed the inventory, yielding a return rate of
91.7%.
SchoolC
There are 1155 students in attendance at School C whose curriculum features college
preparatory courses as well as honors and Advanced Placement courses. The school
boasts a maximum class size of 28 with courses in English, Social Studies, Math,
Science, Religion, Foreign Language, and Fine Arts. In addition to the lay personnel,
there is one priest on staff whose duties do not include teaching in an academic
discipline. The tuition for the 2007-2008 academic year was $10,050. Sixty-one teachers
attended the faculty meeting at which the inventory was administered. Sixty teachers
completed the Teacher Stress Inventory, yielding a 98.4% return rate.
School D
Fifty-four full-time classroom teachers educate 875 students in college preparatory,
honors, and Advanced Placement programs at School D. Academic disciplines include
English, Math, Religion, Science, Social Studies, Foreign Language, and Fine Arts. The
tuition for the 2007-2008 school year was $10,650 with additional fees for technology
($600) and other activity fees ($100). Fifty-three'of the teachers were present at the
faculty meeting during which the inventory was administered. All but one elected to
complete the inventory, yielding a return rate of 98%.
In total, 199 Catholic high school teachers attended faculty meeting at which the
Teacher Stress Inventory was administered at their respective school. The inventories for
191 of these teachers were usable, which yielded a total return rate of 96%.

53
The Questionnaire
The Teacher Stress Inventory (TSI) (Fimian, 1988) is an instrument that assesses the
experience of teachers related to stress. Permission to use the inventory for research has
been granted to all researchers by Dr. Fimian, the inventory creator. Designed to
measure stress levels in teachers, Fimian's current version of the TSI consists of 49 items
that categorize specific information on 10 separate domains of teacher stress, which are
then separated into five potential sources of stress and five manifestations of stress.
For the purposes of the present study, the Teacher Stress Inventory was adapted by the
researcher to include 12 domains of stress, instead of Fimian's 10. A complete copy of
the questionnaire employed can be found in Appendix A. The stress source factors were
categorized and itemized as follows: eight items on Time Management; six items on
Work-Related Stressors; five items on Professional Distress; six items on Discipline and
Motivation; four items on Professional Investment; six items on Relationships with
Parents (new scale); and four items on Vocation (new scale).
The five perceived stress manifestation factors were itemized and categorized as
follows: six items on Emotional Manifestations; five items on Fatigue Manifestations;
three items on Cardiovascular Manifestations; four items on Gastrointestinal
Manifestations; and five items on Behavioral Manifestations.

54
Table 1
Domains of Stress

Time Management
Work-Related Stressors
Professional Distress
Discipline and Motivation
Professional Investment
Relationships with Parents
Vocation
Emotional Manifestations
Fatigue Manifestations
Cardiovascular Manifestations
Gastrointestinal Manifestations
Behavioral Manifestations

Item Numbers
1-8
9-14
15-19
20-25
26-29
30-35
36-39
40-44
45-49
50-52
53-55
56-59

Definitions of Stress Source Factors

The Time Management domain focuses on teachers' beliefs regarding whether they
have enough time to meet the demands placed upon them. Teachers who score high in
this domain may obligate themselves to too many tasks, become irritated when they think
others are performing too slowly, believe they don't have enough time to relax during the
workday, and feel they are performing a precarious balancing act by doing more than one
task at a time. In addition, they may find their minds drifting during conversation, feel
uncomfortable wasting time, and may tend to hurry their speech (Dussalt, 1997; Fimian
& Fastenau, 1990; Golaszweski, 1984; Vance, Miller, Humphreys, and Reynolds, 1988).
Example:
Survey Item No. 4
I have little time to relax/enjoy the day.

1 2

55
The six items on Work-Related Stressors identify events particular to the
environment that are stressors for teachers. Such events include not having enough time
to prepare for classes, having too much administrative paperwork to complete, and
simply having too much work to do. Additionally, high scorers in this domain believe
the pace of the school day is too fast, that their classes or caseloads are too large, and
those priorities personal to them are forsaken for the demands of the job (Dussalt, 1997;
Fimian & Fastenau, 1990; Golaszweski, 1984; Vance, Miller, Humphreys, and Reynolds,
1989).
Example:
Survey Item No. 9
There is little time to prepare for my lessons/responsibilities.

1 2

3 4 5

Professional Distress addresses the degree to which teachers consider themselves to be

professionals who are treated as such. Teachers who score high in this category do not
believe they have opportunities for advancement in their career, believe they are not
moving ahead in their occupation as quickly as they would like, long for more respect
and recognition, and believe they do not receive an appropriate salary for their work
(Dussalt, 1997; Fimian & Fastenau, 1990; Golaszweski, 1984; Vance, Miller,
Humphreys, and Reynolds, 1989).
Example:
Survey Item No. 18
I receive an inadequate salary for the work I do.

1 2

Discipline and Motivation speaks to aspects of teacher-student relationships. Teachers

who score high on the discipline aspects of this domain are bothered by discipline
problems in the classroom, by having to continually supervise student behavior, by

56
insufficient discipline plans in their schools, and the belief that their authority is not
respected by the students and administrators. High scores in this category typify
individuals who feel frustrated when teaching students who might perform better if they
tried harder and students who are unmotivated (Dussalt, 1997; Fimian & Fastenau, 1990;
Golaszweski, 1984; Vance, Miller, Humphreys, and Reynolds, 1989).
Example:
Survey Item No. 20
I feel frustrated because of discipline problems in my classroom.

1 2

3 4

Professional Investment refers to the feelings of isolation teachers may encounter in

their profession. Teachers who score high in this category believe they lack control over
aspects of their job, including classroom and school matters. They think they do not have
the forum to voice personal opinions, nor are those opinions valued (Dussalt, 1997;
Fimian & Fastenau, 1990; Golaszweski, 1984; Vance, Miller, Humphreys, and Reynolds,
1989).
Example:
Survey Item No. 26
My personal opinions are not sufficiently aired.

1 2

The Relationships with Parents domain addresses the interactions teachers may
encounter with parents. Teachers who score high in this domain believe parents are
overly critical of them and do not respect their authority. In addition, these individuals
believe parents demand too much of their time and attention. This subscale is not part of
the original version of the TSI, but instead was created by the researcher based on
information gathered from individual interviews with full-time classroom teachers.
During these one-on-one interviews, eight teachers who work in schools comparable to

57
those to be included in the study were asked to identify and explain their greatest source
of frustration in dealing with parents. From the information provided by these teachers,
six areas of concern emerged. Based on those areas of concern, the researcher wrote and
pre-tested six items under the Relationships with Parents domain.
Example:
Survey Item No. 31
I feel frustrated when parents do not respect my authority.

1 2

Items in the Vocation domain, created by the researcher, relate to the distinctive
features of teaching in a Catholic school. In addition to the traditional academics,
Catholic high school teachers are part of a ministry which includes evangelization in the
Catholic faith in both word and example. Individuals who score high on this domain do
not feel prepared in transmitting the Catholic faith to their students and believe they lack
professional activities to further themselves in the faith. In addition, the ministry aspect
of their occupation stresses these teachers, and they do not feel they have the support
necessary to fulfill their vocation as Catholic school teachers.
After a literature review on the mission of the Catholic school teacher, the researcher
wrote the items. Like the Relationships with Parents subscale, this one too was pre-tested
at the start of the study. Specific information regarding the validity and reliability of the
TSI with the additional researcher-created subscales may be found under the
corresponding sections in this chapter.
Example:
Survey Item No. 38
I lack professional opportunities to further my faith.

1 2

58
Definitions of Stress Manifestation Factors
The Emotional Manifestations subscale describes teachers' emotional responses to
stress. High scores in this area may depict insecurity, vulnerability, inability to cope,
depression, and anxiety. It is also important to note that emotional manifestations may
often foreshadow behavioral manifestations and as such should not be considered totally
distinct (Fimian & Fastenau, 1990).
Example:
Survey Item No. 44
I respond to stress by feeling anxious.

1 2

The Fatigue Manifestations category identifies stress-related fatigue difficulties.

High-scores in this area may experience physical exhaustion, feelings of fatigue in a short
period of time, or feel physically weak. These individuals may also sleep more than
usual and procrastinate.
Example:
Survey Item No. 46
I respond to stress by procrastinating.

1 2

Cardiovascular Manifestations refer to varying cardiovascular problems linked with

stress. These problems may include rapid or shallow breathing, heart-pounding or racing,
and high blood pressure.
Example:
Survey Item No. 51
I respond to stress with feelings of heart pounding or racing.

1 2

Gastrointestinal Manifestations consist of stomach disorders which individuals under

stress may endure. Such disorders include long-lasting stomach aches, cramping of the
stomach, and stomach acid (Fimian & Fastenau, 1990).

59
Example:
Survey Item No. 55
I respond to stress with stomach acid.

1 2

The final subscale, Behavioral Manifestations, depicts the negative ways in which
teachers respond to stress in the workplace. Individuals who score high in this area may
use prescription or over-the-counter drugs, alcohol, or may unnecessarily call in sick to
their place of employment (Fimian & Fastenau, 1990).
Example:
Survey Item No. 56
I respond to stress by using over-the-counter drugs.

1 2

The perceived strength of the stressors and the frequency with which they occur are
measured for each of the above factors. Using a five-point Likert scale format, the
respondent is asked to reply to each item by circling the number which best approximates
the degree to which they experience each item. The five possible responses for each item
are: 1= No Strength; not noticeable; not applicable; 2= Medium Strength; barely
noticeable; 3= Mediate Strength; moderately noticeable; 4= Great Strength; very
noticeable; 5= Major Strength; extremely noticeable.
The inventory also includes an optional section containing demographic items. Some
items have been added to this section so as to gather additional information. The
demographic information obtained was evaluated as descriptive statistics, including
mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and variance and used to depict the sample.
Reliability of the Questionnaire
The reliability of the TSI was ascertained through four methods: (a) internal
consistency, (b) test-retest, (c) split-half, and (d) alternate forms. Cronbach's Alpha

60
statistic can be used to estimate the reliability of data when two or more comparable
scores per subject are available (Wiersma, 2000). The question answered by this
particular type of testing is how consistent scores were overall. The alpha coefficients for
the subscale factors of the TSI ranged from .75 (Professional Investment) to .88
(Gastronomic Manifestations) for a combined sample of 3,401 regular educators and
special educators. The hypothesis of the alpha reliability testing is that if two scores are
consistent, there is little measurement error, thus the scores are accurate reflections- that
is to say, they consistently measure the construct intended. The alpha reliability rating
for the entire TSI for this combined sample was .93.
Four small samples were used for the test-retest and scores were measured at two
hours, one day, one week and two weeks. The results were statistically significant and
correlations for the two-hour to two-week samples ranged from .42 to .99 for subscales
and .67 to .99 for the total stress scores (p=.001) (Fimian, 1988).
In split-half reliability, all items that claim to measure the same construct are divided
into two sets. The entire instrument is given to a sample of people and the total score
calculated for each randomly divided half. If the scale is perfectly reliable, the two
halves would be perfectly correlated, (i.e. r=l). Fimian reported a split-half reliability
estimate for his sample of 3,478 between .79 and .98 (Fimian, 1988).
Fimian's alternate form of reliability included splitting the initial 49-item inventory
into odd-numbered items (Form A) and even-numbered items (Form B). Two groups of
96 North Carolina special education teachers were surveyed using these forms in 1985.
Alternate forms reliability estimates ranged from .76 to .90 (Fimian, 1988).

61
In order to assess the reliability of the Relationship with Parents and Vocation
subscales, five Catholic school teachers who were not part of the target population were
solicited to act as respondents in order to assess the reliability of the subscales. Each of
these individuals had at least five years' experience teaching in a Catholic school. Each
was invited to complete the subscale as if they were real respondents and encouraged to
ask questions as they were completing it. It was pre-determined that any questions asked
about items on the researcher-created subscales would indicate that the item needs to be
(a) reworded or (b) eliminated. The researcher remained in the room to answer any
questions posed. None of the respondents posed any questions, so each item remained as
originally written.
To evaluate the reliability of the final survey in its entirety, the test-retest method was
utilized. Ten Catholic school teachers who were not part of the target population were
asked to take the TSI in its final form. The same group of teachers was then administered
the same instrument after a one-month waiting period. The degree to which the two
administrations were in agreement was considered the measure of the reliability of the
instrument. The scores were entered into SPSS, and the correlation was found to be
significant at the 0.01 level (r= .841) indicating a reliable instrument.
Validity of the Questionnaire
The content validity of Fimian's Teacher Stress Inventory was evaluated by an
"expert" panel over a five-year period. Fimian defined an expert as, "one who was
knowledgeable about teacher stress and burnout." Specifically, each of the experts on the
panel had (a) written at least one stress article, monograph or book; (b) conducted

62
quantitative, qualitative, and/or a combination of stress research; and/or (c) lead stress
management workshops for practitioners (Fimian, 1988). Through the cross-sectional
survey design, each expert was surveyed once a year for four consecutive years. Overall,
the reliability estimates were higher for the stress sources than the stress manifestations,
signifying slightly more agreement among the experts as to the causes of teacher stress
than on the manifestations of teacher stress. The total TSI had an inter-rater reliability
rating of .82 (Fimian, 1988).
The convergent validity of a construct is the degree to which that construct is similar
to other instruments which purport to measure the same construct. The convergent
validity of the TSI was also established by Fimian in 1988. First, each subject's
(teacher's) score was correlated with ratings made by someone who knows the subject
well, be it a coworker, teacher, aide, husband, wife, or friend. This someone was termed
the subject's "significant other" and asked to rate the subject's stress level based on their
verbal, nonverbal, and observational interactions with the teachers, using the TSI. The
significant others' ratings were significantly related to those of the subjects' for each of
the subscales (range= .46 to .69; p= .001). Additionally, the cross-rater correlations for
Total Stress Scores were statistically significant at .65 (p= .001).
Second, teachers' scores were correlated with personal characteristics such as age and
gender; however, a significant relationship was not determined. Pearson r analyses were
utilized to correlate a cross-sex sample, with a reported correlation of .06 (p= .001) with a
sample of 3,291 for personal characteristics and a correlation of .13 (p= .001) for a
sample of 2,731. Numbers such as these, while statistically significant, imply that the

63
relationship is weak at best. The third and final means with which Fimian established
convergent validity was by correlating total TSI scores with other psychological,
physiological, and organizational constructs associated with evaluating stress.
It was hypothesized that stress experienced by teachers would be correlated to their
anxiety levels; the more anxiety a teacher experienced, the higher the level of stress. To
test this theory, the TSI was used in combination with the State-Trait Anxiety Scale
(Spielberger, 1973) in three separate Georgia samples (n= 39, 39, and 10). The Total
Stress Score was indeed found to be related to teachers' anxiety levels with the following
results: rs= .07 (/?=trend), r= .49 (p= .001), and .87 (p= .05) (Fimian, 1988).
It has also been theorized in stress research that role conflict may be related to teacher
stress. In a number of studies, the Role Questionnaire (Schwab, 1980) was used in
combination with the TSI to determine if such a correlation existed. The following
findings resulted: r= .80 (n= 266;p= .01); r= .61 (n= 73,/?=.001); and .36 (n= 28;/?=
trend). It appears that those teachers who experienced the most role conflict in relation to
their occupation also experienced the most stress (Fimian, 1988).
Another construct used in combination with the TSI to establish convergent validity
was the Tedium Measure, developed by Pines, Aronson, and Kafry (1981). Tedium was
found to be significantly related to the burnout construct created by Maslach and Jackson
(1981), so it is certainly plausible that tedium would also be significantly related to
teacher stress. In a sub sample drawn from 266 North Carolina teachers, 22 respondents
completed both the TSI and the Tedium measure. The data reported demonstrated that
the Total Stress Score of the TSI was significantly related to the Tedium Measure

64
subscales of Physical Exhaustion {r=.ll,p= .001), Emotional Exhaustion (r= .80, p=
.001), and Mental Exhaustion (r =.78,_p= .001), as well as the Total Tedium Score (r
=.83,j?=001).
To verify the content validity of the Relationship with Parents and the Vocation
subscales, each of the Catholic school teacher respondents who were part of the reliability
testing sample for the subscales was asked if the items and response categories accurately
represent his or her general perceptions of teacher stress. Each of the respondents
answered yes to every question, so no further changes to the instrumentation were made.
Research Design
A mixed-methods design was used for this study (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003). The
quantitative portion utilized a questionnaire to examine the teacher stress in Catholic coeducational high schools and determine if differences existed in the sources and
manifestations of stress, as well as in the Total Stress Scores among the four different
schools. Within the quantitative design, the school in which the teacher is employed
(School A, School B, School C, or School D) served as the independent variable, while
the dependent variables were the sources of teacher stress, the significance of the Total
Stress score, and the manifestations of teacher stress. In order to isolate the sources and
manifestations stress variables, the schools in the sample were matched as closely as
possible in terms of demographics and population.
The qualitative method employed in the study was the interview. One of the
objectives of the interview was to gather additional, more specific information regarding
the sources and manifestations of stress. Additional aims included delving more deeply

65
into the relationships these teachers have with parents, uncovering how these teachers
cope with stress, exploring the teachers' perceptions about the vocational aspects of their
occupation and investigating what suggestions teachers have for how they may be better
supported in their occupation.
Research Plan
In initiating the study, the researcher first obtained permission from the principals of
each school to survey and interview its teachers. To accomplish this, letters of
introduction were first sent to the principals or presidents of each school. A copy of this
letter can be found under Appendix B. In two cases, follow-up phone calls were made to
garner authorization to proceed with the survey. In the other two cases, no follow-up
calls were necessary as the principal or president initiated contact and expressed interest
in participating. Following IRB approval, data collection began in the Spring of 2008.
Two informed consent forms were created for this study. The first was provided to
the respondents at the administration of the inventory to describe the use of the inventory.
Those individuals who participated in an interview were asked to sign an additional
informed consent document. Both informed consent documents were approved by the
IRB at Catholic University of America, and both explained that the information being
gathered was part of a research study for the Catholic University of America, and that
compliance in completing the inventory and participating in the interview thereby gives
permission to the researcher to use this information for the purpose of the study.
Furthermore, the informed consent documents guaranteed anonymity with respect to both
the TSI and the interviews. Appendices C and D contain the consent form utilized.

66
Administering the TSI in the work environment was thought to be the optimal method
of collecting this data, as it required the least amount of obligation on the teachers. This
proved to be acceptable to the principals of each school, so the inventories were
distributed to the participants during a staff meeting at each school. Two of these
meetings took place at the end of the school day, while two took place during a
professional day.
The title of the inventory read, Teacher Inventory and participants were asked to
complete the survey without discussion. Directions for completing the inventory were
included on the form, and each administration of the instrument took no longer than 35
minutes, including the explanation of the procedure and collection of the surveys.
The surveys were distributed in envelopes marked with a number. After determining
the total number of full-time teachers at each school, a table of random numbers was used
to select ten numbers from the total number of teachers from each school. A star was
then placed on the envelopes that corresponded to the randomly selected numbers. At
each administration, individuals with a star on his/her envelope were asked to write his or
her email address and phone number on a piece of paper provided so that the researcher
might contact them to schedule an interview. After each administration of the survey, the
first five randomly selected individuals were contacted via email and asked to provide
several times convenient to them when they would be willing to participate in an
interview. If after two emails no return response was forthcoming, or the participant
declined the interview, the next randomly selected individual for that school would be
contacted, and so forth, until five interviews for each school had been scheduled. Only

one of the randomly selected individuals declined the interview, and two individuals did
not respond to the emails.
The researcher conducted all of the interviews at the respondent's place of
employment less than two weeks after he or she had completed the inventory. The
descriptive data of the interviews was gathered by means of a general interview-guide
approach according to guidelines suggested by Lofland and Lofland (1995). Appendix E
contains the interview guide the used for this study.
The interview was focused around the topic of stress, including questions regarding
the teachers' interactions with parents (especially those interactions which relate to overinvolved parents) and teachers' perceptions of vocational aspects of their occupation as
potential sources of stress. With regard to the participants' responses, Lofland and
Lofland (1995) advise, "As the informants speak, you should be attentive to what is
mentioned and also to what is not mentioned but which you feel might be important" (p.
82). To clarify or explore a respondent's statement more fully, probes were utilized.
The interviews were tape-recorded to better ensure the accuracy in reporting
responses, and subsequently transcribed by the researcher. The questions and the probes
employed for the interview can be found in an Interview Guide under Appendix E.
Plan for Analysis
This project has a quantitative drive guided by the questionnaire and its interpretation.
However, interviews augmented the data provided by the results of the TSI and provided
additional qualitative data. Inferential statistical procedures were used to complete the
quantitative analysis and test the study's hypotheses and are described in subsequent

68
sections. Determination as to the significance of the findings was made using a .05 alpha
level. Descriptive statistics were used to examine the demographic variables in terms of
measures of distribution, central tendency and dispersion.
The demographic portion of the survey was used to describe the teacher participants in
the sample and descriptive statistics were used to accomplish this task. The demographic
variables included: age, sex, whether religious or lay, number of years taught, and the
most advanced degree held.
Analysis and coding of the qualitative data gathered from the interviews was
performed according to Lofland and Lofiand's (1995) analysis strategies. Under this
method, coding begins the process of categorization and sorting data, and becomes the
primary means of developing analysis. Analytic coding, which Lofland and Lofland
describe as emergent and experimental, was best suited for this study.
Especially in the early stages of a project, the worker is not particularly
concerned about the eventual viability of a code or whether it will
ultimately make any kind of sense. The aim, instead, is to generate as
many separate codes (and files) as one is prompted to and about which
one can feel reasonably excited (p. 190).
This process of coding consists of two stages: initial coding and focused coding.
During the initial stage of coding, the transcriptions were read and re-read and codes
formulated using the emergent induction of analysis (Lofland and Lofland, 1995) where
initial codes are "numerous and varied." During this initial phase of coding, the
participants' statements were coded, sometimes using several code categories per
response.

69
Examples:
Codes

Perception that teachers in

their school are stressed
Awareness of additional
tasks (besides teaching)
contributing to stress

Statements
A female History teacher in her mid 30s responds to the
question, "Overall, do you believe teachers in your school are
stressed? "
"Yes, I do think teachers here are stressed. I think some of us
are a little more stressed than others. A lot of people take on
more than they can handle, not factoring in how many hours
participating in a club or an activity requires or what your
children may demand of you at home. I try to be very aware
of that because my first priority needs to be home."

Home-life as first priority

A Religion teacher in his 30s responds to the question, "Can

you describe how the administration does or does not support
you adequately in general"
Opinion that
administrators are not
unified in support of what
the teacher perceives as
Catholic mission
Some administrators
supportive of Faith-based
activities
Perception that some
administrators feel Faithbased activities are
interruptions to school
priorities
Opinion that
administration makes too
many exceptions
View that administration
lax in enforcing rules
Perception that
administration may make
exceptions to rules if parent
complains

"In general, it's hard to say for the administration as a whole.

I think one of the issues we're dealing with here is that we
have administrators on very different pages and the school
hasn't worked that out yet. From some administrators I
receive lots of support in terms of understanding the Catholic
mission of the school and sort of the religious component of
that, so they understand that students are going to miss school
for a retreat, and they can't get too bent out of shape when
students are missing class because of that because that is
critical to what the school is doing. Other administrators
simply see that as an interruption and an interference with the
academics, and they're concerned about the school's scores
and SAT scores and how we look in comparison to other
schools. Any sort of interruption from that for a retreat or
something else is just wasted time or an interruption, so it
really depends on which administrator you're talking about. I
think in general a weak point of the administration as a whole
is exceptions are made. I think the administration here is
particularly weak in enforcing rules. We have lots of rules on
paper, but when push comes to shove, and a parent complains,
they let the parent get their way."

70
Forty separate codes were originally used to organize the statements. Some areas,
such as what was originally coded "Perception that teachers in their school are stressed,"
had a very large number of instances in it. Therefore, the instances were examined more
closely for variances in the responses to make a more in-depth analysis, in accordance to
Lofland and Lofland's suggestions. When the variances were identified, subdivisions in
the code were created. For instance, within the "perception that teachers in their school
are stressed" code, the sub-code of "perception that some teachers are more stressed than
others" emerged. At the end of the initial stage of coding, the 40 original codes had been
narrowed to 21 codes, with three of the codes containing subdivisions.
During the focused coding period, some of the categories identified during the initial
phase were expanded, while others were eliminated. Whereas initially the codes were
grouped according to the questions asked of respondents, now prevailing topics became
apparent. These topics were then organized in a word-processing document and
eventually a chart was created to organize the topics and codes, which can be found under
Appendix F. Findings derived from the interviews are presented in narrative form with
specific quotations used to provide substantiation for interpretations; however, no quote
was attributed to any participant.
Although the researcher conducted the interviews, bias was not a significant factor
since the respondents' own words were used instead of relying solely on her impression
of the participants' responses. Furthermore, because an interview guide was employed,
questions were posed to respondents in the same manner, further reducing any undue
researcher influence.

71
Hypotheses to Be Tested
1. Time Management, Work-Related Stressors, Professional Distress, and
Relationships with Parents are the greatest sources of stress for Catholic high
school teachers.
2. The greatest manifestations of stress reported by Catholic high school teachers
will include Emotional, Fatigue, and Behavioral Manifestations.
3. There are no statistically significant differences among the schools with regards to
the teachers' self-reported perceptions of the sources of teacher stress.
4. There are no statistically significant differences among the schools with regards to
teachers' self-reported perceptions of the manifestations of teacher stress.
5. There are no statistically significant differences among the schools with regards to
the Total Stress Score.
Scoring of the Instrument and Tests of the Hypotheses
The TSI was scored first by subscale. The numeric responses for each item within a
subscale were summed, and then divided by the total number of items in that subscale.
Any unrated item was scored as a 1. The resulting number was considered the score for
that subscale. Then the mean scores across all teachers for each subscale were computed
to determine the influence of each subscale as either a source or manifestation of teacher
stress. To test the first and second hypotheses, the influence of the resulting score was
determined by using Fimian's (1988) method for which significance levels are assigned
as follows: Significant= 3.28 or above; Moderate= 2.01 to 3.27; Weak= 2.00 or below.

72
Thus the most significant sources of stress and manifestations of stress had the highest
significance score.
In testing the third hypothesis, the independent variable was the school, whether A, B,
C, or D, and the dependent variables were the teachers' self-reported perceptions of the
causes of teacher stress: Time Management, Work-Related Stressors, Professional
Distress, Discipline and Motivation, Professional Investment, Relationships with Parents,
and Vocation. To test this hypothesis, the scores for each subscale across all teachers in
the same school were entered into an SPSS program. A one-way multivariate analysis of
variance was conducted to examine if, in fact, a difference occurs and if the difference
was statistically significant. If there was a significant difference, univariate F tests were
conducted in order to examine one dependent variable at a time for the purpose of finding
which variable(s) contributed to the significance of the difference.
Within the paradigm of the fourth hypothesis, the independent variable again was the
school, whether A, B, C, or D while the dependent variables were the teachers' selfreported perceptions of the manifestations of teacher stress: Emotional, Fatigue,
Cardiovascular, Gastrointestinal, and Behavioral. Using the scores for each subscale
across all teachers within the same school, a one-way multivariate analysis of variance
was computed in SPSS to determine if the perceptions of manifestations had a
statistically significant difference. If a significant difference was evident, univariate F
tests were performed to investigate which variable(s) contributed to the significance of
the difference.

73
The independent variables involved with evaluating the final hypothesis were the
schools (A, B, C, or D); the dependent variable the Total Stress score. To obtain a score
for Total Stress, the scores for each subscale were added. The sum was then divided by
12, the total number of TSI subscales for each inventory. Following this, a Total Stress
Score for each school in the sample was computed by finding the mean of the Total
Stress Scores across all teachers in the school. In testing this hypothesis, a one-way
analysis of variance was run to compare the schools' Total Stress Scores.

CHAPTER FOUR
REVIEW OF THE FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to examine the self-reported perceptions of the sources
and manifestations of teacher stress in four area Catholic high schools. This chapter
presents the findings of the data gathered from the interviews and the results of the
statistical analyses conducted to test the study's hypotheses. The findings section for the
quantitative portion of the study has two separate components. The first section uses the
data provided by the demographic portion of the survey to provide a description of the
participants, while the second section presents the results of the statistical analysis used to
test this study's hypotheses. The findings from the qualitative portion of the study are
organized into seven overarching topics: (1) sources of stress, (2) overall perception of
stress in their school, (3) coping with stress, (4) interactions with parents, (5) mission, (6)
vocation, and (7) administration.
FINDINGS FROM THE INVENTORY
Description of Subjects
The 191 teachers who completed the inventory provided personal characteristic
information in seven areas including gender, age, and race. In addition, respondents were
asked to indicate whether he/she was Catholic or not, whether he/she was religious or lay,
how many years he/she has been teaching, and the highest degree he/she held. Cross
tabulations for each demographic variable by school were also computed and have been
appended.

74

75
The first personal characteristic teachers were asked to provide on the inventory was
their gender. Respondents were split almost evenly between the genders. Of the 191
teachers who completed the inventory, 98 were male (51.3%) and 93 were female
(48.7%).
Respondents were next asked to indicate their age, and 164 subjects did so. The mean
for age across the sample was 41 years old with a standard deviation of 13.90 years.
Within SPSS the ages were organized into six age brackets, and one additional category
was added for those who didn't report their age. Those aged 20-30 comprised the largest
age bracket of the sample, with a count of 54 (28.3%).
Respondents were then prompted to provide their race on the inventory. One hundred
sixty-five (86.4%) of the subjects described themselves as Caucasian. Three other races
were specified: 9 (4.7%) African-Americans, 8 (4.2%) Hispanics, and 1 (0.5%) Filipino.
The next personal characteristic asked of subjects was, "Are you Catholic?"
Responses were categorized into yes, no, or didn't report. One hundred thirty-five
(70.7%) of the subjects denoted that they were Catholic, while 51 (26.7%) described
themselves as non-Catholics. Five (2.6%) of the subjects chose not to respond.
One hundred eighty-five (96.9%) of the teachers indicated he/she was lay as opposed
to religious. Three individuals, one at School A and two at School C described
themselves as religious rather than lay. Three individuals omitted the question.
The next personal question posed of respondents was, "How many years have you
been teaching?" One hundred eighty-seven teachers responded to this question and the
mean across the sample was 14.77 years with a standard deviation of 12.81 years. As

76
with age, the scope for number of years teaching was considerable. In SPSS, the
responses were separated into eight categories. Given that the largest age composition
was 20-30 year-olds, it was not surprising that 33.5% (64) of the respondents had been
teaching for five years or less.
The last personal characteristic examined was the highest academic degree each of the
respondents held. Instead of reporting only a Bachelor's Degree, several of the
respondents (3) reported holding a Bachelor's Degree plus 30 credits. This was also true
of those holding a Master's- 5 reported holding a Master's Degree plus 30 credits. For
ease of reporting, the highest degree held results were categorized into five groups:
Bachelor's Degree (Bachelor's), Master's Degree (Master's), Doctor of Education
(Ed.D.), Juris Doctor (J.D.), and Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.). The majority of subjects
fell into two main categories. 82 (42.9%) of the subjects' highest degree held was a
Bachelor's Degree, and 96 (50.3%) of the subjects' highest degree held was a Master's
Degree.
Testing of the Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were tested using the data from the inventories:
1. Time Management, Work-Related Stressors, Professional Distress, and
Relationships with Parents are the greatest sources of stress for Catholic high
school teachers.
2. The greatest manifestations of stress reported by Catholic high school teachers will
include Emotional, Fatigue, and Behavioral Manifestations.

3. There are no statistically significant differences among the schools with regards to
the teachers' self-reported perceptions of the sources of teacher stress.
4. There are no statistically significant differences among the schools with regards to
teachers' self-reported perceptions of the manifestations of teacher stress.
5. There are no statistically significant differences among the schools with regards to
the Total Stress Score.
To test the hypotheses, all inventories were first scored by subscale. This was
performed in Excel according to Fimian's method in which the numeric responses for
each item within a subscale were summed, and then divided by the total number of items
in that subscale. The resulting number is considered the score for that subscale.
Consequently, each subject in the study had 13 scores, one for each stress source factor
one for each stress manifestation factor, and one score for Total Stress.
Hypothesis One
Time Management, Work-Related Stressors, Professional Distress, and
Relationships with Parents are the greatest sources of stress for Catholic high
school teachers.
To evaluate the first hypothesis, the mean scores across all teachers for each stress
source factor were computed to determine the influence of each subscale. The range of
possible scores was 1-5, and the influence of the resulting score was determined by using
Fimian's (1988) method for which significance levels are assigned as follows:
Significant= 3.28 or above; Moderate= 2.01 to 3.27; Weak= 2.00 or below. Table 2
contains the findings for the stress source factors.

78
Table 2
Scores for Stress Source Factors
Sources of Stress

Score*

Time Management

3.41

Standard
Deviation
.74

Influence
Significant

Work-Related Stressors

3.28

.79

Significant

Professional Distress

3.00

.93

Moderate

Discipline and
Motivation
Professional Investment

2.79

.90

Moderate

2.66

1.05

Moderate

Relationships with
Parents
Vocation

2.43

.94

Moderate

1.98

.89

Weak

*Mean Scores
Only two factors were found to be "Significant" sources of stress for these teachers:
Time Management and Work-Related Stressors. The subscale score for Time
Management was calculated to be 3.41 (SD=,74). Scores ranged from 1.0 to 4.75 in this
domain. Thus, Time Management is the greatest source of stress for Catholic high school
teachers.
The second factor examined was Work-Related Stressors. The score for this domain
was 3.28 (SZ>=.79) with actual scores ranging from 1 to 4.83. As such, this was the
second highest source of stress for this group and the second of the two considered
"Significant".

79
The score for Professional Distress was 3.0 (SD=.93), with actual scores in this area
ranging from 1 to 5. Therefore Professional Distress, although the third highest source of
stress for these teachers, is only actually a "Moderate" stressor.
Like Professional Distress, Discipline and Motivation was also found to be a Moderate
source of stress. The mean for this domain was 2.79 with a standard deviation of .90.
Participant scores in this area ranged from 1 to 4.67.
Professional Investment was also a "Moderate" stressor for teachers in the sample.
The mean for this factor was 2.66 (SZ>=1.05). Actual scores ranged from 1 to 5.
Relationships with Parents proved to be only a "Weak" source of stress for Catholic
high school teachers. This domain's mean was 2.43 (SZ>=.94) and scores ranged from 1
to 5.
The last stress source factor examined was Vocation which also had only a "Weak"
significance level for this sample. The average score for this factor was 1.98 (SZ>=. 89)
with actual scores ranging from 1 to 4.83. Vocation was found to be the weakest source
of stress in this study.
With respect to the first hypothesis, the greatest sources of stress for Catholic high
school teachers were Time Management, Work-Related Stressors, and Professional
Distress. However, according to Fimian's scale, only Time Management and WorkRelated Stressors were actually "Significant" sources of stress for this group.
Furthermore, Relationships with Parents was found to be only a "Weak" source of stress
for this group.

80
Hypothesis Two
The greatest manifestations of stress reported by Catholic high school teachers will
include Emotional, Fatigue, and Behavioral Manifestations.
In order to test the second hypothesis, the mean scores across all teachers for each
stress manifestation factor were computed. Possible scores ranged from 1-5 and the
influence of the resulting score was determined by using Fimian's (1988) method for
which significance levels are assigned as follows: Significant 3.28 or above; Moderate=
2.01 to 3.27; Weak= 2.00 or below. Table 3 contains the scores for each of the stress
manifestation factors.
Table 3
Scores for Stress Manifestation Factors
Manifestations of
Stress
Emotional
Manifestations
Fatigue
Manifestations
Cardiovascular
Manifestations
Gastrointestinal
Manifestations
Behavioral
Manifestations
*Mean Scores

Score*

Influence

2.11

Moderate

Standard
Deviation
.85

2.48

Moderate

.97

2.26

Weak

.95

1.73

Weak

.95

1.51

Weak

.84

None of the Manifestation Factors were found to be "Significant" manifestations of

stress for this sample. Fatigue Manifestations was found to be the greatest manifestation
of stress. This domain's mean was 2.48 (SD= .97), and actual scores ranged from 1 to 5.

81
Although this domain was determined to be the greatest manifestation factor, it still may
only be described as a "Moderate" factor according to Firman's scale.
The domain with the next highest score was Cardiovascular Manifestation. This
factor had an average score of 2.26 (SD=.95) with a range of 3.60. Emotional
Manifestations followed with a mean of 2.11 (SXK85) and scores ranging from 1 to 5.
Both of these scores indicate only "Moderate" influence as well.
Both Gastrointestinal and Behavioral Manifestations were calculated to be "Weak"
manifestation factors. Gastrointestinal Manifestation had the higher mean of the two,
1.73 (SD=.95) with a range of 4. The Behavioral Manifestation factor had a mean of 1.51
(SD=.%4) and a range of 4 as well.
Therefore, in appraising the second hypothesis, Fatigue Manifestations and
Emotional Manifestations were, in fact, two of the greatest manifestations of stress for
this sample, although both were only found to have "Moderate" significance levels.
Although Cardiovascular Manifestation was found to have only "Moderate" influence, it
was one of the greatest manifestation factors for the sample, though that factor was not
considered in the hypotheses. Behavioral Manifestation, which was hypothesized to be
one of the greatest manifestation factors, was determined to be the least significant factor
for this group.
Hypothesis Three
There are no statistically significant differences among the schools with regards to
the teachers' self-reported perceptions of the sources of teacher stress.

To evaluate the third hypothesis, descriptive statistics were acquired for each of the
dependent variables per school and are presented in the following table.
Table 4
Scores for Sources of Teacher Stress by School
Dependent Variable

School

Time Management

School A
SchoolB
SchoolC
SchoolD

Work-Related
Stressors

School A
SchoolB
SchoolC
SchoolD
School A
SchoolB
SchoolC
SchoolD
School A
School B
School C
School D
School A
SchoolB
SchoolC
School D
School A
SchoolB
School C
SchoolD
School A
SchoolB
SchoolC

Professional
Distress

Discipline and
Motivation

Professional
Investment

Relationships with
Parents

Vocation

SchoolD

Mean
3.53
3.41
3.39
3.31

Std.
Deviation
.73
.82
.66
.80

N
57
22
60
52

3.11
3.36
3.40
3.28
2.66
3.00
3.23
3.11
2.69
2.60
3.00
2.76
1.97
3.00
3.08
2.80
2.29
2.33
2.60
2.44
1.63
2.05
2.31
1.95

.87
.83
.64
.81
.87
1.00
.88
.95
.97
.91
.81
.91
.84
1.05
.91
1.04
1.10
.98
.86
.81
.77
.87
.99
.77

57
22
60
52
57
22
60
52
57
22
60
52
57
22
60
52
57
22
60
52
57
22
60
52

83
In order to test Hypothesis Three, a one-way multivariate analysis of variance was
performed in which the seven potential sources of teacher stress served as dependent
variables and the school (whether A, B, C, or D) served as the independent variable.
Table 5 depicts the findings for this analysis, while the complete analysis can be found in
Appendix H.
Table 5
Multivariate Analysis of Variance
Sources of Teacher Stress by School
Wilk's Lambda
.634

F
4.27

df
3/187

Sig.
.000*

*p<.05
The Wilk's Lambda of .634 was statistically significant, and the associated F ratio of
4.27 supported this significance with 3 and 187 degrees of freedom. This indicates that
some difference does exist among the schools with regards to the teachers' self-reported
perceptions of the sources of teacher stress. Because of this finding, the univariate F tests
for each of the seven sources of stress were interpreted to determine which sources
contributed to the significance of the difference. The results of this analysis are set forth
in Table 6.

84
Table 6
Univariate F Tests
Stress Source Factors
Dependent Variable
Time Management
Work-Related Stressors
Professional Distress
Discipline and Motivation
Professional Investment
Relationship with Parents
Vocation
*p< .05

df
3/187
3/187
3/187
3/187
3/187
3/187
3/187

F
.85
1.50
4.29
1.62
.47
1.13
6.30

Sig.
.467
.216
.006*
.187
.000*
.340
.000*

According to the analysis, the F values for Professional Distress, Professional

Investment, and Vocation are statistically significant at an alpha level of .05, F(3,87).
Therefore, these three sources of stress contribute to the significance of the difference.
Because the variances differed among the schools, a Games-Howell test was used to
examine the differences among the schools further.
According to the post-hoc test, at an alpha level of .05 School A separated itself from
the other schools in several ways. First, School A had significantly lower scores than
School C and School D for the domain of Professional Distress (M=2.66, SD=.87).
Within the domain of Professional Investment, School A (M=1.97, SZK84) scored
significantly lower than all of the other schools. Finally, with respect to the Vocation
domain, School A (M=1.63, SD=.ll) had significantly lower scores than School C.
The findings from the MANOVA and the subsequent F tests indicate that the four
Catholic high schools differed in the self-reported perceptions of the sources of teacher
stress. While no differences were found for Time Management, Work-Related Stressors,

85
Discipline and Motivation, and Relationship with Parents, specific differences were
found for Professional Distress, Professional Investment, and Vocation.
As a follow-up to the statistical analysis, stepwise regression was used to evaluate the
effect of several of the demographic variables on Professional Distress, Professional
Investment, and Vocation. Only small effects were found which accounted for no more
than 11% of the variance in any of the dependent variables. The findings from the
regression analysis can be found in Appendix I.
Hypothesis Four
There are no statistically significant differences among the schools with regards to
teachers' self-reported perceptions of the manifestations of teacher stress.
In testing this hypothesis, the teachers' perceptions of the manifestation of teacher
stress served as the dependent variables, while the type of school (A, B, C, or D) served
as the independent variable. The descriptive statistics for each dependent variable by
school are set forth in Table 7.

Table 7
Scores for Manifestations of Teacher Stress by School
Dependent Variable
Emotional
Manifestations

Fatigue
Manifestations

Cardiovascular
Manifestations

Gastrointestinal
Manifestations

Behavioral
Manifestations

School
School A
SchoolB
SchoolC
SchoolD
School A
SchoolB
SchoolC
SchoolD
School A
SchoolB
SchoolC
SchoolD
School A
School B
School C
School D
School A
SchoolB
SchoolC
SchoolD

Mean
2.33
1.78
2.16
1.95
2.53
2.12
2.48
2.59
2.00
2.34
2.34
2.42
1.64
1.64
1.63
2.00
1.34
1.50
1.48
1.72

Std.
Deviation
.97
.76
.75
.82
.92
.87
.98
1.05
1.03
.90
.86
.97
.96
.85
.86
1.05
.48
.73
.77
1.17

N
57
22
60
52
57
22
60
52
57
22
60
52
57
22
60
52
57
22
60
52

A multivariate analysis of variance was performed to see if there was a statistically

significant difference among the schools with regards to the manifestations of teacher
stress. Table 8 presents the findings from this analysis, and Appendix J contains the
complete results.

Table 8
Multivariate Analysis of Variance
Manifestations of Teacher Stress by School
F
2.18

df
3/187

Wilk's Lambda
.841
*p>.05

SigofF
.006*

At an alpha level of .05, the Wilk's Lambda of .841 and the associated F ratio of 2.18
are considered statistically significant, F(3,187). Therefore, the univariate F tests for
each of the five manifestations of teacher stress were interpreted. Findings from this
interpretation are listed in Table 9.
Table 9
Univariate F Tests
Stress Manifestation Factors
Dependent Variable
Emotional Manifestations
Fatigue Manifestations
Cardiovascular Manifestations
Gastrointestinal Manifestations
Behavioral Manifestations

df
3/187
3/187
3/187
3/187
3/187

F
3.15
1.29
2.15
1.88
1.94

Sig.
.026*
.278
.096
.134
.124

*p<.05
According to the findings, the Emotional Manifestations factor contributes to the
significance of the difference among the schools with regards to the manifestations of
stress. A Games-Howell test was conducted to examine the difference further; however,
no school appeared significantly different from one another according to the post-hoc
test.

88
A stepwise regression analysis was also performed to investigate the effects of the
demographic variables on the Manifestation factors. As Appendix K indicates, only
minor effects were found which accounted for less than 4% of the variance in the
Emotional Manifestation scores.
Hypothesis Five
There are no statistically significant differences among the schools with regards to
the Total Stress Score.
To calculate the Total Stress Score per subject, the scores for each subscale were added.
The sum was then divided by 12, the total number of TSI subscales for each inventory.
The resulting number is termed the Total Stress Score. Table 10 presents the descriptive
statistics for Total Stress by school.
Table 10
Total Stress by School
School
School A
SchoolB
SchoolC
SchoolD

Mean
2.31
2.42
2.59
2.53

Std. Deviation
.48
.58
.49
.63

N
57
22
60
52

The independent variables involved with evaluating Hypothesis Five were the schools
(A, B, C, or D); the dependent variable the Total Stress Score. A one-way analysis of
variance was run to compare the schools' Total Stress Scores. The findings from this
analysis are presented in Table 11, and Appendix L contains the complete results.

Table 11
Analysis of Variance
Total Stress by School
Dependent Variable
Total Stress
*p<.05

df
3/187

F
2.93

Sig.
.035*

Findings from the one-way analysis of variance indicate that differences do exist
among the schools with respect to the Total Stress Score, F(3,l 87)= 2.93, p<.05. Posthoc tests were examined to determine the pairs of schools whose means differed
significantly from each other. According to the tests, School A and School C differ from
each other. In terms of Total Stress, School A scored significantly lower than School C.
FINDINGS FROM THE INTERVIEW
Of the 20 participants in the interview portion of the study, seven were female and
thirteen were male. Four of the teachers were aged 20-25, three were aged 26-30, four
were aged 31-35, three were aged 36-40, one was aged 46-50, one was aged 51-55, one
was aged 56-60, two were aged 60-65, and one declined to specify his/her age. Four
English teachers, seven Religion teachers, three Social Studies teachers, two Foreign
Language teachers, two Fine Arts teachers, one Science teacher, and one Math teacher
took part in the interviews during the Spring of 2008. Overall, the sub-sample for the
qualitative portion of the study can be described as characteristic of the sample as a
whole.

Sources of Stress
The first finding from the interview data involves what Catholic high school teachers
perceive to be their greatest sources of stress. In interviews, the respondents were asked
to describe the most stressful parts of their occupation. Although the responses were
varied, three areas emerged as problematic for a number of teachers: lack of student
motivation, behavior problems in the classroom, and the volume of work combined with
limited time in which to complete it.
Lack of Student Motivation
Several teachers mentioned students who seemed unmotivated as the most stressful
part of their work. These teachers were frustrated by students who failed to complete the
work assigned to them. As one veteran teacher stated:
"I would say the most stressful part for me is having students in your class who are
completely unmotivated. So they don't do the homework, and then they're not good
at the tests because they haven't done the practice. They don't participate in class
because they don't know what we're doing. Some don't bring the book, don't have
the workbook and don't care."
One-fourth of the teachers interviewed found it nerve-racking to deal with students
who were unwilling to complete the work necessary to be academically successful. Such
work includes both class work and homework but because both are meant to prepare
students for tests and quizzes, which may comprise a larger portion of their grades, the
students' failure to complete the day-to-day assignments also impact those marks as well.

91
One teacher mentioned he finds it frustrating to have to repeat himself to students who
don't pay attention in class:
"You know what they need information-wise, but they blow you off. Then you are
ready to do the demonstration, and they have no idea what you're talking about
because they weren't paying attention that first time... That is very stressful because
you repeat yourself so many times."
The reluctance of students to do what is expected of them seemed to impact another area
which teachers cited as stressful- classroom behavior, which is further explained below.
Student Behavior
Student misbehavior and how to deal with misbehavior was named by four teachers as
the most stressful part of their occupation. Two teachers explained that it is often those
students who choose not to complete assignments who cause most of the discipline
problems in class. One veteran teacher stated, "I guess classroom discipline.. .is most
stressful. Students who don't take their work seriously and cause discipline problems in
class, I think, is probably the major stress I find in teaching."
Another facet of this area is that the teachers who experience stress because of student
misbehavior are further frustrated because of the ripple effect it seems to have on the
class as a whole. Two teachers mentioned that cell phone use in the classroom has
become a major problem of late. Though the use of cell phones is prohibited in the
classrooms at all of the schools, students often use text messaging to communicate with
others outside the school, even while in class. Indeed while visiting the school to
interview teachers, the researcher observed students talking on cell phones in the hallway

and using them in classrooms. One teacher described the act of taking the cell phone
away as potentially disruptive as well, for it brings increased attention to the student.
This issue of student misbehavior was further compounded for two teachers by what
they perceived to be confusion as to how discipline problems in the classroom should be
handled. Both of these teachers seemed uncomfortable disciplining students for
infractions; and because they were relatively new to their respective schools they didn't
always understand how best to enforce the rules.
The Volume of Work
The sheer volume of work teachers must complete and the belief that they do not have
enough time to complete these work tasks during the school day was the most frequently
cited greatest source of stress within this population. The teachers' comments about the
number of hours they work, the amount of work they must complete, and the amount of
personal time forsaken to complete the work appeared quite distressing for these teachers.
The following quotes exemplify the upset these teachers experience as a result of time
pressures and number of tasks to complete:
"There are very few individual tasks that are high-stress; it's just the accumulation of
everything that is high-stress. I have so many things

basically every day I have more

things than I could possibly accomplish."

"I would say the amount of work you have to take home is definitely one of the things
that's most stressful, just because with a lot of jobs at 5:00 you get to go home. You
don't have to worry about it until you come back the next morning. Teaching is not
really like that. You have papers to grade, planning to do, and it's an occupation where

93
you really get involved with the students and sometimes you're thinking about them
outside of school. There are so many things you have to do during the day."
"I would say the most stressful part for me is managing, planning and the intake and
the outtake portion. It's planning the week and then grading everything I get back. The
volume of paperwork, I would say, stresses me out the most."
Those teachers newer to the profession or newer to a school or subject spend a lot of
time planning because they do not have any previous lessons from which to draw, which
adds to their stress levels, as evidenced by the following quote:
"Especially the first year or two of teaching, there is just so much prep work to do that
you end up working, I'd say on average 10,11,12 hour-days... you get the summers
off, but there is still a lot to do. I'd say that's stressful."
Especially stressful for some was the amount of time outside of school they spend on
occupational tasks. For example, several respondents spoke of spending their lunch
hours in addition to hours either before or after school on such tasks. One English
teacher phrased it in this manner:
"I'm an English teacher, and we have a lot of essays and that kind of thing. They're
just very, very time consuming, and it's almost entirely outside of the school day, so
that takes a lot of time away from what I would consider personal time."
In addition to the time outside of school teachers spend doing work, many Catholic
high school teachers coach sports or direct extra-curricular activities and student clubs.
Such extra responsibilities also seem to add stress to a teacher's workload and are further
explored in the proceeding section.

Overall Perception of Stress in the Workplace

On the whole, these teachers perceive teachers in their school to be stressed. In the
interview, respondents were asked, "Overall, do you believe teachers in your school are
stressed?" All of the respondents responded affirmatively to this question, although
several qualified it by explaining that some teachers appeared much more stressed than
others which is explored below further. Some of the responses that indicate the belief
that teachers in their school are stressed include:
"I would say that there is a general feeling of stress."
"We tend to work ourselves pretty hard, so we're probably more stressed than the
average."
"I would say, yes, it's stressful because you're kind of responsible for these kids'
success, but you're only with them a certain part of the day. So, you have to hope that
the rest of it goes well because you want them to be successful."
While the responses to this question all point to teachers in their school as being
stressed, many of the teachers interviewed were very pragmatic in explaining that some
teachers appeared more stressed than others. As mentioned earlier, the nature of Catholic
school often means that teachers have many responsibilities outside of the school day.
For those teachers who volunteer or who are asked by administration to take on tasks
such as coaching a sport or moderating a student organization, the stress is perceived to
be compounded. One teacher in her mid-thirties described it in the following manner:
"A lot of people take on more than they can really handle, not factoring in how many
hours participating in a club or an activity requires..."

95
One of the Foreign Language teachers stated:
"I think some teachers are very involved in a lot of different ways and that it makes it
very stressful, but at the same time, you choose to be involved in some of those things.
But I think for just the basic stress that we have, if you are not doing anything extra,
beyond teaching, it's pretty manageable. But once you add coaching, or moderating, or
committees...."
Other teachers qualified it in different ways. For example, one Religion teacher
explained that he perceived those teachers whom he considered most masterful at
teaching to be the most stressed while another teacher perceived the younger teachers to
be more stressed than the more experienced teachers. Yet another teacher believed that
those with children at home were more stressed than those without this responsibility. So
although all the teachers perceived the teachers in their school to be stressed,
explanations as to which teachers appeared more stressed than others were diverse in
nature.
Coping with Stress
This section describes what these teachers do to mitigate the stress they experience.
When asked, "What do you do to cope with stress?" responses varied from, "Vent to my
colleagues," to "Listen to music." However, three ideas were mentioned by three or
more subjects each and so are explored as topics below.

96
Exercise
Exercise was the most cited method of coping with stress, with half of the teachers
interviewed mentioning it. Within this topic, walking and running were the most
common types of exercise performed:
"I like to run. I think that is an easy way to do it, just put my Ipod headphones on, and
just start running. I think that's a good way to forget about a lot of things that are going
on."
"I'm a distance runner, and so it's important to have time to go run."
"Walking relaxes me, too."
Prayer
Three subjects, all of which are Religion teachers, mentioned that they used prayer as
a way to deal with the stress they experience. Each school has a chapel available and
these three teachers are able to take advantage of that opportunity to go there from time to
time to pray when they have a chance. Two of the subjects stated that they make a
conscious effort to build prayer time into their day just to regroup and escape from the
pressures of their day. As one respondent stated:
"I pray [to cope with stress]. That's what's nice about working in a place with a
chapel.

I try to go down to the chapel and spend 15-20 minutes there on one of my

off periods or after school."

Prioritizing Tasks/Organization
Prioritizing one's tasks and staying organized was another popular method of coping
with stress among these teachers. In terms of the range and complexity of tasks, at least

97
one-fourth of these teachers strive to determine which tasks must be completed first.
They then tackle those tasks first instead of becoming overwhelmed by the magnitude of
tasks to complete. As a female teacher said:
"A lot of times I'll try to just figure out what I can do, and kind of plan it out, and not
worry about the things I can't control. So, in the ideal world, you're stressed but you
say, 'Okay, I can do this. I can do that, and I am just going to plug through and get
those accomplished.' Then realize that you have accomplished a lot, and don't keep
thinking about what you have to do, but try to think about what you've already done."
One of the male teachers mentioned:
"There are so many things that you could do, but you just have to prioritize.
Eventually you have to get around to those other tasks, but there are some things, like
a lesson I have to teach tomorrow, or in 20 minutes, or in 5 minutes that are very,
very time sensitive."
In addition to prioritizing tasks, staying organized and planning ahead serves to help
mitigate the frustration these teachers feel:
"I try to be very efficient and organized to reduce the stress."
"...I'm not good at working to deadlines.. .so sometimes in September I'm running off
tests for December; I have plans that far in advance. I know I'm not good last
minute."

Relationships with Parents

Eighteen of the 20 teachers described their interactions with parents as positive for the
most part. The teachers characterized parents as respectful and very interested in their
children's learning. On the whole, parents were perceived to be supportive of the
teachers and very respectful in exchanges:
"The parents I've talked to and dealt with personally have been very supportive, very
helpful, and really just have a good partnership."
"For the most part, they [interactions] are really positive.. .parents here are very
proactive in their kids' education."
Respondents were also asked to explain what they found most problematic in dealing
with parents. Two distinct themes emerged from this line of questioning: Parents Who
Blame the Teacher and Demanding Parents.
Parents Who Blame the Teacher
This topic captures the feeling of some teachers that parents sometimes blame the
teacher for their child's shortcomings or mistakes. Thirteen teachers mentioned this as
his/her greatest source of frustration in dealing with parents. Several of these teachers
explained that they felt perturbed when parents seemed to blindly accept the student's
version of an event, without taking into account the teacher's perspective:
"You know they don't see the faults in their kids or they're not willing to accept that I
might actually know... .have a different view of their children or an insight into how
they might act differently here than they do at home."

Those teachers who have been in Catholic schools for many years, either as students
themselves or teachers, describe it as a shift from what used to be the norm. They seem
to feel that there is an increasing trend that some parents acquiesce to the student's
complaints instead of seeking to work with the teachers. For instance, one veteran
teacher explained:
"I think one of the things I've seen over the years since I've been a teacher is today
there are some parents who believe their child over what the teacher is indicating is a
problem. So that is a major change, there's a sense that the students are always
telling the truth if they're describing the situation, whereas in my day it was kind of
the opposite. You'd believe the teacher before you believed your child."
Another teacher who had attended Catholic school himself declared that when he was
in school, the teacher's opinion was always held as fact instead of the other way around.
However, even some of the more inexperienced teachers described the same scenariothat it is stressful for them when parents don't listen to the teacher's views and instead
hold them responsible for whatever has gone awry.
Demanding Parents
Another area of stress for teachers are parents who demand too much of them. This
idea encompasses parents who call frequently and/or make numerous phone calls to
teachers to ask questions the teacher feels are either unnecessary or inappropriate. For
instance, at each of the schools teachers are required to post grades and sometimes
assignments, but many time parents email teachers and ask that they send more
information about a grade or a topic. This places even more of an onus on the teacher,

many of whom seem to feel that in high school the students should be responsible for
much of this information.
Moreover, several of the teachers felt that some parents treat them as if they are their
personal employees. The two teachers who mentioned this as a difficulty seemed more
frustrated by this than any other source of stress. As described by one veteran Religion
teacher:
"In this particular environment, sometimes they expect us to be their maids. You
know, they pay their gardeners, they pay their maids. You work for them
basically.. .the parent really expects us to take on the parent role.. .increasingly the
parents have given up their role of parenting to the teachers. So they make more and
more demands, particularly I think on private school teachers."
Parents Communication/Reinforcing Lessons
Interview participants were also asked to describe how parents could better support
them. What was interesting about these responses was that while the stressful
interactions with parents were slanted towards parents who were perhaps over-involved
in their children's school dealings, the suggestions for how parents might better support
teachers in their roles were split. Almost half of the respondents focused on parents who
were less-involved with students' schoolwork, while the other half of the respondents
focused on those parents who they considered too involved in the students' school life.
Eight of the teachers interviewed would find it a support if parents spoke regularly
with their children about their class work. The respondents also wished that parents
would stress the importance of academics and would support the teachers in helping

101
students achieve success. Furthermore, these teachers expressed that parents should
encourage their children to stay current on their assignments:
"I guess I would ask parents to make sure that their son or daughter realizes how
important education is... What I would like to see, particularly in the high school, so
that they're prepared for college, they take responsibility for their work..."
For struggling students, these teachers believed it would be helpful if parents checked
both with the teachers and their children to ensure work was being completed and turned
in on time. Responses of this kind seemed especially impassioned. The teachers who
spoke of students who weren't doing well seemed genuinely concerned about their
progress:
"Some of the weaker kids who fall behind do need that extra help from parents
because they're not doing it on their own. So if they could be a little more proactive
in making sure assignments are done and keeping up with things

"

Partnership Between Parents and Teachers

On the other side of the spectrum, some interviewed teachers desired a working
partnership with parents so as to enlist their support rather than having to fend off their
criticism. From the teachers' viewpoint, it was frustrating for them when parents adopted
an adversarial role rather than a collaborative one with the teacher. The teachers want
parents to understand they do strive to help their students, for they want nothing more
than to see their students flourish:

102
"I'm on their side, and it's not me against their child. I'm not picking on their child;
I'm trying to help their child and to help their child to succeed. And I'm trying my best
to do that, not I'm trying to be mean and give your kid a bad grade."
Within this domain, several teachers mentioned that this partnership would best be
served by open communication. Furthermore, teachers expressed a desire for parents to
speak with the teachers directly about issues instead of accepting a student's version of an
event without listening to the teacher's perspective on the same event.
Furthering the Mission of the Catholic Church
Since working in a Catholic school involves furthering the mission of the Catholic
Church, respondents were invited to discuss whether or not they found furthering the
mission of the Catholic Church stressful. The replies to this question fell into two
groups: those that did find furthering the mission of the Catholic Church stressful and
those that did not.
Eight of the respondents stated that they did not believe furthering the mission of the
Catholic Church caused them stress. But responses within this area were markedly
different. Some respondents explained that they took pleasure in that aspect of their
occupation:
"I enjoy that aspect. I am Catholic and went to Catholic schools growing up, so it was
definitely embedded in my experience."
However, many respondents who replied no to this question explained that although
they did not find it stressful, they did not consider themselves to be deeply rooted in the

103
Catholic faith either. While these teachers do their very best to uphold the teaching of the
Catholic Church, they may not always feel connected to it:
" I'm not really deeply involved in the Catholic Church. I was raised Catholic. I went
to Catholic school, so it's not really like I'm dealing with something that is different, so
to me it doesn't affect me at all."
"I'm not really a great Catholic, but you know, I do my best to make sure I uphold the
main ideas of the Catholic Church."
A smaller number of respondents replied that they did find furthering the mission of
the Catholic Church stressful at times. Surprisingly, three out of the four of those who
described it in this way were Religion teachers. It seems that it is difficult for these
Religion teachers to teach Catechism to this particular population of learners. They
described the adolescents they teach as sometimes reluctant to engage in the material. In
addition, two mentioned that they themselves sometimes feel overwhelmed by the
magnitude of conveying the Faith to these students as can be gleaned from the following
quotation, "It's just that there's so much to do and there's so much that people don't
know, and just that the students don't understand. So it's just the sheer... it's like
throwing sand against the waves sometimes."
One teacher also mentioned that sometimes he feels at odds with the stance of the
Catholic Church on certain issues, an idea mentioned by a couple other respondents
during different portions of the interview. Teachers described it as uncomfortable for
them to teach and promote the Church's stance on an issue if they don't personally
support it.

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"I will say that there are elements of that that are difficult for me. Just that there's
sometimes a difference of approach when teaching the Faith. There's conflict
sometimes that way where there's difference in philosophy. And so that can make
furthering the mission of the Church difficult. And sometimes I feel I have personal
disagreements with the position of the Catholic Church."
Another teacher mentioned that he finds it stressful when proponents of the mission of
the Catholic Church in his school talk about aspects of the Catholic faith he doesn't agree
with. He further stated that although he certainly doesn't think the exposure to the
Catholic faith hurts students in the slightest, he doesn't believe it is crucial to their high
school experience either. This teacher also mentioned feeling uncomfortable when he
has to "fake the gung ho, enthusiasm for some things."
Vocation
During the interview, teachers were asked, "Do you believe teaching in a Catholic
school to be a vocation?" Of the 20 respondents, 18 believed their job to be a vocation,
but the responses were interesting in that they were split between those who believed
being a teacher in a Catholic school was a vocation, and those who believed being a
teacher anywhere was a vocation.
Belief That Teaching in a Catholic School Is a Vocation
Not surprisingly, all of the Religion teachers believed teaching in a Catholic school to
be a vocation. For these teachers, they do indeed feel invested in their job and feel that
they are exactly where they are supposed to be. Some of the quotations that illustrate the

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deeply-rooted satisfaction the Religion teachers appeared to feel in their positions
include:
"I felt a specific call to do this kind of work, like what God wanted me to do in my life
was teach Religion in a Catholic school. I feel like this is what I'm supposed to do. I've
had offers to teach other things but this is what I feel called to do."
" I'm a certified public school teacher, so I could go teach in D.C. or Maryland. I did
my student teaching in a public school, and I enjoyed teaching English, but I got involved
in Ministry in college, and I just couldn't really see myself doing anything else."
"I definitely felt that this was something that I deeply wanted to do for who I was. It's
what I thought God wanted me to do and so forth. That's all I really ever wanted to doteach, and that's basically what I have done with my whole life- teach and coach, and so
it is a vocation."
Most of those who taught subjects other than Religion and believed their current work
to be a vocation had either arrived at the school in which they are currently teaching from
another profession or from a public school. These teachers seemed especially pleased
with their work and happy to have finally found a job they perceived to be rewarding.
Belief that Teaching is A Vocation
The other half of the teachers interviewed held that teaching, not necessarily in a
Catholic school, was a vocation. While these teachers did not seem unhappy in their
current school, they did believe they could teach in a public school or another private
school and be just as content. One teacher who had previously worked in a public school
stated, "Just being a teacher is a vocation, whether it be here or teaching at my last place,

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which was a public school." This statement seemed to accurately reflect the overall
outlook of this group of teachers. When probed, it appears that most of these teachers
chose to work in a Catholic school because they believe that the students are different
than those in public school, namely more respectful, and that their parents have a more
vested interest in their education.
Administration
Some of the lengthiest responses were in answer to questions related to the
respondents' perceptions of their administration. Seventeen of the 20 respondents
believed that the administration adequately supported them overall. Responses which
typify this opinion include:
"In general, it's a supportive place."
"I find that I've had great support."
"I think in general they support teachers."
Overall, the teachers seemed very pleased by the sense of autonomy they enjoyed at
their school. Several described that they appreciated the opportunities they were afforded
to voice their opinions on curriculum issues and other issues. Those individuals who
were in a position to petition the administration for finances indicated that they felt very
comfortable in doing so. One school's administration hosted a Teacher Appreciation Day
in which students arrived at school later and the school's faculty was served breakfast in
their honor.

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Two teachers also mentioned that they feel today's administrators are under some of
the same pressures as teachers. Therefore, they seemed to empathize with their
administrators.
"I think today's administrators, not just ours, but all administrators, are in a tough
position. Society is expecting that the parents also have a lot of say.... So I think in a
way they are in a tough situation culturally in society."
"The administration also has the same pressures from parents as the teachers do, and I
think that administrators for the most part try to be supportive of teachers, but they also
have to look at the bottom line- the dollar."
A few of the interview participants explained the family-like atmosphere they
treasured in their current schools. Such an environment was described as being possible
because of support from both colleagues and administration. As one teacher mentioned,
"There is a camaraderie and familial aspect which I like a lot about working here."
The three respondents who did not feel supported by the administration had mentioned
specific issues that they had, all of which were mentioned by other respondents as ways
in which the administration could assist them in their roles. Specifically, each of the
participants was asked, "What could the administration do to support you better?" Four
patterns of responses emerged as depicted below.
Enforcing Rules and Disciplinary Action
This seemed to be an important theme in the area of administration as six of the
respondents expressed frustration with the administrations' enforcement of prescribed
rules. The teachers seemed more concerned not with being supported in their individual

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teaching, but instead with school-wide policies. Many were frustrated by uniform
policies that teachers were told to enforce; however, administrators themselves ignored
the infractions, leaving all of the disciplining to the teachers.
" Sometimes I feel that they don't support us, or don't support me in that we're always
told, 'Make sure the kids are in uniform." But then administration sees them looking like
this, and says nothing. So it comes down to- why am I killing myself giving these kids
detention or nagging at them, when obviously administration is watching these kids walk
past with everything hanging out?"
"One area lacking I've noticed is in enforcing discipline. That's been something I
expected to be a little bit stricter, just in terms of follow-through with a lot of the kids.
For example, be more consistent in some of the policies. Do they need to have their
shirts tucked in? Just from a legitimacy standpoint, backing up the rules would be my
one criticism in support."
These teachers weren't unhappy with the rules per se; they feel those rules should be
enforced across the board- by administration as well as the teachers.
Supporting Teachers' Authority
One-fourth of the teachers mentioned that they do not always feel that administration
respects their authority. All of these teachers stated that they had experienced times
when they had attempted to discipline a student and had administration override their
decision. Two of the teachers mentioned that administration had superseded the teacher's
pronouncement as a result of parental pressure:

"The administration can be very quick to override a teacher's decision if a parent

complains. So in that way, you don't always feel supported."
"When push comes to shove, and a parent complains, they let the parent get their way.
That makes it very hard for me as a teacher trying to enforce a policy when I write it up
and send it up. I'm not always going to get backed up on that."
These five teachers found it quite demoralizing when these types of events occurred
with administration. A couple teachers mentioned that they were now hesitant to enact
any penalties for students for fear their decisions would be overturned for reasons they
might not understand.
Decision-Making
The lack of opportunity to participate in decision-making and the feeling that one's
opinions aren't valued have been highlighted as sources of stress for teachers in the
literature on teacher stress. Furthermore, decision-making has been found to have a
significant relationship with job satisfaction in a number of earlier studies (Powell &
Schlacter, 1971; Seashore & Bowers, 1963; Vroom, 1959). Four of the teachers
interviewed expressed that administration could better support them by allowing them
more involvement with decision-making. For these teachers, communication with
administration seemed to be quite problematic, as they either felt that even if
administration did ask their opinion, they didn't value their responses or administrators
didn't bother to ask the staffs opinion at all.

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"I think communication isn't fantastic. My perception is that the administration will
tell you what they think you need to know, but they'll cut it off right there.. .they make
the decisions, and we follow the orders."
"The lack of support that I've found is that there's not a lot of discussion amongst the
administration and the faculty."
Many of the teachers mentioned one specific area in which they would like to see
more faculty input allotted: school-wide initiatives. At three of the schools, technological
or curriculum initiatives in which the teachers had little if any voice seemed to be quite
distressing for the teachers that worked there. Teachers either viewed some of the
initiatives as unnecessary or burdensome. In two instances, teachers had been surveyed
for their opinion on the purposed initiative and the consensus was against it, however,
said initiative was enacted anyway. A couple of the teachers mentioned that though
much of the staff would be on board for one new initiative a year, they felt put out by
administration piling them on or instituting something and not seeing it through. These
teachers believed that allowing faculty members to contribute more in the operation of
the school would increase relations across the board. One teacher phrased it this way,
"When instituting new academic policies, [the administration can support us by]
really listening to the input of the teachers because that doesn't always happen.
They'll be a decision made, from the top-down..."
Offering Praise/Reward
One final area in which Catholic high school teachers feel they could be better
supported by administration is being praised or given some sort of reward for the good

Ill
work that is being done. Some teachers seemed disheartened by what they perceive as
insensitivity on the part of the administration. These teachers feel that the administrators
at their school may have adopted the philosophy that teachers shouldn't hear from them
unless something goes wrong.
"I think the lack of support and acknowledging the job that you're doing and the time
and effort that you're putting in is really one of the largest drawbacks of this place."
"You know sometimes people just need to all be in one room and hear that we're
actually doing a good job. Because you know you forget to catch people being good.
You tend to-just like when you're with your children or with the students in your classyou want to catch them being good and then support that."
Though some of the teachers mentioned that they have Teacher Appreciation Day and
things such as that at their schools, the problem is that very little is done for the
individual teacher and his/her accomplishments. Because these teachers are paid less
than their public school counterparts, it seems that much more important to them that
they feel valued and appreciated by their administrators.

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH
This chapter extends the current information on Catholic high school teachers'
perceptions of teacher stress and presents new contributions to the subject. The first
section summarizes the research. The second section is a synopsis of the findings as they
relate to the research questions. The third section explains how the research contributes
to the field of education, and the last section presents recommendations for future
research in the field.
Summary of the Study
The purpose of this study was to explore the self-reported perceptions of the sources
and manifestations of stress for Catholic high school teachers. Two methods of data
gathering were utilized within the study: an inventory and an in-depth interview. Four
suburban Maryland Catholic high schools provided the sample of 191 Catholic high
school teachers who completed the Teacher Stress Inventory. The survey was
administered by the researcher during faculty meetings at each of the schools and
assessed the teachers' self-reported perceptions of stress over 12 domains: seven stress
sources and five stress manifestations. The inventory included a demographic portion
which was used to describe the subjects in the sample.
Two stress source factors were found to be "Significant" sources of stress for the
teachers in the sample: Time Management and Work-Related Stressors. None of the
stress manifestations categories proved to be "Significant" manifestations.

112

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A one-way multivariate analysis of variance was conducted in SPSS to examine if
there were any differences among the schools with regards to the self-reported
perceptions of the sources of teacher stress, and a significant difference was found.
Consequently, the univariate F tests computed per school for each stress source factor
were examined to determine which variable(s) contributed to the significance of the
difference. The schools varied in the domains of Professional Distress, Professional
Investment, and Vocation.
A one-way multivariate analysis of variance was also conducted to investigate if
differences existed among the schools with respect to the self-reported perception of the
manifestations of teacher stress. As with the sources of stress, a significant difference
was found. The Emotional Manifestations scores were found to contribute to the
significance of the difference among the schools.
Finally, a one-way analysis of variance was computed to examine whether there was
any difference among the schools with regards to the Total Stress Score. The Total Stress
Score was calculated for each subject by summing the scores for each subscale and
dividing the resulting number by 12- the total amount of subscales. A significant
difference among the schools was established, and it was revealed that the scores for
Schools A and C differed most.
Twenty of the 191 teachers who completed the Teacher Stress Inventory also
participated in an interview. The researcher conducted each interview at the subjects'
place of employment and used an interview guide to structure the interview. The
interview was centered on the teachers' perceptions of stress in the workplace. Following

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the interviews, the data was coded by the researcher according to Lofland and Lofland's
(1995) method in which two discrete phases of coding are utilized: initial and focused
coding. Through analysis of the qualitative data, seven topics emerged.
Overview of the Findings
This section provides an overview of the findings in terms of the research questions set
forth in Chapter 1.
1. What are the self-reported perceptions of the sources of stress for Catholic high
school teachers?
2. Do relationships with parents serve as a stressor for Catholic high school
teachers?
3. Does the vocational aspect of teaching in a Catholic school serve as a stressor for
Catholic high school teachers?
4. What are the self-reported perceptions of the manifestations of stress for Catholic
high school teachers?
5. What is the Total Stress Score for each of the schools involved in the study?
6. Are there differences among the Catholic high schools with regard to the teachers'
self-reported perceptions of the sources of stress, the manifestations of stress, and
the total stress scores?
7. How do Catholic high school teachers describe their experiences of stress and
their method(s) of coping with stress?

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Question One
What are the self-reported perceptions of the sources of stress for Catholic high
school teachers?
From the inventory data, Time Management and Work-Related Stressors were proven
to be the most significant sources of stress for this group of Catholic high school teachers.
The high scores in the Time Management category indicate that overall these teachers
don't believe they have enough time to address the many tasks their work entails, while
high scores in the Work-Related Stressors signify that teachers in the sample feel they do
not have adequate time built into the school day to prepare for classes. Furthermore, they
feel overwhelmed by the amount of work they have to complete. These findings were
also supported by the qualitative data in the interviews. Many of the teachers interviewed
described aspects of the Time Management and Work-Related Stressors domains as the
most stressful parts of their job. These teachers seem to often forsake personal time both
within and outside of the workday to complete job-related tasks. These findings bolster
the previous conclusions of Travers and Cooper (1996), Brown and Ralph (1998), and
Dibbons (2004) who all found that aspects of time management and work-related
stressors were very taxing on teachers. Additionally, many of the Catholic high school
teachers coach sports or direct extra-curricular activities and student clubs which further
strain their workloads and contribute to their stress levels. Aspects of the TimeManagement and Work-Related Stressor domains seemed especially problematic for
those teachers interviewed who were newer to the school or the profession.

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For years problems in discipline and motivation has been cited as a stressor for
teachers by researchers such as Kyriacou (1987) and Beer and Beer (1992); however,
because parents and students in Catholic school were thought to have a more vested
interest in their education, it was hypothesized that Catholic school teachers may
experience less stress resulting from their behavior. Furthermore, recent studies in
college matriculation indicate that in comparison to their public school counterparts,
Catholic high school students are more likely to attend college and be accepted to
colleges often considered highly-selective ( Altonji, Elder, & Taber, 2005; Eide,
Goldhaber, & Showalter, 2004).
While the Discipline and Motivation category was not found to be a "Significant"
stress source for these teachers, several of the teachers interviewed did mention aspects of
this domain as problematic for mem. Five (25%) interview participants described
students who were unmotivated as their biggest source of stress. Furthermore, four
teachers interviewed (20%) described discipline problems in the classroom as nerveracking. The types of discipline problems certainly weren't described as severe, and the
number of students perpetuating them very small. However, aspects of this category
nevertheless were stressful for some of the teachers interviewed. For at least two of the
teachers interviewed, the discipline problems were further compounded by what they
perceived to be a lack of adequate discipline plans in their respective schools.
During the interviews, another source of stress was expressed by a number of the
participants. The sheer volume of work these teachers have to complete in a limited time
was repeatedly highlighted as a major stressor. Such a source of stress directly relates to

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Sutherland and Cooper's (1996) Interactive Model of Stress because for these teachers, it
was not any one source of stress that caused them anxiety in isolation. Instead, these
subjects experienced stress as a result of their perception of their ability, or lack thereof,
to meet all the demands in a timely manner.
Question Two
Do relationships with parents serve as a stressor for Catholic high school
teachers?
Relationships with parents do not appear to be a major source of stress for this group
of teachers. On the inventory, the Relationship with Parents category had only a weak
influence as a source of stress, an idea supported by the interview data in which the
majority of participants described their relationships with parents as positive. While the
interview participant did describe what they found most problematic in dealing with
parents, overall the relationship these teachers share with the parents of their students
does not appear to cause them significant stress on a regular basis. Like Naylor's 2001
study, the interview respondents in this study did mention feeling frustrated when parents
blamed them for their children's lack of progress or behavior. Furthermore, parents who
demand too much of a teacher's time or attention was also mentioned as sometimes
trying for teachers.

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Question Three
Does the vocational aspect of teaching in a Catholic school serve as a stressor for
Catholic high school teachers?
Taken as a whole, inventory respondents did not appear to find the vocational aspects
of teaching in a Catholic school as particularly stressful, for the subscale's mean score
indicated it was only a "Weak" source of stress for the sample. However, the results from
the multivariate analysis of variance of the sources of stress by school did indicate that the
four schools differed in the self-reported perceptions in this domain.
Findings from the interview data in this area varied as well, as responses were split
between those individuals who found the vocational aspects of their jobs stressful, and
those that did not. What was surprising about the Vocation domain was mat within the two
opposing viewpoints, responses seemed to vary drastically as well. Some of the
respondents who did not find the vocational aspects of their job stressful explained that
they truly enjoyed the ministry facet of their work; while others explained that they don't
experience stress in mis area because they don't feel very connected to the Catholic
Church. For the latter group, it seemed that the vocational aspect of their work was not
deeply rooted in their identity as a Catholic school teacher.
A smaller number of the interview participants did find furthering the mission of the
Catholic Church stressful at times. Three of the respondents who categorized the ministry
aspects of their work as stressful were Religion teachers who seemed to have a vested
interest in their role in furthering the mission of the Church. These teachers experienced

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stress as a result of their desire to do an adequate job of teaching the Faith to adolescents
and sometimes felt overwhelmed by the awesome responsibility they believed it to be.
In a study conducted by Rothstein, Carnoy, and Beneviste (1999), Catholic school
teachers participated in an interview. Among the participants in that study, there seemed to
be a disagreement of sorts as to the mission of the school being primarily academic or
religious. Several of the teachers objected to time taken from academic pursuits for
religious instruction, participation in Mass and other religious ceremonies, while others felt
those activities were pillars on which the school was built This study also reflects that
same divergence in opinion. Several of the teachers mentioned that they feel some of the
Masses and religious activities interrupt their teaching, while others seemed to find it a
crucial part of school culture. A few of the teachers mentioned that they sometimes
disagree with a tenet or position of the Catholic Church and so feel uncomfortable
endorsing the Church's stance if they themselves don't agree with it. Some mentioned
feeling uncomfortable having to feign a positive perspective on aspects of the Catholic
tradition with which they don't personally appreciate.
For many years teaching in a Catholic school has been promoted as a personal vocation
in the literature on Catholic education (Buetow, 1988; Congregation for Catholic
Education, 1997; Jacobs, 1996; Shimabukuro, 2000). However, many of the Catholic high
school teachers interviewed believed that it was teaching that was a vocation, not
necessarily teaching in a Catholic school.

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Question Four
What are the self-reported perceptions of the manifestations of stress for Catholic
high school teachers?
The manifestations of stress for the sample were not found to be significant, as none
of the subscale mean scores rose above the "Moderate" level. Not surprisingly, Fatigue
Manifestations was found to have the highest score, indicating that teachers who
experience stress in the workplace tend to have sleep-related difficulties and/or may
procrastinate as a result. Since none of the school's mean manifestation scores indicated an
influence higher than "Moderate", it can be assumed that the majority of the teachers in the
school are not suffering severe effects of stress. Because there is no literature base
describing the manifestation of teacher stress for Catholic high school teachers, though
none of the factors reached "Significance" level, the findings are still important given the
fact that no information is currently available concerning the manifestations of stress for
Catholic high school teachers.
Question Five
What is the Total Stress Score for each of the schools involved in the study?
The Total Stress Score qualifies the overall stress each subject perceived him/herself
to experience. As previously mentioned, to calculate the Total Stress Score per subject,
the scores for each subscale were added. The sum was then divided by 12, the total
number of TSI subscales for each inventory. The mean score across all subjects by
school was calculated to arrive at a Total Stress Score for each school.

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According to Firman's (1988) scale, none of the schools in a sample had a mean score
that indicated its teachers were "Significantly" stressed. School A had the lowest Total
Stress Score, with a mean of 2.31 (SI>=.48). School B's mean score was 2.44 with a
standard deviation of .57. School D had a mean score of 2.55 (SD=.63) and School C
had the highest Total Stress Score (M=2.56, SD=.51). All of these scores are indicative
of what Fimian termed "Moderate" stress.
Question Six
Are there differences among the Catholic high schools with regard to the
teachers' self-reported perceptions of the sources of stress, the manifestations of
stress, and the total stress scores?
Statistical analyses were used to assess the above questions, with determination as to
the significance of the findings made using an alpha level of .05. A one-way multivariate
analysis of variance was performed to examine if differences existed among the schools
with regard to the teachers' self-reported perceptions of the sources of stress and the
manifestations of stress. In comparing the scores, the schools were similar in most
respects. However, the multivariate analysis of variance revealed that some differences
did exist for the self-reported perceptions of the sources and manifestations of stress.
Interpretations of the univariate F tests for the stress source factors revealed that
School A separates itself from the other three schools in several important ways. First,
School A had significantly lower Professional Distress scores than School C and School
D, indicating School A's teachers believe they are treated with respect and recognition,
more so than those teachers in School C and D do. School A had significantly lower

scores m Professional Investment and Vocation than all 3 other schools. The lower
scores in the Professional Investment category signify that the teachers in School A
believe they have control over subject and classroom matters and feel more comfortable
voicing opinions than do the teachers in the other 3 schools. Finally, the lower scores in
the Vocation subscale indicate that the teachers in School A believe themselves to be
adequately prepared and supported in their mission as a Catholic school teacher more so
than the teachers in School B, C, and D.
The interpretations of the univariate F tests for each of the manifestation factors
revealed that Emotional Manifestations was the only manifestation subscale that
contributed to the significance of the difference. Post-hoc tests revealed that School B's
Emotional Manifestations Scores were significantly lower than School A's.
A one-way analysis of variance was used to test whether differences existed among
the schools with regards to the Total Stress Score. The ANOVA indicated that
differences did exist among the school. Post-hoc tests were examined to determine the
pairs of schools whose means differed significantly from each other, and it was
determined that School A had significantly lower scores than did School D in terms of
Total Stress.
Question Seven
How do Catholic high school teachers describe their experiences of stress and
their method(s) of coping with stress?
All of the 20 Catholic high school teachers interviewed perceived teachers in their
respective schools to be stressed. While some qualified it in different ways, the overall

impression is that these teachers do believe that many teachers in their school are
significantly stressed for at least some part of the academic year.
Several of the interview participants mentioned that some teachers seem far more
stressed than others. For instance, those teachers who volunteer or are asked by
administration to coach or advise a student club or organization seem more anxious than
those teachers who did not have additional responsibilities besides teaching. One teacher
mentioned that it seemed to him that those teachers whom he considers most competent
at their job appear more stressed, perhaps because they care so much about their work.
Another teacher explained that the younger teachers seem more stressed than those more
experienced.
A primary component of the Interactive Model is the individual's response to a
perceived demand. If an individual is able to cope, the stressor can be managed. If the
individual cannot cope, the manifestations of stress are greater. Though all the teachers
in the interview sample perceived teachers in their school to be stressed, each was able to
outline methods by which he/she was able to manage the sources of frustration
experienced, which is perhaps why none of the manifestation factors reached a
"Significant" level for the sample.
Explanations as to how these teachers cope with stress varied, but three methods of
coping were shared by a number of interview participants. First, exercise was the most
frequently mentioned technique of mitigating a stressful experience. Walking and
running were the most popular types of exercise mentioned.

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Three Religion teachers mentioned praying as the vehicle through which they manage
stress. Because each of these schools has a chapel, the teachers are able to go there
before, during, or after the school day to pray or just enjoy some peaceful quiet. Two of
the subjects mentioned making a concerted effort to include time in their day for prayer.
The last coping strategy mentioned by the interview respondents was prioritizing tasks
and maintaining a sense of organization. The ability to maintain a sense of balance with
respect to time and workload has been cited as a coping mechanism for relieving stress in
previous studies (Dunham & Bath, 1998; Travers & Cooper, 1996). One-fourth of the
teachers try to manage their stress by prioritizing tasks, completing the most timesensitive ones first. Furthermore, staying organized and planning helps reduce their
stress levels.
Contribution
This study makes an original contribution to the field of education in several ways.
First, it addresses the dearth in the literature with regards to teacher stress in Catholic
high schools. Research into teacher stress has previously been concentrated on public
schools, but this study focuses on Catholic schools and provides important information
about the sources of stress for Catholic high school teachers. The Time Management and
Work-Related Stressors domains proved to be the most stressful for this sample, a
discovery which is important to administrators and teachers alike. It may be beneficial to
address the issues these two subscales incorporate so as to alleviate teachers' stress,
which in turn might have more far-reaching effects. In addition, the teachers interviewed
provided substantive information about how administrators might better support them.

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By examining these teacher suggestions and instituting those that are feasible,
administrators may improve teacher stress levels and enhance teacher satisfaction.
Interestingly enough, although some assume that teachers in a Catholic school enjoy
less stress overall than public school teachers, this may not be true. According to the
normative data Fimian (1988) provides from his aggregated sample of 3,401 teachers,
the Catholic high school teachers in this sample scored similarly in most respects.
Fimian provides a figure by which comparisons can be made using bis data. This visual
representation allows the researcher to graph his or her scores in comparison to the mean
score from his sample. This process can be done by plotting the subscale scores on
Fimian's visual representation, which can be found in Appendix K. According to
Fimian's directives, an average score for a subscale would fall directly on the diamond
above the subscale's abbreviation. If the scores stay within the lighter midrange, it can be
stated that the respondent experienced higher than average or lower than average, but not
significantly higher or lower than average, stress levels. If the score exceeds either the
higher or lower cut-off points, then it can be said that the respondent is experiencing
either significantly stronger or significantly weaker than average stress levels (Fimian,
1988).
Within the domains of Time Management, Work Related Stressors, Professional
Distress, Professional Investment, Fatigue Manifestations, Behavioral Manifestations,
and Total Stress, the scores for this sample were comparable to the normative data scores
for these subscales. The Discipline and Motivation score for this sample was lower than
the normative data, although not significantly so. In addition, the Cardiovascular

126
Manifestation and Gastrointestinal Manifestation scores for this sample were higher than
the norm, though again not significantly so.
Previous studies promoted the idea that teachers in Catholic schools have an
exceptional responsibility beyond just educating their students in the academics; they
must also imbibe in both spirit and example the virtues of the Catholic Church.
(Congregation for Catholic Education, 1997; Shimabukuro, 2000). But no prior study
examined how Catholic school teachers assessed their role as a purveyor of the Catholic
faith. This study provides specific information about the divide among this group of
Catholic high school teachers with respect to this issue. While many of the teachers
explained that they did not find furthering the mission of the Catholic Church stressful,
the range of the responses was most surprising. Some of the teachers truly enjoyed that
aspect of their work, whereas some of the teachers seemed disconnected to the Catholic
faith. Another finding that could have implications in other areas was that several of the
teachers interviewed explained that they felt uneasy working in a Catholic school at times
because of their personal opposition to certain Church teachings. Some of these teachers
seemed to resent having to endorse aspects of the faith they considered questionable or
flawed.
One more way in which this study contributes to the field of education is the
information it provides about teacher-parent relationships. Although it was hypothesized
that relationships with parents were not a major source of stress for teachers, this was not
proven. However, important information about what teachers find problematic about

127
their relationships with parents and suggestions about what parents could do to better
support teachers was gleaned.
This study adds to the theory of stress by exploring the interactive nature of teacher
stress. Teacher stress research typically has focused on identifying the sources of teacher
stress in public schools, but this study is unique in that it not only examines the sources
and manifestations of teacher stress in Catholic schools, it also explores how these
teachers perceive the demands on them and their capabilities to meet those demands. It is
the first study to use both quantitative and qualitative measures to describe teachers'
understanding of stress in their school in rich detail. The qualitative data collected
throughout the course of this study not only provides insight into the quantitative
findings, but also explains how the perception of stress varies from person to person.
Recommendations for Future Research
For decades the teaching profession has had a reputation as a stressful occupation.
Yet school systems and teacher training institutes typically do not devote any resources to
the identification and alleviation of teacher stress. Furthermore, research into teacher
stress, most particularly in Catholic schools, has been minimal and is now quite dated. It
is, therefore, important that both quantitative and qualitative investigation be conducted
with regards to teacher stress in Catholic high schools so as to better recognize and
alleviate it. Such research will also help showcase aspects of teaching as a professional
service to others and as a lifework. And if the educational community is better informed
as to the interactive nature of teacher stress, it can better meet the needs of its teachers
and ensure that the most dedicated teachers are recruited and retained.

Because the sample for this study consisted of Catholic high schools that serve
primarily White, middle-class families, it might be valuable to replicate this study with
Catholic high schools of different compositions. The resulting data could then be
compared to the data from this study to determine if differences exist between the two
samples.
The teacher participants in the in-depth interview provided many interesting
suggestions as to how administration and parents might better support them. It would be
worthwhile to develop an experiential research design using those suggestions to
determine if instituting the proposals served to reduce teachers' perceived stress.
Furthermore, it would also be valuable to create an experimental research project to
address aspects of Time-Management and Work-Related Stressors, as they were found to
be the greatest sources of stress for this group of teachers.
Although the schools were similar in most respects, School A was found to be
different from the other schools in several ways. Regression analysis was used to probe
this issue; however, no definitive answer was found as to why this school differed from
the other three. An additional study might explore the influence of other factors, such as
teacher preparation and institutional policies to determine how they might contribute to
the difference among the schools. Furthermore, the difference among the schools
indicates the importance of considering each Catholic school as its own separate entity.
The qualitative portion of this study uncovered the frustration many Catholic high
school teachers experience when dealing with student discipline issues and lack of
student motivation. Studies such as Lusielli, Putnam, Handler, and Feinberg (2005)

129
demonstrate that whole-school approaches to student discipline decrease discipline
problems and positively affect student academic performance. Therefore, an experiential
study in which a whole-school approach to student discipline was adopted by these
schools to measure its effect on teachers' stress would certainly be useful.
In addition, the qualitative portion of this study related to Vocation yielded many
interesting findings. Traditionally, the majority of Catholic school principals and
teachers were religious or clergy-members. However, in today's Catholic schools, lay
people comprise more than 95% of the total number of staff (NCEA, 2008). Indeed, in
this study, lay teachers comprised approximately 97% of the sample. In Catholic
Schools: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow, Hunt outlines the complications that may
arise in this shift from primarily religious to primarily lay staff members. In years past,
the educational ministry of religious staff members was intertwined with the spiritual
underpinnings of their order. However, today's lay professional staff may not have been
taught or fully understand the religious mission of Catholic schools. Furthermore,
today's Catholic schools employ many non-Catholic faculty and administrators, who may
not have had the same exposure to the objectives of the Catholic educational tradition as
their Catholic counterparts (Hunt, 2005).
Publications such as the National Catholic Educational Leadership Monograph series
promote discourse in Catholic schools as a means of guiding the formation of Catholic
school faculties. This "faith formation discourse" is described as the communication in
which the faculty participates to determine and promote understanding about the school's
religious purpose and the role God is calling them to play in this purpose (Jacobs, 2002).

130
It is unclear whether such a discourse is actually occurring in these high schools, but what
is clear is that there is dissension among some teachers concerning what their spiritual
role as a Catholic school teacher entails. In Catholic Schools Still Make a Difference:
Ten Years of Research 1991-2000, Cook went one step further in suggesting a movement
designed to address the formation of lay teachers is necessary. Since many of the
teachers interviewed in this study mentioned either a detachment from the Catholic faith
or a philosophical divergence from Church teachings, a study which further explores how
Catholic high school teachers are prepared for the vocational aspect of their work, and
how they are supported in this role seems warranted.
Based on her findings from a study of 200 Catholic school teachers, Schuttloffel
(2001) recommended paying increased attention to the recruitment and retention of
Catholic school teachers. Specifically, she suggested that systematic tracking of Catholic
school graduates should be used to specifically recruit those individuals for service in
Catholic schools. In addition, she stressed the importance of the spiritual formation of
the laity since they now far surpass the number of religious. Cimini, Haney, and O'Keefe
(2001) further emphasize the impact of Catholic school teacher recruitment, formation
and retention on the future of Catholic schools by including 13 model programs to
address these issues in their 2001 collection. Furthermore, the literature on the faith
formation of Catholic school teachers stresses the critical role administrators play in the
Catholic identity of their schools (Wallace, Ridenour, & Biddle, 1999; Jacobs, 1998;
Manno, 1995).

131
A 2000 qualitative study investigated how four Pennsylvania principals (two religious
sisters and two lay women) serve as the school's spiritual leader and how their leadership
impacts the Catholic identity of the their respective schools. Based on his research,
Dreliszak tendered a model of leadership for Catholic school principals. One tenet of his
model seems especially pertinent given the findings of this study. According to
Dreliszak, Catholic school principals must be equipped with both the knowledge and
training to work with others who may have disparate views from those valued as
mainstays to the Catholic tradition, and Catholic school principals must have specific
opportunities to nurture their own spiritual life. Furthermore, they must have a clear faith
vision for the school and must stay committed to the Gospel (Dreliszak, 2002). Thus, it
is also important that researchers examine the preparation of principals in Catholic
schools, as well as the principals' perceptions of their roles as faith leaders in their school
communities. Catholic schools will only be able to fully fulfill the religious purpose of
the school to the degree that all who are employed there understand it and fully embrace
it.
A comprehensive effort has been undertaken to evaluate, improve and sustain Catholic
schools in the Archdiocese of Washington. In a 2008 pastoral letter from Archbishop
Donald W. Wuerl, the major goal of this initiative for Catholic schools is to develop
policies to strengthen schools in four critical areas: Catholic identity, academic
excellence, affordability and geographic accessibility. Within the document, Archbishop
Wuerl asserts that:

Our schools are and must be Catholic. While open to and welcoming of
students of other faiths, our schools function with a clear Catholic identity.
The schools offer each student faith and moral formation while providing
an excellent academic education. Catholic identity is intrinsic to our
educational effort and is the reason for its success. We name our schools
"Catholic" not as a nod to their past history but as a proclamation of their
purpose and identity today and of their connectedness to the Church mat
authenticates their identity (p. 16).
Given the timing of mis initiative, it would seem doubly important to investigate the
findings of the vocational aspects of this study further to ensure that Catholic high school
teachers are cognizant and supportive of the Catholic mission of their schools.
Any factor that affects education seems rich fodder for public debate. Teacher stress
is certainly one such factor and thus deserves attention. As cited earlier, over 2,000,000
American children are educated in Catholic schools (McDonald, 2007). It is therefore
critical that mis topic be examined within the context of Catholic schools as well as
public schools. There is still a great deal to explore in order to fully comprehend the
complexities of teacher stress and its ramifications. Because teacher stress impacts many
facets including job satisfaction, retention rates, and teacher relationships of all types,
studying the stress of Catholic school teachers is vitally important. And, of course, the
performance and services of high functioning, professionally satisfied teachers are vital
for the welfare of our children and schools as a whole.

Appendix A
Teacher Inventory
(adaptedfromFimian, 1988)
The following items relate to teacher concerns. Please read each statement carefully and
decide if you ever feel this way in your work. Then indicate how strong the feeling is
when you experience it by circling the appropriate rating on the 5-point scale. If you
have not experienced this feeling, or if the item is not applicable to you, please circle
number 1 (no strength; not noticeable). The rating scale is provided below.
Examples:
I feel insufficiently prepared for my job.
* If you feel very strongly that you are insufficiently
prepared for your job, you would circle number 5.

1 2

I feel that if I step back in either effort or commitment, I

may be seen as less competent.
*Ifyou never feel this way, or the feeling does not have
noticeable strength, you would circle number 1.

1 2

HOW
STRONG IS
THE
FEELING?

1
no strength;
not noticeable

RATING SCALE
2
3
medium
mild strength;
barely
strength;
noticeable
moderately
noticeable

4
great
strength; very
noticeable

5
major
strength;
extremely
noticeable

TIME MANAGEMENT
(Fimian, 1988)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

I easily over-commit myself.

I become impatient if others do things too slowly.
I have to do more than one thing at a time.
I have little time to relax/enjoy the day.
I think about unrelated matters during conversations.
I feel uncomfortable wasting time.
There isn't enough time to get things done.
I rush in my speech.

133

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5

WORK-RELATED STRESSORS
(Fimian, 1988)
9. There is little time to prepare my lessons/responsibilities. 1
1
10. There is too much work to do.
1
11. The pace of the school day is too fast.
1
12. My caseload is too big.
1
13. My personal priorities are being shortchanged due to
time demands.
1
14. There is too much administrative paperwork in my job.
PROFESSIONAL DISTRESS
(Fimian, 1988)
15. I lack promotion and/or advancement opportunities.
16. I am not progressing in my job as rapidly as I would
like.
17.1 need more status and respect on my job.
18.1 receive an inadequate salary for the work I do.
19.1 lack recognition for the extra work and/or good work
that I do.

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

5
5
5
5
5

1 2
1 2

3
3

4
4

5
5

1 2
1 2
1 2

3
3
3

4
4
4

5
5
5

1 2

1 2
1 2

3
3

4
4

5
5

1 2

1 2

1 2

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
5

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
5

DISCIPLINE AND MOTIVATION

(Fimian, 1988)
20. I feel frustrated because of discipline problems in my
classroom.
2 1 . 1 feel frustrated having to monitor pupil behavior.
22. I feel frustrated because some students would do better
if they only tried.
23. I feel frustrated attempting to teach students who are
poorly motivated.
24. I feel frustrated because of inadequate/poorly defined
discipline problems.
25. I feel frustrated when my authority is rejected by
pupils/administration.

26.
27.

28.
29.

PROFESSIONAL INVESTMENT
(Fimian, 1988)
My personal opinions are not sufficiently aired.
1
I lack control over decisions made about
1
classroom/school matters.
I am not emotionally/intellectually stimulated on the job. 1
I lack opportunities for professional improvement.
1

134

RELATIONSHIPS WITH PARENTS

(Colon, 2008)
1
30. I feel pressure from parents who place too much
responsibility on me for their child's academic success.
1
3 1 . 1 feel frustrated when parents do not respect my a
authority.
1
32. I am criticized unfairly by parents.
1
33. Parents often approach me without speaking to their
child first.
1
34. I feel that parents have unrealistic expectations for me.
1
35. Parents demand too much of my time/attention.

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
5

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
5

VOCATION
(Colon, 2008)
The Congregation for Catholic Education, a group created by and operating under the
Vatican's Holy See, maintains that Catholic teachers and educators
"fulfill a specific Christian vocation and share an equally
specific participation in the mission of the Church, to the
extent that it depends chiefly on them whether the Catholic
school achieves its purpose" (Congregation for Catholic
Education, 1997).
36. I feel frustrated trying to fulfill the vocation of the
1 2
3
4
Catholic school teacher.
37. I do not feel prepared to meet the ministry aspects of
1 2
3
4
my work as a Catholic school teacher.
38. I lack professional opportunities to further my faith.
1 2
3
4
39. I feel unsupported by aclministration and/or parents in
1 2
3
4
fulfilling my vocation as a Catholic school teacher.
EMOTIONAL MANIFESTIONS
(Fimian, 1988)
40. I respond to stress by feeling insecure.
1
4 1 . 1 respond to stress by feeling vulnerable.
1
42. I respond to stress by feeling unable to cope.
1
43. I respond to stress by feeling depressed.
1
44. I respond to stress by feeling anxious.
1

135

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

5
5
5
5

5
5
5
5
5

45.
46.
47.
48.
49.

FATIGUE MANIFESTATIONS
(Fimian, 1988)
1
I respond to stress by sleeping more than usual.
1
I respond to stress by procrastinating.
1
I respond to stress by becoming fatigued in a short
period of time.
1
I respond to stress with physical exhaustion.
1
I respond to stress with physical weakness.

2
2
2

3
3
3

4
4
4

5
5
5

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
5

CARDIOVASCULAR MANIFESTATIONS
(Fimian, 1988)
50. I respond to stress with feelings of increased blood
1 2
pressure.
5 1 . 1 respond to stress with feelings of heart pounding or
1 2
racing.
52. I respond to stress with rapid and/or shallow breath.
1 2
GASTROINTESTINAL MANIFESTATIONS
(Fimian, 1988)
53. I respond to stress with stomach pain of extended
1 2
duration.
54. I respond to stress with stomach cramps.
1 2
55. I respond to stress with stomach acid.
1 2

3
3

4
4

5
5

BEHAVIORAL MANIFESTATIONS
(Fimian, 1988)
I respond to stress by using over-the-counter drugs.
1
I respond to stress by using prescription drugs.
1
I respond to stress by using alcohol.
1
I respond to stress by calling in sick.
1

3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4

5
5
5
5

56.
57.
58.
59.

136

2
2
2
2

DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
(adapted from Fimian, 1988)
Your sex:
Your age:
Your race:
Are you Catholic?
Religious or lay?
How many years have you been teaching?
What is the most advanced degree you hold?

137

Appendix B
Letter to Principals
April 2,2006
Dear Sir or Madam:
The difficulties and demands of the teaching profession continue to grow in variety and intensity,
and at times they can become quite burdensome. This I know first hand as a classroom teacher
and now as a doctoral candidate pursuing my Ph.D. in Education at the Catholic University of
America in Washington, D.C.
The purpose of my dissertation is to examine the self-reported perceptions of the sources and
manifestations of teacher stress in Catholic high school teachers in the Baltimore-Washington
metropolitan area. To this end, teacher participants at each school will be asked to voluntarily
complete a short questionnaire and participate in a brief interview.
Your approval to participate in the study would be greatly appreciated by me. I believe teachers
at
would also appreciate the opportunity to share their outlook on such an
important topic especially at the bequest of their principal, who values their experiences and
perspectives. Certainly the results of this study would be of interest to teachers and
administrators alike, as teacher stress is one of the primary causes of teacher turnover and
dissatisfaction.
As a guarantee and prerequisite for the study, the results of the study will be made available. All
responses will be kept confidential - no individual teacher name or school name will be requested
or appear anywhere in the study or in the dissertation. Any data procured during the research will
be destroyed after one year following the successful completion of the study.
In preparation for the study to be conducted during the 2007-2008 school year, the schools must
be determined within the next few months. I ask for your approval to implement the study in
your school. If you are willing to participate I would next ask that you kindly state your
willingness to participate by drafting a letter to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Catholic
University on your school letterhead. The letter must be sent care of me in the self-addressed
envelope included so that I might include it as part of the packet of materials to be submitted to
the board. And thirdly, I ask that you contact me if you have any questions or perhaps any
personal insights on teacher stress you think might be of interest to me. Furthermore, if you have
any questions that you feel might be better addressed by my dissertation chair, Dr. Shavaun Wall,
please do not hesitate to contact her at walls@cua.edu
Once the IRB at Catholic University grants approval to proceed, I will be in touch with you so as
to arrange a convenient time to conduct the survey next year. It should be a rewarding experience
for us all. Thank you for you kind consideration, and I hope to hear from you soon.
Sincerely,
Carolyn C. Boyer- Colon
138

Appendix C
Research Consent Form for Inventory
RESEARCH CONSENT
FORM

Subject Name:

Date:

Title of Study: Teacher Stress Among Catholic High School Teachers: Its Nature and
Significance
Principal Investigator: Carolyn C. Boyer-Colon, Doctoral student
PURPOSE: The purpose of this doctoral dissertation study is to investigate teacher stress in
Catholic high schools.
INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE: I am being asked to participate in this study because I am
a full-time Catholic high school teacher.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCEDURES:
As a participant in this study, I will be asked to complete a questionnaire anonymously and
return it to the researcher in an unmarked envelope provided. I understand that I have the right
to refuse to answer any question or quit the study at any time. All documents and information
pertaining to this research study will be kept confidential in accordance with all applicable federal,
state, and local laws and regulations. If any presentations or publications result from this research,
I will not be identified by name. The information collected in this study will be kept in a locked
filing cabinet for one year following the final analysis of the data and subsequently destroyed. My
confidentiality will also be protected by assigning me a code number. All analysis and reporting of
results will be according to code number. Only the research investigators will have access to my
name and code number.
DISCOMFORTS AND RISKS: As a participant in this study, I will not experience any undue
risk or discomfort.
EXPECTED BENEFITS: Although there may not be any direct benefit to participating in this
study, the knowledge received may be of value to other teachers, administrators, the Catholic
Church, and anyone interested in the field of educational research. A summary of the study's
findings will be provided to the school and to any teacher who so desires.
WITHDRAWAL FROM THE STUDY: I may choose to withdraw from this study at any time
and for any reason without penalty. To withdraw, I will contact the investigator and my records
will be destroyed.

COSTS AND PAYMENTS: Participation in this study is strictly voluntary. There will be no cost
to me for participating in this research, nor is there any compensation.
139

RESEARCH CONSENT
FORM

Subject Name:

Date:

Title of Study: Teacher Stress Among Catholic High School Teachers: Its Nature and
Significance
Principal Investigator: Carolyn C. Boyer-Colon, Doctoral student
CONTACTS: All of my questions have been answered to my satisfaction and if I have further
questions about this study, I may contact Carolyn Colon at ccboyercolon@comcast.net or (410)
218-6438.
RESEARCH SUBJECT RIGHTS: I have read or have had read to me all of the above. This
form has explained the study to me and addressed all of my questions. I have been told of the
risks or discomforts and possible benefits of the study.
I understand that I do not have to take part in this study, and my refusal to participate
will involve no penalty or loss of rights to which I am otherwise entitled. I may withdraw
from this study at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which I am entitled. I
understand that any information obtained as a result of my participation in this research
study will be kept as confidential as legally possible. The results of this study may be
published, but my records will not be revealed unless required by law.
NOTE: If I have any question about the conduct of this study or my rights as a subject in this
study, I have been told I can call The Catholic University of America Office of Sponsored
Programs at (202) 319-5218.
I understand my rights as a research subject, and I voluntarily consent to participate in this
study. I understand what the study is about and how and why it is being done. I will receive a
signed copy of this consent form.
Subject's Signature

Date

Signature of Investigator

Date

140

Appendix D
Research Consent Form for Interview
RESEARCH CONSENT
FORM

Subject Name:

Date:

Title of Study: Teacher Stress Among Catholic High School Teachers: Its Nature and
Significance
Principal Investigator: Carolyn C. Boyer- Colon, Doctoral student
PURPOSE: The purpose of this doctoral dissertation study is to investigate teacher stress in
Catholic high schools.
INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE: I am being asked to participate in this study because I am
a full-time Catholic high school teacher.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCEDURES: As a participant in this study, I understand that I
am expected to participate in an interview to be conducted by the principal investigator at my
place of employment. With my permission, the interview will be tape-recorded and transcripts
of the interview created from the tape-recordings. Although direct quotations may be used to
provide substantiation of interpretations, none will be attributed to any participant. I understand
that I have the right to refuse to answer any question or halt die interview at any time.
All documents and information pertaining to this research study will be kept confidential in
accordance with all applicable federal, state, and local laws and regulations. If any presentations or
publications result from this research, I will not be identified by name. The information collected
in this study will be kept in a locked filing cabinet for one year following the final analysis of the
data and subsequently destroyed. My confidentiality will also be protected by assigning a code
number to my records for analysis and reporting of results. Only the researcher investigators will
have access to my name and code number.
DISCOMFORTS AND RISKS: As a participant in this study, I will not experience any undue
risk or discomfort.
EXPECTED BENEFITS: Although there may not be any direct benefit to participating in this
study, die knowledge received may be of value to other teachers, administrators, the Catiiolic
Church, and anyone interested in the field of educational research. A summary of die study's
findings will be provided to die school and to any teacher who so desires.

141

RESEARCH CONSENT
FORM

Subject Name:

Date:

Title of Study: Teacher Stress Among Catholic High School Teachers: Its Nature and
Significance
Principal Investigator: Carolyn C. Boyer- Colon, Doctoral student
WITHDRAWAL FROM THE STUDY: I may choose to withdraw from this study at any time
and for any reason without penalty. To withdraw, I will contact the investigator and my records
will be destroyed.
COSTS AND PAYMENTS: Participation in this study is strictly voluntary. There will be no cost
to me for participating in this research, nor is there any compensation.
CONTACTS: All of my questions have been answered to my satisfaction and if I have further
questions about this study, I may contact Carolyn Colon at ccboyercolon(q).comcast.net or (410)
218-6438.
RESEARCH SUBJECT RIGHTS: I have read or have had read to me all of the above. This
form has explained the study to me and addressed all of my questions. I have been told of the
risks or discomforts and possible benefits of the study.
I understand that I do not have to take part in this study, and my refusal to participate
will involve no penalty or loss of rights to which I am otherwise entitled. I may withdraw
from this study at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which I am entitled. I
understand that any information obtained as a result of my participation in this research
study will be kept as confidential as legally possible. The results of this study may be
published, but my records will not be revealed unless required by law.
NOTE: If I have any question about the conduct of this study or my rights as a subject in this
study, I have been told I can call The Catholic University of America Office of Sponsored
Programs at (202) 319-5218.
I understand my rights as a research subject, and I voluntarily consent to participate in this
study. I understand what the study is about and how and why it is being done. I will receive a
signed copy of this consent form.
Subject's Signature

Date

Signature of Investigator

Date
142

Appendix E
Interview Guide
o Describe the most stressful parts of your occupation?
o Overall, do you believe teachers in your school are stressed?
o In general, how would you describe the majority of your interactions with
parents?
o What do you find most problematic in dealing with parents?
o Can you explain how parent might support you better?
o How do you cope with stress?
o Do you believe your work in a Catholic school to be a vocation? Please explain.
o Can you explain how the administration does or does not support you adequately
in general?
o What sort of things might administrators do to better support you?

Interview Probes
o "You mentioned

; could you tell me more about that?"

o "What were you thinking at the time?"

o "What do you mean by

?"

o "I'm not sure I am following you."

o "Can you give me an example?"
o "Tell me about it."

143

Appendix F
Coding of Qualitative Data
Topic
Sources of Stress

Overall Perception of
Stress

Coping

Relationships with
Parents

Mission

Vocation

Codes
What are the greatest sources ofstress for this population?
Lack of Student Motivation
Student Misbehavior
Amount of Work
Do these teachers believe teachers in their school are stressed?
Belief that teachers in their school are stressed
A. Some more stressed than others
1. teachers who volunteer for additional jobs
2. masterful teachers
3. younger teachers
4. teachers with children at home
How do these teachers cope with stress?
Exercise
Prayer
Prioritizing/Staying Organized
How do these teachers describe their relationships with parents?
Positive
What do these teachers find most problematic in dealing with parents?
Parents Who Blame the Teacher
Demanding Parents
What can parents do to better support teachers?
Improve Communication with Teachers/Reinforce Teachers
Forge Partnership
Do these teachers findfurthering the mission of the Catholic Church
stressful?
Don't find furthering the mission of the Church stressful
A. Enjoy it
B. Feel unaffected by it
Do find furthering the mission of the Church stressful
A. Feel overwhelmed by the magnitude of it
B. Feel uncomfortable with it
Do these teachers believe their occupation to be a vocation?
Believe teaching in Catholic school is a vocation
Believe teaching is a vocation
How do these teachers characterize their relationships with
administrators?

Administration

Positive
How can the administration support these teachers better?
Enforce Rules and Disciplinary Action
Support Teachers' Authority
Teacher Input in Decision-Making
Praise/Reward

144

Appendix G
Cross Tabulations for Demographic Variables
Cross Tabulation for Gender by School
Gender
School
A
Count
Percent of Total
B
Count
Percent of Total
C
Count
Percent of Total
D
Count
Percent of Total
Total
Count
Percent of Total

Male

Female

Total

16
8.4%

41
21.5%

57
29.8%

14
7.3%

8
4.2%

22
11.5%

39
20.4%

21
11.0%

60
31.4%

29
15.2%

23
12.0%

52
27.2%

98
51.3%

93
48.7%

191
100%

145

Cross Tabulation for Age by School

School
A
Count
Percent of
Total
B
Count
Percent of
Total
C
Count
Percent of
Total
D
Count
Percent of
Total
Total
Count
Percent of
Total

20-30

31-40

41-50

Age
51-60

61-70

70+

Didn't
Report

Total

22
11.5%

8
4.2%

7
3.7%

9
4.7%

1
0.5%

0
0.0%

10
5.2%

57
29.8%

3
1.6%

6
3.1%

5
2.6%

3
1.6%

1
0.5%

1
0.5%

3
1.6%

22
11.5%

17
8.9%

12
6.3%

13
6.8%

4
2.1%

6
3.1%

0
0.0%

8
4.2%

60
31.4%

12
6.3%

8
4.2%

5
2.6%

15
7.9%

6
3.1%

0
0%

6
3.1%

52
27.2%

54
28.3%

34
17.8%

30
15.7%

31
16.2%

14
7.3%

1
0.5%

27
14.1%

191
100%

146

Cross Tabulation of Race by School

Race
School

A
Count
Percent of Total
B
Count
Percent of Total
C
Count
Perent of Total
D
Count
Percent of Total
Total
Count
Percent of Total

Caucasian

African
American

Hispanic

Filipino

Didn't
Report

Total

51
26.7%

1
0.5%

4
2.1%

0
0.0%

1
0.5%

57
29.8%

22
11.5%

0
0.0%

0
0.0%

0
0.0%

0
0.0%

22
11.5%

45
23.6%

6
3.1%

3
1.6%

1
0.5%

5
2.6%

60
31.4%

47
24.6%

2
1.0%

1
0.5%

0
0.0%

2
1.0%

52
27.2%

165
86.4%

9
4.7%

8
4.2%

1
0.5%

8
4.2%

191
100%

Cross Tabulation for Catholic or non-Catholic by School

School
A
Count
Percent of Total
B
Count
Percent of Total
C
Count
Percent of Total
D
Count
Percent of Total
Total
Count
Percent of Total

Yes

Catholic
No

Didn't
Respond

Total

41
21.5%

15
7.9%

1
0.5%

57
29.8%

19
9.9%

2
1.0%

1
0.5%

22
11.5%

46
24.1%

13
6.8%

1
0.5%

60
31.4%

29
15.2%

21
11.0%

2
1.0%

52
27.2%

135
70.7%

51
26.7%

5
2.6%

191
100%

147

Cross Tabulation of Religions or Lay By School

School

Lay

Lay
Religious

Didn't Report

Total

55
28.8%

1
0.5%

1
0.5%

57
29.8%

21
11.0%

0
0%

1
0.5%

22
11.5%

58
30.4%

2
1.0%

0
0%

60
30.4%

51
26.7%

0
0%

1
0.5%

52
27.2%

185
96.9%

3
1.6%

3
1.6%

191
100%

A
Count
Percent of Total
B
Count
Percent of Total
C
Count
Percent of Total
D
Count
Percent of Total
Total
Count
Percent of Total

Cross Tabulation for Number of Years Taught By School

Number of Years Taught
0-5

6-10

11-15

16-20

21-25

26-30

31 +

Didn't
Report

Total

A
Count
Percent of Total

21
11.0%

11
5.8%

11
5.8%

6
3.1%

2
1.0%

3
1.6%

2
1.05

1
0.5%

57
29.8
%

B
Count
Percent f Total

8
4.2%

3
1.6%

2
1.0%

3
1.6%

0
0%

2
1.0%

4
2.1%

0
05

22
11.5
%

C
Count
Percent of Total

23
12

8
4.2%

7
3.7%

2
1.0%

9
4.7%

2
1.0%

9
4.7%

1
0.5%

60
31.4
%

D
Count
Percent of Total

11
5.8%

8
4.2%

5
2.6%

5
2.6%

1
0.5%

1
1.0%

18
9.4%

2
1.0%

52
27.2
%

Total
Count
Percent of Total

63
33%

30
15.7%

25
13.1%

16
8.4%

10
5.2%

9
4.7%

33
17.3%

4
2.1%

191
100%

School

148

Cross Tabulation for Highest Degree Held by School

School

Didn't
Report

Total

0
1
0.0% 0.5%

2
1.0%

57
29.8%

0
0.0%

1
0
0.5% 0.0%

0
0.0%

22
11.5%

33
17.3%

0
0.0%

4
1
2.1% 0.5%

1
0.5%

52
27.2%

21
11.0%

27
14.1%

1
0.5%

1
1
0.5% 0.5%

1
0.5%

52
27.2%

82
42.9%

96
50.3%

1
0.5%

2
1.0%

4
2.1%

191
100.0%

Bachelor's

Master's

Ed.D.

29
15.2%

25
13.1%

0
0.0%

10
5.2%

11
5.8%

22
11.5%

J.D.

Ph.D.

A
Count
Percent of Total
B
Count
Percent of Total
C
Count
Percent of Total
D
Count
Percent of Total
Total
Count
Percent of Total

149

6
3.1%

Appendix H
MANOVA for Stress Source Factors
Between-Sabjects Factors
Value Label
School

School A

57

School B

22

SchoolC

60

SchoolD

52

Descriptive Statistics
School
Time Management

Work Related Stressors

Professional Distress

Mean

Std. Deviation

School A

3.5329

.73060

57

School B

3.4148

.82410

22

School C

3.3917

.65559

60

SchoolD

3.3101

.79924

52

Total

3.4143

.73802

191

School A

3.1053

.86956

57

SchoolB

3.3586

.82931

22

School C

3.4019

.64338

60

School D

3.2799

.81189

52

Total

3.2752

.78669

191

School A

2.6550

.87459

57

School B

2.9924

.99533

22

SchoolC

3.2333

.87935

60

School D

3.1090

.94850

52

Total

2.9991

.93419

191

150

Discipline and Motivation

Professional Investment

Relationships with Parents

Vocation

School A

2.6947

.97125

57

School B

2.5909

.91021

22

School C

2.9933

.80672

60

School D

2.7615

.90665

52

Total

2.7948

.90161

191

School A

1.9678

.84365

57

SchoolB

2.9924

1.04714

22

School C

3.0806

.91003

60

School D

2.8013

1.03902

52

Total

2.6623

1.04678

191

School A

2.2909

1.09745

57

School B

2.3295

.97708

22

School C

2.5958

.85877

60

School D

2.4375

.81330

52

Total

2.4311

.93953

191

School A

1.6257

.76912

57

School B

2.0455

.87011

22

School C

2.3111

.99266

60

School D

1.9455

.77031

52

Total

1.9764

.89240

191

Box's Test of Equality of Covariance

Matrices*
Box's M

488.786

5.338

dfl

84

df2

2.521E4

Sig.

.000

151

Multivariate Tests1
Value

Effect
Intercept

School

Hypothesis df

Error df

Sig.

Pillai's Trace

.961

6.323E2*

7.000

181.000

.000

Wilks' Lambda

.039

6.323E2"

7.000

181.000

.000

Hotelling's Trace

24.454

6.323E2a

7.000

181.000

.000

Roy's Largest Root

24.454

6.323E2*

7.000

181.000

.000

Pillai's Trace

.382

3.816

21.000

549.000

.000

Wilks' Lambda

.634

4.266

21.000

520.284

.000

Hotelling's Trace

.553

4.734

21.000

539.000

.000

Roy's Largest Root

.506

13.232b

7.000

183.000

.000

a. Exact statistic
b. The statistic is an upper bound on F that yields a lower bound on the significance level.
c. Design: Intercept + School

Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances*

F
Time Management

dfl

df2

Sig.

.884

187

.451

2.006

187

.115

Professional Distress

.256

187

.857

Discipline and Motivation

.707

187

.549

Professional Investment

1.410

187

.241

Relationships with Parents

2.758

187

.044

Vocation

1.699

187

.169

Work Related Stressors

Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is
equal across groups.
a. Design: Intercept + School

152

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Type III
Sum of
Squares

Mean
df

Square

Sig.

Source

Dependent Variable

Corrected Model

Time Management

1.397"

.466

.853 .467

Work Related Stressors

2.763b

.921

1.500 .216

10.671c

3.557

4.287 .006

3.908d

1.303

1.618 .187

41.388e

13.796

15.467 .000

2.977f

.992

1.126 .340

13.886g

4.629

6.298 .000

Professional Distress
Discipline and Motivation
Professional Investment
Relationships with Parents
Vocation
Intercept

School

Time Management

1883.870

1883.870

3.451E3 .000

Work Related Stressors

1747.366

1747.366

2.846E3 .000

Professional Distress

1453.580

1453.580

1.752E3 .000

Discipline and Motivation

1232.540

1232.540

1.531E3 .000

Professional Investment

1188.635

1188.635

1.333E3 .000

Relationships with Parents

942.367

942.367

1.070E3 .000

Vocation

635.519

635.519

864.777 .000

Time Management

1.397

.466

.853 .467

Work Related Stressors

2.763

.921

1.500 .216

10.671

3.557

4.287 .006

3.908

1.303

1.618 .187

41.388

13.796

15.467 .000

2.977

.992

1.126 .340

13.886

4.629

6.298 .000

Time Management

102.090

187

.546

Work Related Stressors

114.826

187

.614

Professional Distress

155.143

187

.830

Discipline and Motivation

150.545

187

.805

Professional Investment

166.803

187

.892

Professional Distress
Discipline and Motivation
Professional Investment
Relationships with Parents
Vocation
Error

153

Total

Corrected Total

Relationships with Parents

164.740

187

.881

Vocation

137.425

187

.735

Time Management

2330.016

191

Work Related Stressors

2166.383

191

Professional Distress

1883.814

191

Discipline and Motivation

1646.298

191

Professional Investment

1561.972

191

Relationships with Parents

1296.542

191

Vocation

897.417

191

Time Management

103.487

190

Work Related Stressors

117.588

190

Professional Distress

165.814

190

Discipline and Motivation

154.453

190

Professional Investment

208.191

190

Relationships with Parents

167.717

190

Vocation

151.311

190

a. R Squared = .013 (Adjusted R Squared = -.002)

b. R Squared = .023 (Adjusted R Squared = .008)
c. R Squared = .064 (Adjusted R Squared = .049)
d. R Squared = .025 (Adjusted R Squared = .010)
e. R Squared = .199 (Adjusted R Squared = .186)
f. R Squared = .018 (Adjusted R Squared = .002)
g. R Squared = .092 (Adjusted R Squared = .077)

154

Estimated Marginal Means

School
95% Confidence Interval
Mean

Std. Error

Dependent Variable

School

Time Management

School A

3.533

.098

3.340

3.726

School B

3.415

.158

3.104

3.726

SchoolC

3.392

.095

3.203

3.580

School D

3.310

.102

3.108

3.512

School A

3.105

.104

2.901

3.310

School B

3.359

.167

3.029

3.688

School C

3.402

.101

3.202

3.601

SchoolD

3.280

.109

3.066

3.494

School A

2.655

.121

2.417

2.893

School B

2.992

.194

2.609

3.376

School C

3.233

.118

3.001

3.465

School D

3.109

.126

2.860

3.358

School A

2.695

.119

2.460

2.929

SchoolB

2.591

.191

2.214

2.968

School C

2.993

.116

2.765

3.222

School D

2.762

.124

2.516

3.007

School A

1.968

.125

1.721

2.215

School B

2.992

.201

2.595

3.390

School C

3.081

.122

2.840

3.321

School D

2.801

.131

2.543

3.060

School A

2.291

.124

2.046

2.536

School B

2.330

.200

1.935

2.724

School C

2.596

.121

2.357

2.835

School D

2.437

.130

2.181

2.694

Work Related Stressors

Professional Distress

Discipline and Motivation

Professional Investment

Relationships with Parents

155

Lower Bound

Upper Bound

Vocation

School A

1.626

.114

1.402

1.850

SchoolB

2.045

.183

1.685

2.406

School C

2.311

.111

2.093

2.529

School D

1.946

.119

1.711

2.180

Post Hoc Tests

School
Multiple Comparisons
GamesHowell
95% Confidence
Interval

Mean
Dependent

Difference (I-

Upper

Bound

Bound

(I) School

(J) School

Time

School A

School B

.1181

.20059

.935

-.4232

.6595

Schoolc

.1412

.12856

.691

-.1941

.4765

School D

.2228

.14714

.433

-.1614

.6070

School A

-.1181

.20059

.935

-.6595

.4232

SchoolC

.0231

.19502

.999

-.5059

.5521

School D

.1047

.20774

.958

-.4531

.6624

School A

-.1412

.12856

.691

-.4765

.1941

School B

-.0231

.19502

.999

-.5521

.5059

SchoolD

.0816

.13945

.936

-.2829

.4460

School A

-.2228

.14714

.433

-.6070

.1614

School B

-.1047

.20774

.958

-.6624

.4531

School C

-.0816

.13945

.936

-.4460

.2829

Work Related School A

School B

-.2533

.21101

.630

-.8190

.3123

Stressors

School C

-.2966

.14200

.164

-.6674

.0742

School D

-.1747

.16106

.700

-.5950

.2457

Management

School B

School C

School D

Std. Error

Lower

Variable

156

Sig.

School B

School C

School D

Professional

School A

Distress

School B

School C

SchoolD

Discipline and School A

Motivation

School B

School C

School A

.2533

.21101

.630

-.3123

.8190

SchoolC

-.0433

.19535

.996

-.5737

.4872

SchoolD

.0787

.20961

.982

-.4839

.6412

School A

.2966

.14200

.164

-.0742

.6674

School B

.0433

.19535

.996

-.4872

.5737

SchoolD

.1219

.13991

.820

-.2438

.4877

School A

.1747

.16106

.700

-.2457

.5950

SchoolB

-.0787

.20961

.982

-.6412

.4839

SchoolC

-.1219

.13991

.820

-.4877

.2438

School B

-.3375

.24176

.511

-.9902

.3153

School C

-.5784*

.16219

.003

-1.0012

-.1555

School D

-.4540

.17527

.053

-.9117

.0037

School A

.3375

.24176

.511

-.3153

.9902

School C

-.2409

.24066

.750

-.8911

.4093

SchoolD

-.1166

.24966

.966

-.7873

.5542

School A

.5784*

.16219

.003

.1555

1.0012

School B

.2409

.24066

.750

-.4093

.8911

School D

.1244

.17375

.891

-.3292

.5780

School A

.4540

.17527

.053

-.0037

.9117

SchoolB

.1166

.24966

.966

-.5542

.7873

School C

-.1244

.17375

.891

-.5780

.3292

.1038

.23283

.970

-.5199

.7275

School C

-.2986

.16552

.277

-.7305

.1333

SchoolD

-.0668

.17988

.982

-.5363

.4027

School A

-.1038

.23283

.970

-.7275

.5199

SchoolC

-.4024

.22024

.279

-.9974

.1925

School D

-.1706

.23123

.881

-.7908

.4495

School A

.2986

.16552

.277

-.1333

.7305

SchoolB

.4024

.22024

.279

-.1925

.9974

School D

.2318

.16326

.490

-.1946

.6581

School B

157

School D

Professional

School A

Investment

School B

School C

School D

School A

.0668

.17988

.982

-.4027

.5363

School B

.1706

.23123

.881

-.4495

.7908

SchoolC

-.2318

.16326

.490

-.6581

.1946

School B

-1.0246*

.24966

.001

-1.7009

-.3483

School C

-1.1127*

.16214

.000

-1.5354

-.6900

School D

-.8334*

.18234

.000

-1.3100

-.3569

School A

1.0246*

.24966

.001

.3483

1.7009

School C

-.0881

.25228

.985

-.7702

.5939

School D

.1911

.26571

.889

-.5216

.9039

School A

1.1127*

.16214

.000

.6900

1.5354

School B

.0881

.25228

.985

-.5939

.7702

School D

.2793

.18591

.440

-.2063

.7648

School A

.8334*

.18234

.000

.3569

1.3100

School B

-.1911

.26571

.889

-.9039

.5216

School C

-.2793

.18591

.440

-.7648

.2063

Relationships School A

School B

-.0386

.25402

.999

-.7177

.6405

with Parents

School C

-.3049

.18281

.346

-.7821

.1723

School D

-.1466

.18398

.856

-.6270

.3339

School A

.0386

.25402

.999

-.6405

.7177

SchoolC

-.2663

.23598

.675

-.9040

.3714

SchoolD

-.1080

.23689

.968

-.7478

.5319

School A

.3049

.18281

.346

-.1723

.7821

School B

.2663

.23598

.675

-.3714

.9040

SchoolD

.1583

.15815

.749

-.2543

.5710

School A

.1466

.18398

.856

-.3339

.6270

School B

.1080

.23689

.968

-.5319

.7478

School C

-.1583

.15815

.749

-.5710

.2543

School B

-.4197

.21164

.214

-.9910

.1515

SchoolC

-.6854*

.16371

.000

-1.1124

-.2583

SchoolD

-.3198

.14761

.139

-.7051

.0655

School B

School C

School D

Vocation

School A

158

School B

School C

School D

School A

.4197

.21164

.214

-.1515

.9910

School C

-.2657

.22547

.644

-.8686

.3372

School D

.0999

.21407

.966

-.4769

.6768

School A

.6854*

.16371

.000

.2583

1.1124

School B

.2657

.22547

.644

-.3372

.8686

SchoolD

.3656

.16684

.132

-.0697

.8009

School A

.3198

.14761

.139

-.0655

.7051

School B

-.0999

.21407

.966

-.6768

.4769

School C

-.3656

.16684

.132

-.8009

.0697

Based on observed means.

The error term is Mean Square(Error)
= .735.
*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

159

Appendix I
MANOVA for Stress Manifestation Factors
Between-Subjects Factors
Value Label
School

School A

57

School B

22

School C

60

SchoolD

52

Descriptive Statistics
School
Emotional Manifestations

Mean

Std. Deviation

School A

2.3307

.96782

57

School B

1.7841

.75709

22

SchoolC

2.1569

.74537

60

School D

1.9471

.81550

52

Total

2.1087

.85166

191

School A

2.5333

.92144

57

School B

2.1182

.86775

22

SchoolC

2.4800

.97786

60

School D

2.5885

1.04893

52

Total

2.4838

.97208

191

Cardiovascular Manifestations School A

1.9988

1.02651

57

School B

2.3364

.90161

22

SchoolC

2.3367

.85529

60

School D

2.4231

.96743

52

Total

2.2593

.95345

191

Fatigue Manifestations

160

Gastrointestinal

School A

1.6433

.95506

57

Manifestations

School B

1.6364

.84771

22

School C

1.6278

.86378

60

School D

2.0000

1.05409

52

Total

1.7347

.95116

191

School A

1.3436

.48363

57

SchoolB

1.5000

.72557

22

School C

1.4833

.77490

60

School D

1.7244

1.16545

52

Total

1.5092

.83624

191

Behavioral Manifestations

Box's Test of Equality of

Covariance Matrices*
Box's M

148.270

3.101

dfl

45

df2

2.699E4

Sig.

.000

Tests the null hypothesis

that the observed
covariance matrices of the
dependent variables are
equal across groups.
a. Design: Intercept + School

161

Multivariate Tests'
Effect
Intercept

School

Hypothesis df

Value

Error df

Sig.

Pillai's Trace

.898

3.207E28

5.000

183.000

.000

Wilks' Lambda

.102

3.207E2a

5.000

183.000

.000

Hotelling's Trace

8.764

3.207E2"

5.000

183.000

.000

Roy's Largest Root

8.764

3.207E28

5.000

183.000

.000

Pillai's Trace

.165

2.149

15.000

555.000

.007

Wilks' Lambda

.841

2.178

15.000

505.584

.006

Hotelling's Trace

.182

2.201

15.000

545.000

.006

Roy's Largest Root

.132

4.869b

5.000

185.000

.000

a. Exact statistic
b. The statistic is an upper bound on F that yields a lower bound on the significance level.
c. Design: Intercept + School

Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances"

F
Emotional Manifestations

df2

dfl

Sig.

1.249

187

.293

.680

187

.565

Cardiovascular Manifestations

1.527

187

.209

Gastrointestinal Manifestations

.954

187

.416

10.654

187

.000

Fatigue Manifestations

Behavioral Manifestations

Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is equal
across groups.
a. Design: Intercept + School

162

Tests of Between-Sub, ects Effects

Type III
Sum of

Mean

Source

Dependent Variable

Corrected

Emotional Manifestations

6.625a

2.208

3.148

.026

Model

Fatigue Manifestations

3.65 l b

1.217

1.294

.278

5.752

1.917

2.147

.096

5.035d

1.678

1.881

.134

Behavioral Manifestations

4.013e

1.338

1.941

.124

Emotional Manifestations

683.037

683.037

973.634

.000

Fatigue Manifestations

955.328

955.328

1.016E3

.000

836.414

836.414

936.744

.000

482.451

482.451

540.690

.000

Behavioral Manifestations

370.266

370.266

537.355

.000

Emotional Manifestations

6.625

2.208

3.148

.026

Fatigue Manifestations

3.651

1.217

1.294

.278

5.752

1.917

2.147

.096

5.035

1.678

1.881

.134

Behavioral Manifestations

4.013

1.338

1.941

.124

Emotional Manifestations

131.187

187

.702

Fatigue Manifestations

175.888

187

.941

166.971

187

.893

166.858

187

.892

128.853

187

.689

Cardiovascular
Manifestations
Gastrointestinal
Manifestations

Intercept

Cardiovascular
Manifestations
Gastrointestinal
Manifestations

School

Cardiovascular
Manifestations
Gastrointestinal
Manifestations

Error

Cardiovascular
Manifestations
Gastrointestinal
Manifestations
Behavioral Manifestations

Squares

163

df

Square

Sig.

987.136

191

1357.840

191

1147.702

191

746.667

191

Behavioral Manifestations

567.882

191

Corrected

Emotional Manifestations

137.812

190

Total

Fatigue Manifestations

179.540

190

172.723

190

171.893

190

132.866

190

Total

Emotional Manifestations
Fatigue Manifestations
Cardiovascular
Manifestations
Gastrointestinal
Manifestations

Cardiovascular
Manifestations
Gastrointestinal
Manifestations
Behavioral Manifestations
a. R Squared = .048 (Adjusted R Squared = .033)
b. R Squared = .020 (Adjusted R Squared = .005)
c. R Squared = .033 (Adjusted R Squared = .018)
d. R Squared = .029 (Adjusted R Squared = .014)
e. R Squared = .030 (Adjusted R Squared = .015)

164

Estimated Marginal Means

School
95% Confidence Interval
Std. Error

Dependent Variable

School

Emotional Manifestations

School A

2.331

.111

2.112

2.550

SchoolB

1.784

.179

1.432

2.136

School C

2.157

.108

1.944

2.370

School D

1.947

.116

1.718

2.176

School A

2.533

.128

2.280

2.787

SchoolB

2.118

.207

1.710

2.526

School C

2.480

.125

2.233

2.727

School D

2.588

.134

2.323

2.854

Cardiovascular Manifestations School A

1.999

.125

1.752

2.246

SchoolB

2.336

.201

1.939

2.734

School C

2.337

.122

2.096

2.577

School D

2.423

.131

2.165

2.682

Gastrointestinal

School A

1.643

.125

1.396

1.890

Manifestations

School B

1.636

.201

1.239

2.034

SchoolC

1.628

.122

1.387

1.868

School D

2.000

.131

1.742

2.258

School A

1.344

.110

1.127

1.560

SchoolB

1.500

.177

1.151

1.849

School C

1.483

.107

1.272

1.695

School D

1.724

.115

1.497

1.951

Fatigue Manifestations

Behavioral Manifestations

Mean

165

Lower Bound

Upper Bound

Post Hoc Tests

School
Multiple Comparisons
Games-Howell
95% Confidence
Interval

Mean
Difference
Dependent Variable

(I) School

Emotional Manifestations School A

School B

School C

SchoolD

Fatigue Manifestations

School A

School B

(J) School

(I-J)

Std. Error

Sig.

Lower

Upper

Bound

Bound

School B

.5466

.20612

.051

-.0017 1.0949

School C

.1738

.16029

.700

-.2447

.5922

School D

.3836

.17094

.118

-.0626

.8298

School A

-.5466

.20612

.051

-1.0949

.0017

SchoolC

-.3729

.18792

.212

-.8784

.1327

School D

-.1630

.19709

.841

-.6900

.3639

School A

-.1738

.16029

.700

-.5922

.2447

SchoolB

.3729

.18792

.212

-.1327

.8784

School D

.2098

.14849

.494

-.1779

.5975

School A

-.3836

.17094

.118

-.8298

.0626

School B

.1630

.19709

.841

-.3639

.6900

SchoolC

-.2098

.14849

.494

-.5975

.1779

School B

.4152

.22164

.256

-.1787 1.0090

School C

.0533

.17559

.990

-.4044

.5111

School D

-.0551

.18988

.991

-.5511

.4408

School A

-.4152

.22164

.256

-1.0090

.1787

School C

-.3618

.22397

.381

-.9610

.2374

School D

-.4703

.23534

.203

-1.0968

.1563

166

School C

School D

Cardiovascular

School A

Manifestations

School B

School C

School D

Gastrointestinal

School A

Manifestations

School B

School C

School A

-.0533

.17559

.990

-.5111

.4044

School B

.3618

.22397

.381

-.2374

.9610

School D

-.1085

.19260

.943

-.6113

.3943

School A

.0551

.18988

.991

-.4408

.5511

School B

.4703

.23534

.203

-.1563 1.0968

School C

.1085

.19260

.943

-.3943

.6113

School B

-.3375

.23545

.486

-.9666

.2916

School C

-.3378

.17515

.222

-.7948

.1191

SchoolD

-.4242

.19101

.124

-.9228

.0743

School A

.3375

.23545

.486

-.2916

.9666

School C

-.0003

.22168

1.000

-.5975

.5969

School D

-.0867

.23441

.982

-.7136

.5401

School A

.3378

.17515

.222

-.1191

.7948

School B

.0003

.22168

1.000

-.5969

.5975

School D

-.0864

.17375

.960

-.5402

.3674

School A

.4242

.19101

.124

-.0743

.9228

School B

.0867

.23441

.982

-.5401

.7136

School C

.0864

.17375

.960

-.3674

.5402

School B

.0069

.22061

1.000

-.5828

.5966

School C

.0155

.16863

1.000

-.4243

.4553

School D

-.3567

.19331

.258

-.8615

.1481

School A

-.0069

.22061

1.000

-.5966

.5828

School C

.0086

.21237

1.000

-.5619

.5791

School D

-.3636

.23245

.408

-.9819

.2546

School A

-.0155

.16863

1.000

-.4553

.4243

SchoolB

-.0086

.21237

1.000

-.5791

.5619

School D

-.3722

.18385

.186

-.8527

.1083

167

School D

Behavioral

School A

Manifestations

School B

School C

School D

School A

.3567

.19331

.258

-.1481

.8615

School B

.3636

.23245

.408

-.2546

.9819

School C

.3722

.18385

.186

-.1083

.8527

School B

-.1564

.16743

.787

-.6131

.3002

School

-.1398

.11879

.643

-.4502

.1706

SchoolD

-.3808

.17385

.136

-.8389

.0773

School A

.1564

.16743

.787

-.3002

.6131

School C

.0167

.18422

1.000

-.4773

.5106

SchoolD

-.2244

.22372

.748

-.8151

.3664

School A

.1398

.11879

.643

-.1706

.4502

SchoolB

-.0167

.18422

1.000

-.5106

.4773

School D

-.2410

.19007

.586

-.7390

.2569

School A

.3808

.17385

.136

-.0773

.8389

SchoolB

.2244

.22372

.748

-.3664

.8151

School C

.2410

.19007

.586

-.2569

.7390

Based on observed means.

The error term is Mean Square(Error) = .689.

Collinearity Diagnostics*
Variance Proportions
Model

Dimension

1.908

1.000

.05

.05

.092

4.566

.95

.95

2.685

1.000

.02

.02

.04

.224

3.460

.08

.15

.95

.091

5.437

.90

.83

.01

Eigenvalue

Condition Index

a. Dependent Variable: Vocation

168

(Constant)

School

Number of years teaching

Descriptive Statistics
Std. Deviation

Mean

2.1087

.85166

191

Gender

1.49

.501

191

Catholic

1.32

.521

191

2.5602

1.18112

191

3.30

2.333

191

Emotional Manifestations

School
Number of years teaching

Correlations
Emotional
Number of

Manifestatio
Gender

ns
Pearson

Emotional

Correlation

Manifestations

School

years teaching

1.000

.179

-.006

-.139

-.143

Gender

.179

1.000

-.034

-.232

-.057

Catholic

-.006

-.034

1.000

.118

.155

School

-.139

-.232

.118

1.000

.241

-.143

-.057

.155

.241

1.000

.007

.469

.028

.024

.319

.001

.215

.052

.016

Number of years
teaching
Sig. (1-

Emotional

tailed)

Manifestations
Gender

.007

Catholic

.469

.319

School

.028

.001

.052

.024

.215

.016

.000

191

191

191

191

191

Gender

191

191

191

191

191

Catholic

191

191

191

191

191

School

191

191

191

191

191

Number of years
teaching
N

Catholic

Emotional

.000

Manifestations

169

Correlations
Emotional
Number of

Manifestatio
Gender

ns
Pearson

Emotional

Catholic

School

years teaching

1.000

.179

-.006

-.139

-.143

Gender

.179

1.000

-.034

-.232

-.057

Catholic

-.006

-.034

1.000

.118

.155

School

-.139

-.232

.118

1.000

.241

-.143

-.057

.155

.241

1.000

.007

.469

.028

.024

.319

.001

.215

.052

.016

Correlation Manifestations

Number of years
teaching
Sig. (1-

Emotional

tailed)

Manifestations
Gender

.007

Catholic

.469

.319

School

.028

.001

.052

.024

.215

.016

.000

191

191

191

191

191

Gender

191

191

191

191

191

Catholic

191

191

191

191

191

School

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

Number of years
teaching
Emotional
Manifestations

Number of years
teaching

170

.000

Appendix J
Regression Analyses
Descriptive Statistics
Mean

Std. Deviation

2.9991

.93419

191

Gender

1.49

.501

191

Catholic

1.32

.521

191

2.5602

1.18112

191

3.30

2.333

191

Professional Distress

School
Number of years teaching

Correlations
Number
of
Professional

years
Gender

Distress

Catholic

School

teaching

Pearson

Professional Distress

1.000

-.028

.000

.215

.096

Correlation

Gendef

-.028

1.000

-.034

-.232

-.057

Catholic

.000

-.034

1.000

.118

.155

School

.215

-.232

.118

1.000

.241

.096

-.057

.155

.241

1.000

.353

.499

.001

.093

.319

.001

.215

.052

.016

Number of years
teaching
Sig. (1-tailed) Professional Distress

Gender

.353

Catholic

.499

.319

School

.001

.001

.052

Number of years
teaching

.093

.215

.016

.000

Professional Distress

191

191

191

191

191

Gender

191

191

191

191

191

Catholic

191

191

191

191

191

171

.000

School
Number of years
teaching

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

Variables Entered/Removed*

Model

Variables

Variables

Entered

Removed

Method
Stepwise

(Criteria:
Probability
-of-F-toenter <=

School

.050,
Probability
-of-F-toremove >=
.100).

a. Dependent Variable: Professional Distress

Model Summary
Change Statistics
R
Model

.215a

Adjusted

Std. Error of

R Square

Square R Square

the Estimate

Change

.046

.041

.91473

Sig.F
dfl

F Change

.046

9.168

df2
1

Change

189

a. Predictors: (Constant), School

ANOVA"
Model
1

Sum of Squares
Regression

df

Mean Square

7.672

7.672

Residual

158.143

189

.837

Total

165.814

190

a. Predictors: (Constant), School

b. Dependent Variable: Professional Distress

172

F
9.168

Sig.
.003"

.003

Coefficients*
Unstandardized

Standardized

Coefficients

Coefficients

Collinearity Statistics

Std.
Model

2.564

.158

.170

.056

(Constant)
School

Error

Beta

Sig.

Tolerance

16.190

.000

3.028

.003

.215

1.000

VIF

1.000

a. Dependent Variable:
Professional Distress
Excluded Variables11
Collinearity Statistics
Partial
Beta In

Model

Minimum

Correlation Tolerance

Sig.

VIF

Tolerance

Gender

.024a

.323

.747

.024

.946

1.057

.946

Catholic

-.026a

-.357

.722

-.026

.986

1.014

.986

.047*

.641

.522

.047

.942

1.062

.942

Number of
years teaching

a. Predictors in the Model: (Constant),

School
b. Dependent Variable: Professional
Distress
Collinearity Diagnostics"
Variance Proportions

Dimensi
Model

on

1.908

1.000

.05

.05

.092

4.566

.95

.95

Eigenvalue

Condition Index

(Constant)

a. Dependent Variable: Professional Distress

173

School

Regression
Descriptive Statistics
Mean
Professional Investment

Std. Deviation

2.6623

1.04678

191

Gender

1.49

.501

191

Catholic

1.32

.521

191

2.5602

1.18112

191

3.30

2.333

191

School
Number of years teaching

Correlations
Number
of years

Professional
Investment
Pearson

Professional

Correlation

Investment

School

teaching

-.024

-.072

.337

-.042

Gender

-.024

1.000

-.034

-.232

-.057

Catholic

-.072

-.034

1.000

.118

.155

School

.337

-.232

.118

1.000

.241

-.042

-.057

.155

.241

1.000

.373

.160

.000

.282

.319

.001

.215

.052

.016

teaching
Professional
Investment

Catholic

1.000

Number of years

Sig. (1 -tailed)

Gender

Gender

.373

Catholic

.160

.319

School

.000

.001

.052

Number of years
teaching

.282

.215

.016

.000

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

Professional
Investment
Gender

174

.000

Catholic

191

191

191

191

191

School

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

Number of years
teaching
Variables Entered/Removed"

Model

Variables

Variables

Entered

Removed

Method
Stepwise
(Criteria:
Probability
-of-F-toenter <=

School

.050,
Probability
-of-F-toremove >=
.100).

a. Dependent Variable: Professional Investment

Model Summary
Change Statistics
R
Model
1

R
.337a

Adjusted

Std. Error of

R Square

Square R Square

the Estimate

Change

.113

.109

.98820

.113

a. Predictors: (Constant), School

175

Sig.F
F Change
24.193

d2

dfl
1

189

Change
.000

ANOVAb
Model
1

Sum of Squares
Regression

Mean Square

df

23.625

23.625

Residual

184.565

189

.977

Total

208.191

190

Sig.
.000"

24.193

a. Predictors: (Constant), School

b. Dependent Variable: Professional Investment

Coefficients*
Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients
Model
1

(Constant)
School

Std. Error

Coefficients
t

Beta

1.898

.171

.299

.061

Collinearity Statistics

.337

Sig.

11.095

.000

4.919

.000

Tolerance

1.000

VIF

1.000

a. Dependent Variable: Professional Investment

Excluded Variables'*
Collinearity Statistics
Partial
Model
1

Beta In

Sig.

Correlation

Minimum
Tolerance

VTF

Tolerance

Gender

.058a

.820

.413

.060

.946

1.057

.946

Catholic

-.114a

-1.656

.099

-.120

.986

1.014

.986

-.131" -1.865

.064

-.135

.942

1.062

.942

Number
of years
teaching
a. Predictors in the Model: (Constant),
School
b. Dependent Variable: Professional
Investment

176

Collinearity Diagnostics8
Variance Proportions

Dimens
Model ion
1

Eigenvalue

Condition Index

(Constant)

School

1.908

1.000

.05

.05

.092

4.566

.95

.95

a. Dependent Variable: Professional Investment

Regression
Descriptive Statistics
Mean
Vocation

Std. Deviation

1.9764

.89240

191

Gender

1.49

.501

191

Catholic

1.32

.521

191

2.5602

1.18112

191

3.30

2.333

191

School
Number of years teaching

Correlations
Number of
years
Vocation

Gender

Catholic

School

teaching

Pearson

Vocation

1.000

-.028

-.122

.184

-.144

Correlation

Gender

-.028

1.000

-.034

-.232

-.057

Catholic

-.122

-.034

1.000

.118

.155

School

.184

-.232

.118

1.000

.241

-.144

-.057

.155

.241

1.000

.350

.046

.005

.023

.319

.001

.215

.052

.016

Number of years
teaching
Sig. (1-tailed) Vocation

Gender

.350

Catholic

.046

.319

School

.005

.001

177

.052

.000

Number of years

.023

.215

.016

.000

Vocation

191

191

191

191

191

Gender

191

191

191

191

191

Catholic

191

191

191

191

191

School

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

teaching
N

Number of years
teaching

Variables Entered/Removed"
Model

Variables

Variables

Entered

Removed

Method
Stepwise

(Criteria:
Probability-ofSchool

F-to-enter <=
.050,
Probability-ofF-to-remove >=
.100).

Stepwise
(Criteria:
Probability-ofNumber of years

F-to-enter <=

teaching

.050,
Probability-ofF-to-remove >=
.100).

a Dependent Variable: Vocation

178

Model Summary
Change Statistics
Adjusted R Std. Error of
Model

.184"

.034

.029

.87947

.034

6.625

189

.011

.072

.062

.86440

.038

7.647

188

.006

.268

R Square

Sig.F

R Square

Square

the Estimate

Change

df2

F Change dfl

a. Predictors: (Constant), School

b. Predictors: (Constant), School, Number of years
teaching
ANOVAc
Model
1

Sum of Squares
Regression

df

Mean Square

5.124

5.124

Residual

146.186

189

.773

Total

151.311

190

10.838

5.419

Residual

140.472

188

.747

Total

151.311

190

Regression

a. Predictors: (Constant), School

b. Predictors: (Constant), School, Number of years teaching
c. Dependent Variable: Vocation

179

Sig.

6.625

.01 r

7.253

.001 b

Change

Coefficients'

Model
1

Unstandardized

Standardized

Collinearity

Coefficients

Coefficients

Statistics

B
(Constant)

1.620

.152

.139

.054

1.780

.160

.175

.055

-.077

.028

School
2

(Constant)

Std. Error

School
Number of years
teaching

Beta

Sig.

10.644

.000

2.574

.011

11.100

.000

.232

3.208

-.200

-2.765

.184

Tolerance

VIF

1.000

1.000

.002

.942

1.062

.006

.942

1.062

a. Dependent Variable: Vocation

Excluded Variables'
Collinearity Statistics
Partial
Model
1

Beta In

Correlation

Sig.

Minimum
Tolerance

VIF

Tolerance

Gender

.015"

.209

.835

.015

.946

1.057

.946

Catholic

-.146"

-2.049

.042

-.148

.986

1.014

.986

-.200"

-2.765

.006

-.198

.942

1.062

.942

Gender

.015b

.208

.836

.015

.946

1.057

.894

Catholic

-.123b

-1.728

.086

-.125

.969

1.032

.926

Number of
years teaching
2

a. Predictors in the Model: (Constant),

School
b. Predictors in the Model: (Constant), School, Number of years
teaching
c. Dependent Variable: Vocation

180

Collinearity Diagnostics"
Variance Proportions
Number of years
Eigenvalue Condition Index (Constant)

Model

Dimension

1.908

1.000

.05

.05

.092

4.566

.95

.95

2.685

1.000

.02

.02

.04

.224

3.460

.08

.15

.95

.091

5.437

.90

.83

.01

School

teaching

a. Dependent Variable: Vocation

Regression
Descriptive Statistics
Mean
Emotional Manifestations

Std. Deviation

2.1087

.85166

191

Gender

1.49

.501

191

Catholic

1.32

.521

191

2.5602

1.18112

191

3.30

2.333

191

School
Number of years teaching

Correlations
Number of
Emotional

years

Manifestations
Pearson

Emotional

Correlation

Manifestations

Gender

Catholic

School

teaching

1.000

.179

-.006

-.139

-.143

Gender

.179

1.000

-.034

-.232

-.057

Catholic

-.006

-.034

1.000

.118

.155

School

-.139

-.232

.118

1.000

.241

-.143

-.057

.155

.241

1.000

Number of years
teaching

181

Sig. (l-tailed)

Emotional

.007

Manifestations

.001

.215

.469

.319

.052

.016

School

.028

.001

.052

.000

.024

.215

.016

.000

191

191

191

191

191

Gender

191

191

191

191

191

Catholic

191

191

191

191

191

School

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

191

Manifestations

Number of years
teaching

Variables Entered/Removed*
Variables

Variables

Entered

Removed

Method
Stepwise
(Criteria:
Probability
-of-F-to-

Gender

.319

Catholic

Emotional

.024

.007

teaching

Model

.028

Gender

Number of years

.469

enter <=
.050,
Probability
-of-F-toremove >=
.100).

a. Dependent Variable: Emotional Manifestations

182

Model Summary
Change Statistics

Std. Error
Adjusted
Model

.179"

of the

.032

.027

Sig.F

R Square

R Square R Square Estimate

Change

F Change

.032

.84017

dfl
1

6.232

Change

df2

.013

189

a. Predictors: (Constant), Gender

ANOVAb
Model
1

Sum of Squares
Regression

df

Mean Square

4.399

4.399

Residual

133.412

189

.706

Total

137.812

190

Sig.

6.232

.013"

a. Predictors: (Constant), Gender

b. Dependent Variable: Emotional Manifestations
Coefficients*
Unstandardized

Standardized

Coefficients

Coefficients

Collinearity Statistics

Std.
Model
1

B
(Constant)
Gender

Error

1.657

.191

.304

.122

Beta

.179

Sig.

Tolerance

8.686

.000

2.496

.013

VIF

1.000

1.000

a. Dependent Variable: Emotional Manifestations

Excluded Variablesb
Collinearity Statistics
Partial
Model

Beta In

Catholic
School

Sig.

Correlation

Tolerance

VIF

Minimum
Tolerance

.000a

.006

.995

.000

.999 1.001

.999

-.103"

-1.405

.162

-.102

.946 1.057

.946

183

Number of years
teaching

-.133"

-1.872

.063

-.135

a. Predictors in the Model: (Constant), Gender

b. Dependent Variable: Emotional Manifestations
Collineariry Diagnostics3
Condition
Model Dimension
1

Eigenvalue

Index

Variance Proportions
(Constant)

Gender

1.948

1.000

.03

.03

.052

6.113

.97

.97

a. Dependent Variable: Emotional Manifestations

184

.997 1.003

.997

Appendix K
Visual Representation for Teacher Stress Inventory Norms
(Fimian, 1988)

* SIG m
1

.5

ViraeHan
PfofDis
Proflrw
Fat i gne
Bistro
Total
URStrsrs Btsdfet
Efff
Cardie
Bihau
Figure 2.
Graphic Representation of High-Low Cut-Off Points for
the T SI Subscate and Scale Mean Scores

185

SIG

Appendix L
ANOVA for Total Stress Score by School
Descriptives
Total Stress
95% Confidence Interval
for Mean
Std.
N

Deviation

Mean

Std. Error

Lower

Upper

Bound

Bound

Minimum Maximum

School A

57

2.3102

.47667

.06314

2.1837

2.4367

1.30

3.45

School B

23

2.4382

.56849

.11854

2.1924

2.6840

1.00

3.32

School C

62

2.5649

.50644

.06432

2.4363

2.6935

1.43

4.07

School D

49

2.5537

.62769

.08967

2.3734

2.7340

1.22

3.94

191

2.4707

.54662

.03955

2.3927

2.5488

1.00

4.07

Total

Test of Homogeneity of Variances

Total Stress
Levene Statistic
2.290

dfl

df2
3

Sig.
.080

187

ANOVA
Total Stress
Sum of Squares
Between Groups

df

Mean Square

2.380

.793

Within Groups

54.391

187

.291

Total

56.771

190

186

Sig.
2.728

.045

Post Hoc Tests

Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable: Total Stress
9 5 % Confidence
Interval
Mean

Tukey H S D

Bound

School B

-.12801

.13323

.772

-.4734

.2173

School C

-.25472

.09897

.052

-.5113

.0018

School D

-.24349

.10507

.098

-.5158

.0289

School A

.12801

.13323

.772

-.2173

.4734

School C

-.12671

.13167

.771

-.4680

.2146

School D

-.11548

.13632

.832

-.4688

.2379

School A

.25472

.09897

.052

-.0018

.5113

School B

.12671

.13167

.771

-.2146

.4680

School D

.01123

.10309

1.000

-.2560

.2785

School A

.24349

.10507

.098

-.0289

.5158

School B

.11548

.13632

.832

-.2379

.4688

School C

-.01123

.10309

1.000

-.2785

.2560

School B

-.12801

.13323

.820

-.5039

.2478

School C

-.25472

.09897

.089

-.5339

.0245

School D

-.24349

.10507

.151

-.5399

.0529

School A

.12801

.13323

.820

-.2478

.5039

School C

-.12671

.13167

.819

-.4982

.2448

School D

-.11548

.13632

.869

-.5000

.2691

School A

.25472

.09897

.089

-.0245

.5339

School B

.12671

.13167

.819

-.2448

.4982

SchoolD

.01123

.10309

1.000

-.2796

.3021

School D

Scheffe

Bound

School A

School C

School A

School B

School C

187

Sig.

Upper

(J) School

School B

Difference (I-J) Std. Error

Lower

(I) School

School D

Bonferroni

School A

School B

School C

School D

School A

.24349

.10507

.151

-.0529

.5399

School B

.11548

.13632

.869

-.2691

.5000

School C

-.01123

.10309

1.000

-.3021

.2796

School B

-.12801

.13323

1.000

-.4833

.2272

School C

-.25472

.09897

.065

-.5186

.0092

School D

-.24349

.10507

.129

-.5237

.0367

School A

.12801

.13323

1.000

-.2272

.4833

School C

-.12671

.13167

1.000

-.4778

.2244

School D

-.11548

.13632

1.000

-.4790

.2480

School A

.25472

.09897

.065

-.0092

.5186

School B

.12671

.13167

1.000

-.2244

.4778

School D

.01123

.10309

1.000

-.2637

.2861

School A

.24349

.10507

.129

-.0367

.5237

School B

.11548

.13632

1.000

-.2480

.4790

School C

-.01123

.10309

1.000

-.2861

.2637

188

Homogeneous Subsets
TotalStress
Subset for alpha =
0.05
School
TukeyHSD"

School A

57

2.3102

School B

23

2.4382

School D

49

2.5537

School C

62

2.5649
.145

Sig.
Scheffe8

School A

57

2.3102

School B

23

2.4382

School D

49

2.5537

SchoolC

62

2.5649

Sig.

.210

189

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