OR GATE (IC7432)

The OR gate gets its name from the fact that it

behaves after the fashion of the logical inclusive
"or." The output is "true" if either or both of the
inputs are "true." If both inputs are "false," then
the output is "false."
The

OR

gate

implements

is

logical

digital

logic

disjunction

gate
it

that

behaves

according to the truth table to the right. A HIGH

output (1) results if one or both the inputs to the
gate are HIGH (1). If neither input is HIGH, a LOW
output (0) results. In another sense, the function
of OR effectively finds the maximum between two
binary digits, just as the complementary AND
function finds the minimum.
1

Symbol diagram

A+B

TRUTH TABLE

INPUT

OUTPUT

A OR B

A truth table is a table that describes the behavior

of a logic gate. It lists the value of the output for
every possible combination of the inputs and can
be used to simplify the number of logic gates and
level of nesting in an electronic circuit. In general
the truth table does not lead to an efficient
implementation; a minimization procedure, using
Karnaugh maps, the QuineMcCluskey algorithm
or a heuristic algorithm is required for reducing
the circuit complexity.

Digital electronics are systems that represent

signals as discrete levels, rather than as a
continuous range. In most cases the number of
states is two, and these states are represented by
two voltage levels: one near to zero volts and one
at a higher level depending on the supply voltage
in use. These two levels are often represented as
"Low" and "High."
5

The fundamental advantage of digital techniques

stem from the fact it is easier to get an electronic
device to switch into one of a number of known
states than to accurately reproduce a continuous
range of values.
Digital electronics are usually made from large
assemblies

of

logic

gates,

simple

electronic

representations of Boolean logic functions.

Logic gate
A logic gate performs a logical operation on one
or more logic inputs and produces a single logic
output. The logic normally performed is Boolean
logic and is most commonly found in digital
circuits. Logic gates are primarily implemented
electronically using diodes or transistor, but can
also be constructed using electromagnetic relays,
fluidics, optics, molecules, or even mechanical
elements.
In electronic logic, a logic level is represented by a
voltage or current, (which depends on the type of
electronic logic in use). Each logic gate requires
power so that it can source and sink currents to
achieve the correct output voltage. In logic circuit
7

diagrams the power is not shown, but in a full

electronic

schematic,

power

connections

are

required.

NAND and NOR logic gates are the two pillars of

logic, in that all other types of Boolean logic gates
(i.e., AND, OR, NOT, XOR, XNOR) can be created
from a suitable network of just NAND or just NOR
gate(s).

They

can

be

built

from

relays

or

transistors, or any other technology that can

create an inverter and a two-input AND or OR
gate. Hence the NAND and NOR gates are called
the universal gates. A logic gate is an elementary
building block of a digital circuit. Most logic gates
have two inputs and one output. At any given
8

moment, every terminal is in one of the two

binary conditions low (0) or high (1), represented
by different voltage levels. The logic state of a
terminal can, and generally does, change often, as
the circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the
low state is approximately zero volts (0 V), while
the high state is approximately five volts positive
(+5 V).
There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR,
NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

10

J1
1
2
3

U1
L M 7 80 5H

+B A TT

R L M T 0 3 (M )

VCC

VCC

3
C2
C E L5
1 0M / 6 3V

C1
C CER
1 04 P F

VCC

J2
1
2
3

U2

R L M T 0 3 (M )

VCC

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

14
13
12
11
10
9
8

D2
LED

R2
R
47 0E

1 4P IN IC
J3
1
2
3
R L M T 0 3 (M )

11

VCC
R1

D1

R
47 0E

LED

Components list

12

13

PCB LAYOUT

14

15

16

17

Printed Circuit Boards

18

In electronics, printed circuit boards, or PCBs, are

used to mechanically support and electrically
connect electronic components using conductive
pathways, or traces, etched from copper sheets
laminated

onto

non-conductive

substrate.

Alternative names are printed wiring board (PWB)

and etched wiring board. Populating the board
with electronic components forms a printed circuit
assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit
board

assembly

(PCBA).

PCBs

are

rugged,

inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They

require much more layout effort and higher initial
cost than either wire-wrapped or point-to-point
constructed circuits, but are much cheaper, faster,
and consistent in high volume production.

19

Printed circuit boards fall into the following

categories:
Motherboard:

The principal

board that has

connectors for attaching devices to the bus.

Typically, the mother board contains the CPU,
memory, and basic controllers for the system. On
PCs, the motherboard is often called the system
board or mainboard.
Expansion board : Any board that plugs into one
of the computer's expansion slots. Expansion
boards include controller boards, LAN cards, and
video adapters.
Daughter card : Any board that attaches directly
to another board.

20

Controller board: A special type of expansion

board that contains a controller for a peripheral
device. When you attach new devices, such as a
disk drive or graphics monitor, to a computer, you
often need to add a controller board.
Network Interface Card (NIC) : An expansion
board that enables a PC to be connected to a
local-area network (LAN).
Video adapter: An expansion board that contains
a controller for a graphics monitor.
Printed circuit boards are also called cards.
Manufacturing
Patterning (etching)

21

The vast majority of printed circuit boards are

made by adhering a layer of copper over the
entire

substrate,

sometimes

on

both

sides,

(creating a "blank PCB") then removing unwanted

copper after applying a temporary mask (eg. by
etching), leaving only the desired copper traces. A
few PCBs are made by adding traces to the bare
substrate (or a substrate with a very thin layer of
copper) usually by a complex process of multiple
electroplating steps.
There are three common "subtractive" methods
(methods that remove copper) used for the
production of printed circuit boards:
1. Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks
to protect the copper foil. Subsequent etching
22

removes the unwanted copper. Alternatively,

the ink may be conductive, printed on a blank
(non-conductive) board. The latter technique
is also used in the manufacture of hybrid
circuits.
2. Photoengraving uses a photomask and
chemical etching to remove the copper foil
from the substrate. The photomask is usually
prepared

with

photoplotter

from

data

produced by a technician using CAM, or

computer-aided
Laser-printed

manufacturing

transparencies

are

software.
typically

employed for phototools; however, direct

laser imaging techniques are being employed
to

replace

phototools

requirements.
23

for

high-resolution

3. PCB

milling

uses

two

or

three-axis

mechanical milling system to mill away the

copper foil from the substrate. A PCB milling
machine (referred to as a 'PCB Prototyper')
operates in a similar way to a plotter,
receiving commands from the host software
that control the position of the milling head in
the x, y, and (if relevant) z axis. Data to drive
the

Prototyper

is

extracted

from

files

generated in PCB design software and stored

in HPGL or Gerber file format.
"Additive" processes also exist. The most common
is the "semi-additive process. In this version, the
unpatterned board has a thin layer of copper
already on it. A reverse mask is then applied.

24

(Unlike a subtractive process mask, this mask

exposes those parts of the substrate that will
eventually become the traces.) Additional copper
is then plated onto the board in the unmasked
areas; copper may be plated to any desired
weight. Tin-lead or other surface platings are then
applied. The mask is stripped away and a brief
etching step removes the now-exposed original
copper laminate from the board, isolating the
individual

traces.

The

additive

process

is

commonly used for multi-layer boards as it

facilitates the plating-through of the holes (vias) in
the circuit board.
Lamination

25

Some PCBs have trace layers inside the PCB and

are called multi-layer PCBs. These are formed by
bonding together separately etched thin boards.
Drilling
Holes, or vias, through a PCB are typically drilled
with tiny drill bits made of solid tungsten carbide.
The drilling is performed by automated drilling
machines with placement controlled by a drill tape
or drill file. These computer-generated files are
also called numerically controlled drill (NCD) files
or "Excellon files". The drill file describes the
location and size of each drilled hole. When very
small vias are required, drilling with mechanical
bits is costly because of high rates of wear and
breakage.

In

this

case,
26

the

vias

may

be

evaporated by lasers. Laser-drilled vias typically

have an inferior surface finish inside the hole.
These holes are called micro vias. It is also
possible

with

controlled-depth

drilling,

laser

drilling, or by pre-drilling the individual sheets of

the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that
connect only some of the copper layers, rather
than passing through the entire board. These
holes are called blind vias when they connect an
internal copper layer to an outer layer, or buried
vias when they connect two or more internal
copper layers.
The walls of the holes, for boards with 2 or more
layers, are plated with copper to form platedthrough

holes

that

electrically

27

connect

the

conducting layers of the PCB. For multilayer

boards, those with 4 layers or more, drilling
typically produces a smear comprised of the
bonding agent in the laminate system. Before the
holes can be plated through, this smear must be
removed by a chemical de-smear process, or by
plasma-etch.
Exposed conductor plating and coating
The pads and lands to which components will be
mounted

are

typically

plated,

because

bare

copper oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not

readily

solderable.

Traditionally,

any

exposed

copper was plated with solder. This solder was a

tin-lead alloy, however new solder compounds are
now used to achieve compliance with the RoHS
28

directive in the EU, which restricts the use of lead.

Other platings used are OSP (organic surface
protectant), immersion silver, electroless nickel
with immersion gold coating (ENIG), and direct
gold. Edge connectors, placed along one edge of
some boards, are often gold plated.
Solder resist
Areas that should not be soldered to may be
covered with a polymer solder resist (solder mask)
coating. The solder resist prevents solder from
bridging between conductors and thereby creating
short circuits. Solder resist also provides some
protection from the environment.
Screen printing

29

Line art and text may be printed onto the outer

surfaces of a PCB by screen printing. When space
permits,

the

component

screen

print

designators,

text

can

indicate

switch

setting

requirements, test points, and other features

helpful in assembling, testing, and servicing the
circuit board.Screen print is also known as the silk
screen, or, in one sided PCBs, the red print.

Test
Unpopulated boards may be subjected to a bareboard test where each circuit connection (as
defined in a netlist) is verified as correct on the
finished board. For high-volume production, a Bed
of nails tester or fixture is used to make contact
30

with copper lands or holes on one or both sides of

the board to facilitate testing. A computer will
instruct the electrical test unit to send a small
amount of current through each contact point on
the bed-of-nails as required, and verify that such
current can be seen on the other appropriate
contact points. For small- or medium-volume
boards, flying-probe testers use moving test
heads to make contact with the copper lands or
holes to verify the electrical connectivity of the
board under test.

31

Populating
After the PCB is completed, electronic components
must be attached to form a functional printed
circuit

assembly,

or

PCA.

In

through-hole

construction, component leads may be inserted in

holes and electrically and mechanically fixed to
the board with a molten metal solder, while in
surface-mount construction, the components are
simply soldered to pads or lands on the outer
surfaces

of the PCB.Often,

through-hole

and

surface-mount construction must be combined in

a single PCA because some required components
are available only in surface-mount packages,
while others are available only in through-hole
packages.
32

Again,

JEDEC

placement,

guidelines

soldering,

for
and

PCB

component

inspection

are

commonly used to maintain quality control in this

stage of PCB manufacturing. After the board is
populated, the populated board may be tested
with an in-circuit test system. To facilitate this
test, PCBs may be designed with extra pads to
make temporary connections. Sometimes these
pads must be isolated with resistors. The in-circuit
test

may

also

exercise

boundary

scan

test

features of some components. In-circuit test

systems may also be used to program nonvolatile
memory components on the board. In boundary
scan testing, test circuits integrated into various
ICs on the board form temporary connections
between the pcb traces to test that the ICs are
33

mounted correctly. Boundary scan testing requires

that all the ICs to be tested use a standard test
configuration procedure, the most common one
being the Joint Test Action Group (JTAG) standard.

34

Protection and packaging

PCBs intended for extreme environments often
have a conformal coat, which is applied by dipping
or spraying after the components have been
soldered. The coat prevents corrosion and leakage
currents or shorting due to condensation. The
earliest

conformal

coats

were

wax.

Modern

conformal coats are usually dips of dilute solutions

of silicone rubber, polyurethane, acrylic, or epoxy.
Some are engineering plastics sputtered onto the
PCB in a vacuum chamber. Many assembled PCBs
are static sensitive, and therefore must be placed
in antistatic bags during transport. When handling
these boards, the user must be earthed; failure to
do this might transmit an accumulated static
35

charge through the board, damaging or destroying

it.

Even

bare

boards

are

sometimes

static

sensitive. Traces have gotten so fine that it's quite

possible to blow an etch off the board (or change
its characteristics) with a static charge. This is
especially true on non-traditional PCBs such as
MCMs and microwave PCBs.
STEPS FOR MAKING PCB
Prepare the layout of the circuit (positive).
Cut the photofilm (slightly bigger) of the size of
the layout.
Place the layout in the photoprinter machine
with the photofilm above it. Make sure that the
bromide (dark) side of the film is in contact with
the layout.
36

 Switch on the machine by pressing the push

button for 5 sec.
Dip the film in the solution prepared (developer)
by mixing the chemicals A & B in equal
quantities in water.
Now clean the film by placing it in the tray
containing water for 1 min.

After this, dip the film in the fixer solution for 1

min. now the negative of the
Circuit is ready.
Now wash it under the flowing water.
Dry the negative in the photocure machine.

37

 Take the PCB board of the size of the layout and

clean it with steel wool to make the surface
smooth.
Now dip the PCB in the liquid photoresist, with
the help of dip coat machine.
Now clip the PCB next to the negative in the
photo cure machine, drying for approximate 1012 minute.
Now place the negative on the top of the PCB in
the UV machine, set the timer for about 2.5
minute and switch on the UV light at the top.
Take the LPR developer in a container and
rigorously move the PCB in it.
After this, wash it with water very gently.

38

 Then apply LPR dye on it with the help of a

dropper so that it is completely covered by it.
Now clamp the PCB in the etching machine that
contains ferric chloride solution for about 10
minutes.
After etching, wash the PCB with water, wipe it
a dry cloth softly.
Finally rub the PCB with a steel wool, and the
PCB is ready.

IC 7432
General Description

39

This device contains four independent gates each

of which performs the logic OR function.

40

Ordering Code:
Devices also available in Tape and Reel. Specify by
appending the suffix letter X to the ordering
code.
Connection Diagram

41

42

OUTPUT(Y) A B
H HIGH Logic Level
L LOW Logic Level
Function Table
Inputs

Output

43

The Absolute Maximum Ratings are those values

beyond which the safety of the device cannot be
guaranteed. The device should not be operated at
these limits. The parametric values defined in the
Electrical
Characteristics tables are not guaranteed at the
absolute maximum ratings.
The Recommended Operating Conditions table
will

define

the

conditions

operation.
44

for

actual

device

Electrical Characteristics
Over

recommended

operating

free

air

temperature range (unless otherwise noted)

Note 2: All typicals are at VCC 5V, TA
25C.
Note 3: Not more than one output should be
shorted at a time, and the duration should not
exceed one second.

45

AND GATE (IC7408)

OUTPU
INPUT
A
0
0
1
1

T
B A AND B
0 0
1 0
0 0
1 1

The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called

"false" and 1 is called "true," the gate acts in the
same way as the logical "and" operator. The
following illustration and table show the circuit

46

symbol and logic combinations for an AND gate.

(In the symbol, the input terminals are at left and
the output terminal is at right.) The output is
"true" when both inputs are "true." Otherwise, the
output is "false."

Desired Gate

Output(Q) =

The AND gate is a basic digital logic gate that

implements

logical

conjunction
47

it

behaves

according to the truth table to the right. A HIGH

output (1) results only if both the inputs to the
AND gate are HIGH (1). If neither or only one input
to the AND gate is HIGH, a LOW output results. In
another sense, the function of AND effectively
finds the minimum between two binary digits, just
as the OR function finds the maximum. Therefore,
the output is always 0 except when all the inputs
are 1s.

A truth table is a table that describes the behavior

of a logic gate. It lists the value of the output for
every possible combination of the inputs and can
be used to simplify the number of logic gates and
level of nesting in an electronic circuit. In general
48

the truth table does not lead to an efficient

implementation; a minimization procedure, using
Karnaugh maps, the QuineMcCluskey algorithm
or a heuristic algorithm is required for reducing
the circuit complexity.
Digital electronics are systems that represent
signals as discrete levels, rather than as a
continuous range. In most cases the number of
states is two, and these states are represented by
two voltage levels: one near to zero volts and one
at a higher level depending on the supply voltage
in use. These two levels are often represented as
"Low" and "High."
The fundamental advantage of digital techniques
stem from the fact it is easier to get an electronic
49

device to switch into one of a number of known

states than to accurately reproduce a continuous
range of values.
Digital electronics are usually made from large
assemblies

of

logic

gates,

simple

electronic

representations of Boolean logic functions.

Logic gate
A logic gate performs a logical operation on one
or more logic inputs and produces a single logic
output. The logic normally performed is Boolean
logic and is most commonly found in digital
circuits. Logic gates are primarily implemented
electronically using diodes or transistor, but can
also be constructed using electromagnetic relays,

50

fluidics, optics, molecules, or even mechanical

elements.
In electronic logic, a logic level is represented by a
voltage or current, (which depends on the type of
electronic logic in use). Each logic gate requires
power so that it can source and sink currents to
achieve the correct output voltage. In logic circuit
diagrams the power is not shown, but in a full
electronic

schematic,

power

connections

are

required.
NAND and NOR logic gates are the two pillars of
logic, in that all other types of Boolean logic gates
(i.e., AND, OR, NOT, XOR, XNOR) can be created
from a suitable network of just NAND or just NOR
gate(s).

They

can

be
51

built

from

relays

or

transistors, or any other technology that can

create an inverter and a two-input AND or OR
gate. Hence the NAND and NOR gates are called
the universal gates. A logic gate is an elementary
building block of a digital circuit. Most logic gates
have two inputs and one output. At any given
moment, every terminal is in one of the two
binary conditions low (0) or high (1), represented
by different voltage levels. The logic state of a
terminal can, and generally does, change often, as
the circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the
low state is approximately zero volts (0 V), while
the high state is approximately five volts positive
(+5 V).

52

There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR,

NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.

53

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

54

D2
1N 4007

12V

+V

D3

C2
C EL10
1 0 0 0 M /3 5 V

D4
1N 4007
D5
1N 4007

+V

+V

R1
R
4

D IS

R2
R
6
2

TH R
TR

12V

U1

R L M T 0 3 (M )

1N 4007

R4

D1
LED

CV

1
2
3

Q1
BC 547

J2
1
2
R L M T 0 2 (M )

R
4K7

LM 555
5

J1

C1
C CER
R3
R
1K5

C3
C C ER
103PF

VSS

1
2

SW 1

GND

VCC

+5V

VS

VDD

4
3

PB2PS
T it le
555

55

S iz e
A

D ocum ent N um ber

PC B 555

D a te :

S u n d a y , J a n u a ry 0 1 , 2 0 0 6

R ev
1 .0
Sheet

of

Components list

56

57

58

PCB LAYOUT

59

60

61

62

63

Printed Circuit Boards

In electronics, printed circuit boards, or PCBs, are
used to mechanically support and electrically
connect electronic components using conductive
pathways, or traces, etched from copper sheets
laminated
Alternative

onto

names

non-conductive
are

printed

substrate.

wiring

board

(PWB),and etched wiring board. Populating the

board with electronic components forms a printed
circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed
circuit board assembly (PCBA). PCBs are rugged,
inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They
require much more layout effort and higher initial
cost than either wire-wrapped or point-to-point

64

constructed circuits, but are much cheaper, faster,

and consistent in high volume production.
Printed circuit boards fall into the following
categories:

Motherboard : The principal board that has

connectors for attaching devices to the bus.
Typically, the mother board contains the CPU,
memory, and basic controllers for the system. On
PCs, the motherboard is often called the system
board or mainboard.
Expansion board : Any board that plugs into one
of the computer's expansion slots. Expansion

65

boards include controller boards, LAN cards, and

video adapters.
Daughter card : Any board that attaches directly
to another board.
Controller board: A special type of expansion
board that contains a controller for a peripheral
device. When you attach new devices, such as a
disk drive or graphics monitor, to a computer, you
often need to add a controller board.

Network Interface Card (NIC) : An expansion

board that enables a PC to be connected to a
local-area network (LAN).

66

Video adapter: An expansion board that contains

a controller for a graphics monitor.
Printed circuit boards are also called cards.
Manufacturing
Patterning (etching)
The vast majority of printed circuit boards are
made by adhering a layer of copper over the
entire

substrate,

sometimes

on

both

sides,

(creating a "blank PCB") then removing unwanted

copper after applying a temporary mask (eg. by
etching), leaving only the desired copper traces. A
few PCBs are made by adding traces to the bare
substrate (or a substrate with a very thin layer of

67

copper) usually by a complex process of multiple

electroplating steps.
There are three common "subtractive" methods
(methods that remove copper) used for the
production of printed circuit boards:
4. Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks
to protect the copper foil. Subsequent etching
removes the unwanted copper. Alternatively,
the ink may be conductive, printed on a blank
(non-conductive) board. The latter technique
is also used in the manufacture of hybrid
circuits.
5. Photoengraving uses a photomask and
chemical etching to remove the copper foil
from the substrate. The photomask is usually
68

prepared

with

photoplotter

from

data

produced by a technician using CAM, or

computer-aided
Laser-printed

manufacturing

transparencies

are

software.
typically

employed for phototools; however, direct

laser imaging techniques are being employed
to

replace

phototools

for

high-resolution

requirements.
6. PCB

milling

uses

two

or

three-axis

mechanical milling system to mill away the

copper foil from the substrate. A PCB milling
machine (referred to as a 'PCB Prototyper')
operates in a similar way to a plotter,
receiving commands from the host software
that control the position of the milling head in
the x, y, and (if relevant) z axis. Data to drive
69

the

Prototyper

is

extracted

from

files

generated in PCB design software and stored

in HPGL or Gerber file format.
"Additive" processes also exist. The most common
is the "semi-additive process. In this version, the
unpatterned board has a thin layer of copper
already on it. A reverse mask is then applied.
(Unlike a subtractive process mask, this mask
exposes those parts of the substrate that will
eventually become the traces.) Additional copper
is then plated onto the board in the unmasked
areas; copper may be plated to any desired
weight. Tin-lead or other surface platings are then
applied. The mask is stripped away and a brief
etching step removes the now-exposed original

70

copper laminate from the board, isolating the

individual

traces.The

additive

process

is

commonly used for multi-layer boards as it

facilitates the plating-through of the holes (vias) in
the circuit board.
Lamination
Some PCBs have trace layers inside the PCB and
are called multi-layer PCBs. These are formed by
bonding together separately etched thin boards.
Drilling
Holes, or vias, through a PCB are typically drilled
with tiny drill bits made of solid tungsten carbide.
The drilling is performed by automated drilling
machines with placement controlled by a drill tape

71

or drill file. These computer-generated files are

also called numerically controlled drill (NCD) files
or "Excellon files". The drill file describes the
location and size of each drilled hole. When very
small vias are required, drilling with mechanical
bits is costly because of high rates of wear and
breakage.

In

this

case,

the

vias

may

be

evaporated by lasers. Laser-drilled vias typically

have an inferior surface finish inside the hole.
These holes are called micro vias. It is also
possible

with

controlled-depth

drilling,

laser

drilling, or by pre-drilling the individual sheets of

the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that
connect only some of the copper layers, rather
than passing through the entire board. These
holes are called blind vias when they connect an
72

internal copper layer to an outer layer, or buried

vias when they connect two or more internal
copper layers.

The walls of the holes, for boards with 2 or more

layers, are plated with copper to form platedthrough

holes

that

electrically

connect

the

conducting layers of the PCB. For multilayer

boards, those with 4 layers or more, drilling
typically produces a smear comprised of the
bonding agent in the laminate system. Before the
holes can be plated through, this smear must be
removed by a chemical de-smear process, or by
plasma-etch.
Exposed conductor plating and coating
73

The pads and lands to which components will be

mounted

are

typically

plated,

because

bare

copper oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not

readily

solderable.

Traditionally,

any

exposed

copper was plated with solder. This solder was a

tin-lead alloy, however new solder compounds are
now used to achieve compliance with the RoHS
directive in the EU, which restricts the use of lead.
Other platings used are OSP (organic surface
protectant), immersion silver, electroless nickel
with immersion gold coating (ENIG), and direct
gold. Edge connectors, placed along one edge of
some boards, are often gold plated.
Solder resist

74

Areas that should not be soldered to may be

covered with a polymer solder resist (solder mask)
coating. The solder resist prevents solder from
bridging between conductors and thereby creating
short circuits. Solder resist also provides some
protection from the environment.
Screen printing
Line art and text may be printed onto the outer
surfaces of a PCB by screen printing. When space
permits,

the

component

screen

print

designators,

text

can

indicate

switch

setting

requirements, test points, and other features

helpful in assembling, testing, and servicing the
circuit board.Screen print is also known as the silk
screen, or, in one sided PCBs, the red print.
75

Test
Unpopulated boards may be subjected to a bareboard test where each circuit connection (as
defined in a netlist) is verified as correct on the
finished board. For high-volume production, a Bed
of nails tester or fixture is used to make contact
with copper lands or holes on one or both sides of
the board to facilitate testing. A computer will
instruct the electrical test unit to send a small
amount of current through each contact point on
the bed-of-nails as required, and verify that such
current can be seen on the other appropriate
contact points. For small- or medium-volume
boards, flying-probe testers use moving test
heads to make contact with the copper lands or

76

holes to verify the electrical connectivity of the

board under test.
Populating
After the PCB is completed, electronic components
must be attached to form a functional printed
circuit

assembly,

or

PCA.

In

through-hole

construction, component leads may be inserted in

holes and electrically and mechanically fixed to
the board with a molten metal solder, while in
surface-mount construction, the components are
simply soldered to pads or lands on the outer
surfaces

of the PCB.Often,

through-hole

and

surface-mount construction must be combined in

a single PCA because some required components
are available only in surface-mount packages,
77

while others are available only in through-hole

packages.
Again,

JEDEC

placement,

guidelines

soldering,

for
and

PCB

component

inspection

are

commonly used to maintain quality control in this

stage of PCB manufacturing. After the board is
populated, the populated board may be tested
with an in-circuit test system. To facilitate this
test, PCBs may be designed with extra pads to
make temporary connections. Sometimes these
pads must be isolated with resistors. The in-circuit
test

may

also

exercise

boundary

scan

test

features of some components. In-circuit test

systems may also be used to program nonvolatile
memory components on the board. In boundary

78

scan testing, test circuits integrated into various

ICs on the board form temporary connections
between the pcb traces to test that the ICs are
mounted correctly. Boundary scan testing requires
that all the ICs to be tested use a standard test
configuration procedure, the most common one
being the Joint Test Action Group (JTAG) standard.

79

Protection and packaging

PCBs intended for extreme environments often
have a conformal coat, which is applied by dipping
or spraying after the components have been
soldered. The coat prevents corrosion and leakage
currents or shorting due to condensation. The
earliest

conformal

coats

were

wax.

Modern

conformal coats are usually dips of dilute solutions

of silicone rubber, polyurethane, acrylic, or epoxy.
Some are engineering plastics sputtered onto the
PCB in a vacuum chamber. Many assembled PCBs
are static sensitive, and therefore must be placed
in antistatic bags during transport. When handling
these boards, the user must be earthed; failure to
do this might transmit an accumulated static
80

charge through the board, damaging or destroying

it.

Even

bare

boards

are

sometimes

static

sensitive. Traces have gotten so fine that it's quite

possible to blow an etch off the board (or change
its characteristics) with a static charge. This is
especially true on non-traditional PCBs such as
MCMs and microwave PCBs.

81

STEPS FOR MAKING PCB

82

 Prepare the layout of the circuit (positive).

Cut the photofilm (slightly bigger) of the size of
the layout.
Place the layout in the photoprinter machine
with the photofilm above it. Make sure that the
bromide (dark) side of the film is in contact with
the layout.
Switch on the machine by pressing the push
button for 5 sec.
Dip the film in the solution prepared (developer)
by mixing the chemicals A & B in equal
quantities in water.
Now clean the film by placing it in the tray
containing water for 1 min.

83

 After this, dip the film in the fixer solution for 1

min. now the negative of the
Circuit is ready.
Now wash it under the flowing water.

Dry the negative in the photocure machine.

Take the PCB board of the size of the layout and
clean it with steel wool to make the surface
smooth.
Now dip the PCB in the liquid photoresist, with
the help of dip coat machine.

84

 Now clip the PCB next to the negative in the

photo cure machine, drying for approximate 1012 minute.s
Now place the negative on the top of the PCB in
the UV machine, set the timer for about 2.5
minute and switch on the UV light at the top.
Take the LPR developer in a container and
rigorously move the PCB in it.
After this, wash it with water very gently.
Then apply LPR dye on it with the help of a
dropper so that it is completely covered by it.
Now clamp the PCB in the etching machine that
contains ferric chloride solution for about 10
minutes.
85

 After etching, wash the PCB with water, wipe it

a dry cloth softly.
Finally rub the PCB with a steel wool, and the
PCB is ready.

86

7408 IC
Digital

logic

devices

are

the

circuits

that

electronically perform logic operations on binary

variables. The binary information is represented
by high and low voltage levels, which the device
processes electronically. The devices that perform
the simplest of the logic operations (such as AND,
OR, NAND, etc.) are called gates. For example, an
AND gate electronically computes the AND of the
voltage encoded binary signals appearing at its
inputs and presents the voltage encoded result at
its output.
The digital logic circuits used in this laboratory are
contained in integrated circuit (IC) packages. Each

87

IC is labeled (usually with a SN74xx or SN54xx

number) to identify the logic it performs.
The transistor-transistor logic (TTL) ICs used in
this laboratory require a 5.0 volt power supply for
operation. TTL inputs require a voltage greater
than 2 volts to represent a binary 1 and a voltage
less than 0.8 volts to represent a binary 0.

88

Integrated Circuits

89

The small integrated circuits used in this lab

implement basic logic gates. Some of the pins are
inputs to the gates, others are outputs, and two of
them are the connectors for power (+5V) and
GROUND (0V).

Figure- 7408 Integrated Circuit Diagram

90

Note: In the 7408 AND gate chip shown above, pin

14 is where you will apply +5V, and pin 7 will be
connected to GROUND.

91

Component description

92

Voltage Regulators
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator
designed to automatically maintain a constant
voltage level. It may use an electromechanical
mechanism,

or

passive

or

active

electronic

components. Depending on the design, it may be

used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
With the exception of shunt regulators, all voltage
regulators operate by comparing the actual output
voltage to some internal fixed reference voltage.
Any difference is amplified and used to control the
regulation

element.

This

forms

negative

feedback servo control loop. If the output voltage

is too low, the regulation element is commanded
to produce a higher voltage. For some regulators if

93

the output voltage is too high, the regulation

element is commanded to produce a lower
voltage; however, many just stop sourcing current
and depend on the current draw of whatever it is
driving to pull the voltage back down. In this way,
the output voltage is held roughly constant. The
control

loop

must

be

carefully

designed

to

produce the desired tradeoff between stability and

speed of response.
CAPACITOR
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic
component consisting of a pair of conductors
separated by a dielectric (insulator). When a
potential difference (voltage) exists across the
conductors, an electric field is present in the
94

dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a

mechanical force between the conductors. The
effect

is

greatest

when

there

is

narrow

separation between large areas of conductor,

hence

capacitor

conductors

are

often

called

plates.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single
constant value, capacitance, which is measured in
farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on
each

conductor

to

the

potential

difference

between them. In practice, the dielectric between

the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current. The conductors and leads introduce an
equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has

95

an electric field strength limit resulting in a

breakdown voltage.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to
block the flow of direct current while allowing
alternating

current

to

pass,

to

filter

out

interference, to smooth the output of power

supplies, and for many other purposes. They are
used in resonant circuits in radio frequency
equipment to select particular frequencies from a
signal with many frequencies.

96

Theory of operation

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor

causes an internal electric field. A dielectric
(orange) reduces the field and increases the
capacitance.

97

simple

demonstration

of

parallel-plate

capacitor
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated
by a non-conductive region.The non-conductive
substance

is

called

the

dielectric

medium,

although this may also mean a vacuum or a

semiconductor
identical

to

depletion
the

region

conductors.

chemically
capacitor

is

assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with

no net electric charge and no influence from an
external electric field. The conductors thus contain
equal and opposite charges on their facing
surfaces, and the dielectric contains an electric

98

field. The capacitor is a reasonably general model

for electric fields within electric circuits.
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a
constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of
charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V
between them

Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics

of the capacitor, causing the capacitance to vary.
In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of
incremental changes:

99

In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that

one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes
a voltage of one volt across the device.
Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to
move

charge

capacitor.

between

When

the

the

conductors

external

in

influence

a
is

removed, the charge separation persists and

energy is stored in the electric field. If charge is
later allowed to return to its equilibrium position,
the

energy

is

released.

The

work

done

in

establishing the electric field, and hence the

amount of energy stored, is given by:

100

Current-voltage relation
The current i(t) through a component in an
electric circuit is defined as the rate of change of
the charge q(t) that has passed through it.
Physical

charges

cannot

pass

through

the

dielectric layer of a capacitor, but rather build up

in

equal

and

opposite

quantities

on

the

electrodes: as each electron accumulates on the

negative plate, one leaves the positive plate. Thus
the accumulated charge on the electrodes is equal
to the integral of the current, as well as being
proportional to the voltage (as discussed above).
As

with

any

antiderivative,

constant

of

integration is added to represent the initial

101

voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the

capacitor equation,

.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C,
yields the derivative form,[12]

.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which
stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the
electric

field.

Its

current-voltage

relation

is

obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the

capacitor equations and replacing C with the
inductance L.

102

DC circuits

A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates

charging of a capacitor.
A series circuit containing only a resistor, a
capacitor, a switch and a constant DC source of
voltage V0 is known as a charging circuit.

If the

capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch is

open, and the switch is closed at t = 0, it follows
from Kirchhoff's voltage law that

103

Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a

first-order differential equation,

At t = 0,

the voltage across the capacitor

is zero and the voltage across the resistor is V0.

The initial current is then i (0) =V0 /R. With this
assumption, the differential equation yields

where 0 = RC is the time constant of the system.

As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the
source voltage, the voltage across the resistor and

104

the current through the entire circuit decay

exponentially. The case of discharging a charged
capacitor

likewise

demonstrates

exponential

decay, but with the initial capacitor voltage

replacing V0 and the final voltage being zero.
RESISTOR
Resistors are used to limit the value of current in a
circuit. Resistors offer opposition to the flow of
current. They are expressed in ohms for which the
symbol is . Resistors are broadly classified as
(1) Fixed Resistors
(2) Variable Resistors
Fixed Resistors :

105

The most common of low wattage, fixed type

resistors

is

the

molded-carbon

composition

resistor. The resistive material is of carbon clay

composition. The leads are made of tinned copper.
Resistors of this type are readily available in value
ranging from few ohms to about 20M, having a
tolerance range of 5 to 20%. They are quite
inexpensive. The relative size of all fixed resistors
changes with the wattage rating.
Another variety of carbon composition resistors is
the metalized type. It is made by deposition a
homogeneous film of pure carbon over a glass,
ceramic or other insulating core. This type of filmresistor is sometimes called the precision type,
since it can be obtained with an accuracy of 1%.

106

Lead

Tinned

Copper

Material

Colour Coding

Molded Carbon Clay

Composition

107

A Wire Wound Resistor :

It uses a length of resistance wire, such as
nichrome. This wire is wounded on to a round
hollow porcelain core. The ends of the winding are
attached to these metal pieces inserted in the
core. Tinned copper wire leads are attached to
these metal pieces. This assembly is coated with
an enamel coating powdered glass. This coating is
very smooth and gives mechanical protection to
winding. Commonly available wire wound resistors
have resistance values ranging from 1 to 100K,
and wattage rating up to about 200W.
Coding Of Resistor:

108

Some resistors are large enough in size to have

their resistance printed on the body. However
there are some resistors that are too small in size
to have numbers printed on them. Therefore, a
system of colour coding is used to indicate their
values. For fixed, moulded composition resistor
four colour bands are printed on one end of the
outer casing. The colour bands are always read
left to right from the end that has the bands
closest to it. The first and second band represents
the first and second significant digits, of the
resistance value. The third band is for the number
of zeros that follow the second digit. In case the
third band is gold or silver, it represents a
multiplying factor of 0.1to 0.01. The fourth band
represents the manufactures tolerance.
109

RESISTOR COLOUR CHART

0 black

0 black

0 black

0 black

1 brown

1 brown

1 brown

1 brown

2 red

2 red

2 red

2 red

3 orange

3 orange

3 orange

3 orange

4 yellow

4 yellow

4 yellow

4 yellow

5 green

5 green

5 green

5 green

6 blue

6 blue

6 blue

6 blue

7 purple

7 purple

7 purple

7 purple

8 silver

8 silver

8 silver

8 silver

9 white

9 white

9 white

9 white

For example, if a resistor has a colour band

sequence: yellow, violet, orange and gold
Then its range will be
Yellow=4,

violet=7, orange=10,

=47K 5% =2.35K

110

gold=5%

Most resistors have 4 bands:

The first band gives the first digit.

The second band gives the second digit.

The third band indicates the number of zeros.

The fourth band is used to show the tolerance

(precision) of the resistor.

This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4

zeros)

and

gold

bands.

So its value is 270000 = 270 k .

The standard colour code cannot show values of
less than 10 . To show these small values two
special colours are used for the third band: gold,

111

which means 0.1 and silver which means

0.01. The first and second bands represent the
digits as normal.
For example:
red, violet, gold bands represent 27 0.1 = 2.7
blue,

green,

silver

bands

represent

56 0.01 = 0.56
The fourth band of the colour code shows the
tolerance of a resistor. Tolerance is the precision of
the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For
example a 390 resistor with a tolerance of 10%
will have a value within 10% of 390 , between
390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10%
of 390).

112

A special colour code is used for the fourth band

tolerance:
silver 10%, gold 5%, red 2%, brown 1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is 20%.
VARIABLE

RESISTOR:

In

electronic

circuits,

sometimes it becomes necessary to adjust the

values of currents and voltages. For n example it
is often desired to change the volume of sound,
the brightness of a television picture etc. Such
adjustments can be done by using variable
resistors.
Although the variable resistors are usually
called rheostats in other applications, the
smaller variable resistors commonly used in
electronic circuits are called potentiometers.
113

Resistor shorthand:
Resistor

values

are

often

written

on

circuit

diagrams using a code system which avoids using

a decimal point because it is easy to miss the
small dot. Instead the letters R, K and M are used
in place of the decimal point. To read the code:
replace the letter with a decimal point, then
multiply the value by 1000 if the letter was K, or
1000000 if the letter was M. The letter R means
multiply by 1.
For example:
560R
2K7
39K

means
means

560

2.7

means

39

1M0 means 1.0 M = 1000 k

114

2700
k

Power Ratings of Resistors

Electrical

energy

converted

to

is

heat

when

current flows through

resistor.

Usually

the

High
power
effect is resistors
negligible, but if the
(5W
top,
25W
resistance is low (or
bottom)
the

voltage

across

the

resistor high) a large current may pass making the

resistor become noticeably warm. The resistor
must be able to withstand the heating effect and
resistors have power ratings to show this.
Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in
parts lists because for most circuits the standard
115

power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For

the rare cases where a higher power is required it
should be clearly specified in the parts list, these
will be circuits using low value resistors (less than
about 300 ) or high voltages (more than 15V).
The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by:
P = I where P = power developed in the resistor
R

in

watts

(W)

or

I = current through the resistor in

P = V /

amps

R = resistance of the resistor in

(A)

ohms

( )

V = voltage across the resistor in

volts (V)

116

Examples:

A 470

resistor with 10V across it, needs a

power rating P = V/R = 10/470 = 0.21W.

In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would

be suitable.

A 27

resistor with 10V across it, needs a

power rating P V/R = 10/27 = 3.7W.

A high power resistor with a rating of 5W
would be suitable.

CONNECTORS
Connectors

are

basically

used

for

interface

between two. Here we use connectors for having

117

interface between PCB and 8051 Microprocessor

Kit.
There are two types of connectors they are male
and female. The one, which is with pins inside, is
female and other is male.
These connectors are having bus wires with them
for connection.
For

high

frequency

operation

the

average

circumference of a coaxial cable must be limited

to about one wavelength, in order to reduce
multimodal propagation and

eliminate

erratic

reflection coefficients, power losses, and signal

distortion.

The

standardization

of

coaxial

connectors during World War II was mandatory for

118

microwave operation to maintain a low reflection

coefficient or a low voltage standing wave ratio.
Seven

types

of

microwave

connectors are as follows:

1.APC-3.5
2.APC-7
3.BNC
4.SMA
5.SMC
6.TNC7.Type N
LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

119

coaxial

A junction diode, such as LED, can emit light or

exhibit

electro

luminescence.

Electro

luminescence is obtained by injecting minority

carriers into the region of a pn junction where
radiative

transition

takes

place.

In

radiative

transition, there is a transition of electron from the

conduction band to the valence band, which is
made possibly by emission of a photon. Thus,
emitted light comes from the hole electron
recombination. What is required is that electrons
should make a transition from higher energy level
to

lower

wavelength

energy

level

releasing

corresponding

to

photon
the

of

energy

difference associated with this transition. In LED

the supply of high-energy electron is provided by

120

forward biasing the diode, thus injecting electrons

into the n-region and holes into p-region.
The pn junction of LED is made from heavily
doped

material.

On

forward

bias

condition,

majority carriers from both sides of the junction

cross the potential barrier and enter the opposite
side where they are then minority carrier and
cause local minority carrier population to be larger
than normal. This is termed as minority injection.
These excess minority carrier diffuse away from
the junction and recombine with majority carriers.
In LED, every injected electron takes part in a
radiative recombination and hence gives rise to
an emitted photon. Under reverse bias no carrier
injection takes place and consequently no photon
121

is emitted. For direct transition from conduction

band to valence band the emission wavelength.
In practice, every electron does not take part in
radiative recombination and hence, the efficiency
of the device may be described in terms of the
quantum efficiency which is defined as the rate of
emission of photons divided by the rate of supply
of

electrons.

The

recombination,

that

number
take

of

place,

radiative
is

usually

proportional to the carrier injection rate and hence

to the total current flowing.
LED Materials:
One of the first materials used for LED is GaAs.
This is a direct band gap material, i.e., it exhibits
very

high

probability

of
122

direct

transition

of

electron from conduction band to valence band.

GaAs has E= 1.44 eV. This works in the infrared
region.
GaP and GaAsP are higher band gap materials.
Gallium

phosphide

is

an

indirect

band

gap

semiconductor and has poor efficiency because

band

to

band

transitions

are

not

normally

observed.
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide is a tertiary alloy. This
material has a special feature in that it changes
from being direct band gap material.
Blue LEDs are of recent origin. The wide band gap
materials such as GaN are one of the most
promising LEDs for blue and green emission.

123

Infrared LEDs are suitable for optical coupler

applications.
ADVANTAGES OF LEDs:
1.

Low operating voltage, current, and power

consumption

makes

Leds

compatible

with

electronic drive circuits. This also makes easier

interfacing as compared to filament incandescent
and electric discharge lamps.
2.

The rugged, sealed packages developed for

LEDs exhibit high resistance to mechanical shock

and vibration and allow LEDs to be used in severe
environmental

conditions

where

other

light

sources would fail.

3.

LED fabrication from solid-state materials

ensures

a longer operating
124

lifetime,

thereby

improving

overall

reliability

and

lowering

maintenance costs of the equipment in which they

are installed.
4.

The range of available LED colours-from red

to

orange,

yellow,

and

green-provides

the

designer with added versatility.

5.

LEDs have low inherent noise levels and also

high immunity to externally generated noise.

6.

Circuit response of LEDs is fast and stable,

without surge currents or the prior warm-up,

period required by filament light sources.
7.

LEDs exhibit linearity of radiant power output

with forward current over a wide range.

LEDs have certain limitations such as:

125

1. Temperature

dependence

of

radiant

output

power and wave

length.
2. Sensitivity to damages by over voltage or over
current.
3. Theoretical overall efficiency is not achieved
except in special
cooled or pulsed conditions.
DIODE
ACTIVE COMPONENTActive component are those component for not
any other component are used its operation. I
used in this project only function diode, these
component description are described as bellow.
126

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODEA PN junctions is known as a semiconductor or

crystal diode. A crystal diode has two terminal
when it is connected in a circuit one thing is
decide is weather a diode is forward or reversed
biased. There is a easy rule to ascertain it. If the
external CKT is trying to push the conventional
current in the direction of error, the diode is
forward biased. One the other hand if the
conventional current is trying is trying to flow
opposite the error head, the diode is reversed
biased putting in simple words.

127

1. If arrowhead of diode symbol is positive

W.R.T Bar of the symbol, the diode is
forward biased.
2. The arrowhead of diode symbol is negative
W.R.T bar , the diode is the reverse bias.
When we used crystal diode it is often
necessary

to

know

that

which

end

is

arrowhead and which end is bar. So following

method are available.
1.Some

manufactures

actually

point

the

symbol on the body of the diode e. g By127 by 11

4 crystal diode manufacture by b e b.

128

3. Sometimes red and blue marks are on the

body of the crystal diode. Red mark do not
arrow wheres blue mark indicates bar e .g
oa80 crystal diode.
ZENER DIODEIt has been already discussed that when the
reverse bias on a crystal diode is increased a
critical voltage, called break down voltage. The
break down or zener voltage depends upon the
amount of doping. If the diode is heavily doped
depletion layer will be thin and consequently the
break down of he junction will occur at a lower
reverse voltage. On the other hand, a lightly
129

doped diode has a higher break down voltage, it is

called zener diode

A properly doped crystal diode, which has a

sharped break down voltage, is known as a zenor
diode.
In this project I used semiconducter diode for
bridge rectifies, two-crystal diode
APPLICATIONS 1.) DIGITAL AUDIO
Digital audio refers to technology that records,
stores, and reproduces sound by encoding an
audio signal in digital form instead of analog form.
Sound is passed through an analog-to-digital
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converter (ADC), and pulse-code modulation is

typically used to encode it as a digital signal. A
digital-to-analog converter performs the reverse
process, and converts the digital signal back into
an audible sound. Digital audio systems may
include compression, storage, processing and
transmission components. Conversion to a digital
format allows convenient manipulation, storage,
transmission and retrieval of an audio signal.

2.) DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Digital photography uses an array of electronic
photodetectors to capture the image focused by
the

lens,

as

opposed

to

an

exposure

on

photographic film. The captured image is then

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digitzed and stored as a computer file ready for

digital processing, viewing, digital publishing or
printing.
3.) DIGITAL VIDEO
Digital video is a type of digital recording system
that works by using a digital rather than an analog
video signal.
The terms camera, video camera, and camcorder
are used interchangeably in this article.

4.) Electronic literature

Electronic

literature

is

literary

genre

consisting of works of literature that originate

within digital environments and require digital
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computation to be read. In contrast to most ebooks, electronic literature usually cannot be

printed as key elements of the text require
computation: for instance there may be links,
generative

aspects,

multimedia

content,

animation or reader interaction in addition to the

verbal text.
History and development
In a 1886 letter, Charles Sanders Peirce described
how logical operations could be carried out by
electrical switching circuits.[7] Starting in 1898,
Nikola Tesla filed for patents of devices containing
electro-mechanical logic gate circuits. Eventually,
vacuum tubes replaced relays for logic operations.
Lee De Forest's modification, in 1907, of the
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Fleming valve can be used as AND logic gate.

Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced a version of the
16-row

truth

table

as

proposition

5.101

of

Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921). Claude E.

Shannon introduced the use of Boolean algebra in
the analysis and design of switching circuits in
1937. Walther Bothe, inventor of the coincidence
circuit, got part of the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics,
for the first modern electronic AND gate in 1924.
Active research is taking place in molecular logic
gates.

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References
1.

Mazedi,

The

8051

Microcontroller

and

Embedded Systems, Prentice Hall, 1ST Edition

2.

Kenneth

J. Ayala, The 8051 Microcontroller,

Penram

International

Publishing,1996,

2nd

Edition
3. Embedded System using 8051 (E-book)
Lalit Kumar goel and Gaurav Sharma from
Meerut
4. Some Websites :
www.technowave.co.in
www.alldatasheets.com
www.datasheetcatalog.com
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 www.electronicscircuits.com
www.scielectronics.com
www.parallax.com

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