Department of Electrical

& Computer Engineering

94 Brett Rd.
Piscataway
NJ 08854-2820

332:224 Principles of Electrical Engineering II Laboratory

Instructions for Lab Reports

1.
General
Each student must submit his/her own report despite the fact that a group of students may
collaborate in the conduction of the experiment. It is understandable that lab partners will
have similarities in their data but the presentations cannot be identical and certainly editorial
items such as the Summary are expected to be completely individualized1.
The report is due within two weeks from the day the experiment was conducted2 unless prior
permission is given otherwise3.
1 Plagiarism, i.e. copying others work and presenting as ones own, is a form of cheating and it
is treated as such
2 Except of the last lab that is due within 2 weeks or by 4:30pm on the last day of classes,
whichever is earlier.
3 One missed lab or missed report deadline results in an automatic maximum of C for the
course, regardless of the
grade in the remaining experiments; two such omissions result in an automatic F.
2.
Content
All reports must contain the following basic aspects in addition to any other specifically required
for the particular experiment:
1. Cover sheet with the following:
a. title of the experiment,
b. student name,
c. name(s) of lab partner(s) who participated,
d. lab section number and instructor,
e. date when the experiment was carried out.
2. Title and aim of the experiment in students own words.
3. The procedure followed along with the circuit diagrams.
4. Tables of the experimental data.
5. Determination of any parameters deduced from the experimental data.
6. Explicit answers to the questions posed in section 5, titled Report.
7. Conclusions written in students own words.
8. References, if any were used in theoretical considerations.
9. Software simulations appended to the report.
3.
Style
All reports must be written neatly.
Separate report in sections and label with numbers corresponding to those of the instructions.
Always use passive voice: The voltage was measured not We measured the voltage.

School of Engineering
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

332:224 Principles

of Electrical

Engineering

II Laboratory

Experiment 1

Series and Parallel Resonance

1

Introduction
Objectives

To introduce frequency response by studying the

characteristics of two resonant circuits on either side of
resonance

Overview
In this experiment, the general topic of frequency response is introduced by studying the
frequency-selectivity characteristics of two specific circuit structures. The first is referred to
as the series-resonant circuit and the second as the parallel-resonant circuit.
The relevant equations and characteristic bell-shaped curves of the frequency response
around resonance are given in section 2.
Prelab exercises are designed to enhance understanding of the concepts and calculate
anticipated values subsequently measured in the lab.
Current and voltage are then measured in the two resonant circuits as functions of frequency
and characteristic frequencies (resonance and 3-dB points) are experimentally determined.

Rutgers University
Authored by P. Sannuti
Latest revision: December 16, 2005, 2004
by P. Panayotatos

PEEII-III-2/12

Theory
2.1

Frequency Domain Analysis

In electrical engineering and elsewhere, frequency domain analysis or otherwise known as

Fourier analysis has been predominantly used ever since the work of French physicist Jean
Baptiste Joseph Fourier in the early 19th century. The pioneering work of Fourier led to
what are now known as Fourier Series representations of periodic signals and Fourier
Transform representations of periodic signals. A periodic signal of interest in engineering
can be represented in terms of a Fourier Series1 which is a weighted linear combination of
sinusoids of harmonically related frequencies. Each frequency among harmonically related
frequencies is an integer multiple of a particular frequency known as the fundamental
frequency. The number of harmonically related sinusoids present in the Fourier Series
representation of a periodic signal could be finite or countably infinite. Since a periodic
signal can be viewed as being composed of a number of sinusoids, in order to specify a
periodic signal, one could equivalently specify the amplitude and phase of each sinusoid
present in the signal. Such a specification constitutes the frequency domain description of a
periodic signal. Similarly, in Fourier Transform representation, under some natural
conditions, an aperiodic signal or a signal which is not necessarily periodic can be viewed as
being composed of uncountably infinite number of sinusoids or a continuum of sinusoids. In
this case, instead of being a weighted sum of harmonically related sinusoids, an aperiodic
signal is a weighted integral of sinusoids of frequencies which are all not harmonically
related. Again, instead of specifying an aperiodic signal in terms of the time variable t, one
can equivalently specify the amplitude and phase density of each sinusoid of frequency !
contained in the signal. Such a description obviously uses the frequency variable ! as an
independent variable, and thus it is said to be the frequency domain or !"domain description
of the given time domain signal. In this way, a time domain signal is transformed to a
frequency domain signal. Of course, once the frequency domain description of a signal is
known, one can compose all the sinusoids present in the signal to form its time domain
description. However, it is important to recognize that the frequency domain description is
simply a mathematical tool. In engineering, signals exist in a physically meaningful domain
such as time domain. The frequency domain description only serves to help for the better
understanding of certain signal characteristics.

A more detailed treatment can be found in the text starting with section 16.1.

PEEII-III-3/12

2.2

Series Resonance

The basic series-resonant circuit is shown in fig. 1. Of interest here in how the steady state
amplitude and the phase angle of the current vary with the frequency of the sinusoidal
voltage source. As the frequency of the source changes, the maximum amplitude of the
source voltage (Vm) is held constant.
+

VL

L
V
s

+
+
-

VC

+
R

VR
-

Vs = Vmcos(!t)

Fig. 1 The Series

Resonant Circuit

i = Imcos(!t + #)

The frequency at which the reactances of the inductance and the capacitance cancel each
other is the resonant frequency (or the unity power factor frequency) of this circuit. This
occurs at

!o =

1
LC

(1)

Since i = VR /R, then the current i can be studied by studying the voltage across the resistor.
The current i has the expression

i = Imcos(!t + #)
where

Im =

Vm
1 &
#
R + %! L "
(
$
!C '

(2A)

and

1 '
$
#L "
&
#C )
! = " tan "1 &
)
R
&%
)(

(2B)

The bandwidth of the series circuit is defined as the range of frequencies in which the
amplitude of the current is equal to or greater than 1 / 2 = 2 / 2 times its maximum

amplitude, as shown in fig. 2. This yields the bandwidth

B = !2-!1= R/L

PEEII-III-4/12

1
R
" R%
! 2,1 = $ ' +

# 2L &
LC 2L

Where

(3)

!2,1 are called the half power frequencies or the 3 dB frequencies, i.e the frequencies at which
the value of Im equals the maximum possible value divided by 2 = 1.414 .

The quality factor

Q=

!o 1 L
=
B R C

(4)

Then the maximum value of :

! = !o
!o

1- VR occurs at

(5A)

R 2C
1"
2L

2- VL occurs at

!o

3- VC occurs at

(5B)

R 2C
1"
2L

(5C)

Im

I max =

V
m
R

I m amx
/ 1 .(421)1/2
4

B=

!1

Fig. 2

!0

R
L

! 2 - !1

!2

Frequency Response of a Series - Resonant Circuit

PEEII-III-5/12

2.3

Parallel Resonance

The basic parallel-resonant circuit is shown in fig. 3. Of interest here in how the steady state
amplitude and the phase angle of the output voltage V0 vary with the frequency of the
sinusoidal voltage source.
+

Is

V0

Fig. 3 The Parallel

Resonant circuit

Is = Imcos(!t)
If Is

= Imcos(!t),

Vo = Vmcos(!t+#)
then

Vm =

Vo = Vmcos(!t+#)

where

Im
1 #
1 &
+
!
C
"
%
(
R2 $
!L'

(6A)

and

1 ''
$ $
! = " tan "1 & R & # C "
)
% %
# L ( )(

(6B)

1
LC

The resonant frequency is

!o =

The 3 dB frequencies are:

1
1
" 1 %
! 2,1 = $
+

# 2RC '&
LC 2RC

The bandwidth
The quality factor

B = !2 - !1 = 1/RC.
!
C
Q= o =R
B
L

(7)

(8)

PEEII-III-6/12

Vm

Im R

Im R

B=

(2) 1/2

!1

Fig. 4
2.4

R
L

! 2 - !1

!2

!0

Frequency Response of the Parallel - Resonant Circuit

A More Realistic Parallel Resonance Circuit

A more realistic parallel-resonant circuit is shown in fig. 5. It is a more realistic model

because it accounts for the losses in the inductor through its d.c. resistance RL.
+
RL

Is

V0

Fig. 5 A More Realistic

Parallel - Resonant Circuit

In this case :

!o =

1 # RL &
"% (
LC $ L '

Z(! o ) =
and

RL
RL RC + L

(9)

(10)

PEEII-III-7/12

Vo (! o ) = I s (! o )

RL
RL RC + L

(11)

An analysis of the amplitude of the output voltage as a function of frequency reveals that the
amplitude is not maximum at !0. It can be derived that |V0| is maximum when

! = !m = (x - y)1/2

(12)

x = (a + b)1/2

where

2RL $
!
a=
1
+
&
R %
( LC )2 #"
1

!R $ 2
b=# L&
" L % LC

and

!R $
y=# L&
" L%

This analysis can be followed by first expressing Vo as a function of !, differentiating this

expression with respect to ! and then finding the value of ! that makes the derivative zero.

Prelab Exercises

3.1

Derive equations 1, 2, 3, and 4 for the series-resonant circuit in fig. 1.

3.2

Derive equations: 5A, 5B, and 5C for the series-resonant circuit in fig. 1.
HINT: | VR |=| I | R where I = Im is given by equation 2A. So VR is maximum when
Im R is maximum i.e., Im is maximum (since R is constant). Similarly solve for
VL = | I | ZL and VC = | I | ZC .

3.3

For the series-resonant circuit shown in fig. 6, use equations: 5A, 5B, and 5C to determine
the frequencies at which VR, VC, and VL+RL are maximum.

PEEII-III-8/12

4 Experiments
Suggested Equipment:
Tektronix FG 501A 2MHz Function Generator2
Tektronix 504A Counter - Timer
HP 54600A or Agilent 54622A Oscilloscope
Protek Model B-845 Digital Multimeter
LS-400A Inductance Substituter Box
620 Resistor
0.1 F Capacitor
Breadboard
Other circuit elements to be determined by the students.
4.1

Series Resonance

Any function generator used has internal resistance. Also, the inductor has internal resistance.
Both need to be determined since all resistances affect the behavior of the circuit.
Function generator resistance
The internal resistance of the function generator will affect the damping of an RLC circuit to
which it is connected. Check the resistance in the following way:
a- With a sine wave output, set the open circuit voltage to some convenient value, say 1V.
b- Connect a pure variable resistance load (potentiometer) thus forming a voltage divider.
Adjust R until the terminal voltage falls to one-half the open circuit value. At this point the
two resistances of the voltage divider have to be equal. Therefore, the resistance of the
potentiometer should now be equal to the internal resistance of the function generator.
Disconnect the potentiometer from the circuit and measure its resistance.
Inductor internal resistance
Use the digital ohmmeter to measure the internal resistance of the inductor used.
Measure Rs and RL.
Rs =
2

RL=

NOTE: The oscillator is designed to work for a very wide range of frequencies but may not be stable at very low
frequencies, say in the order of 100 Hz or 200Hz. To start with it is a good idea to have the circuit working at some
mid-range frequency, say in the order of 1K Hz or 2K Hz, and then change the frequency slowly as needed.

PEEII-III-9/12

Build the circuit shown in fig. 6 using R = 620 , L = 100 mH, and C = 0.1 F.
Apply a sinusoidal input to the circuit and display both input and output on the screen of the
oscilloscope.
VL+ R
L
+

RL

Rs
Vs

VC

+
R

+
+
-

V0
-

Fig. 6 A Series Resonant Circuit

With the frequency varied from 600 Hz to 2,500 Hz in increments of 100 Hz (using the
frequency counter), measure the rms values of VR, VL+RL, and VC using the DVM and the
phase angle from the scope (take the phase angle of Vs as the reference). Download the
scope trace for your report.
The phase angle between two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency can be determined as
follows: Trace both signals on two different channels with the same horizontal sensitivities
(the same horizontal scale). To calibrate the horizontal scale in terms of degrees, one can
use the fact that the angular difference between the two successive zero crossing points of a
sinusoidal signal is 180 degrees. Thus, by measuring the distance between the successive
zero crossing points of either sinusoidal signal, one can calibrate the horizontal scale in
terms of degrees. To determine the phase difference between the two sinusoidal signals,
determine the distance between the zero crossing point of one signal to a similar zero
crossing point of another signal and convert it into degrees.
Also, to save tedious calculations later, set the rms values of Vs to 1.00 volt before each
reading. Make sure that you use the frequency counter for all frequency measurements, and
to note the exact frequencies at which VR, VC, and VL+RL are maximum.
Once the maximum output voltage (V0 = VR) is known, vary the frequency and find the 3 dB
(the half power) frequencies, f1,2.
Before dismantling the equipment, check your results against those obtained from the
theoretical relationships in eqs 3 & 5. (Make sure to account for the internal resistance of the
function generator and the d.c. resistance RL of the inductor L in all calculations.)

PEEII-III-10/12

f nominal f (Hz)
600
700
800
900
1,000
1,100
1,200
1,300
1,400
1,500
1,600
1,700
1,800
1,900
2,000
2,100
2,200
2,300
2,400
2,500
4.2

VR

VL+RL

VC

Parallel Resonance

Using source transformation, the parallel - resonant circuit in fig. 5 can be represented as
shown in fig. 7 where Rs is the internal resistance of the function generator.

Vs

+
+
-

Rs

+
RL
C

V0

Fig. 7 A Parallel
- Resonant Circuit

Build the circuit of fig. 7 using R = 620 , L = 100 mH, and C = 0.1 F.
Apply a sinusoidal input to the circuit and display both input and output on the scope. Set the
rms value of Vs = 1.00 volts.

PEEII-III-11/12

With the frequency of the source varied from 600 Hz to 2,500 Hz in increments of 100 Hz
(using the frequency counter), measure V0 using the DVM, and the phase angle using the
scope. Download the scope trace for your report.
Make sure to note the exact frequency, fm, at which V0 is maximum.
Once the maximum output voltage is known,, increase the frequency from 200 Hz and find
the 3 dB frequencies, f1,2.
Before dismantling the equipment, check the measured fm against the theoretical one
obtained from eq. 12.
f nominal
600
700
800
900
1,000
1,100
1,200
1,300
1,400
1,500
1,600
1,700
1,800
1,900
2,000
2,100
2,200
2,300
2,400
2,500

f (Hz)

Vo

PEEII-III-12/12

Report
5.1

In pre-lab exercise 3.3, by using equations: 5A, 5B, and 5C, the frequencies were
determined at which VR, VC, and VL+RL are maximum. Compare them with those
experimentally observed.

5.2

Tabulate the frequency f, VR, VC, and VL+RL and the phase angle measured in Section 4.1.
Print out the scope trace and show how the phase angle was measured.

5.3

Plot VR, VC, VL+RL vs frequency on the same graph paper with rectangular coordinates.
Circle, on the plot, the resonant frequency and the 3 dB frequencies.

5.4

Use eqs. 1 & 3 to determine the theoretical resonant frequency, the 3 dB frequencies, and
the bandwidth. Compare with the experimental ones.

5.5

Tabulate f, V0 and the phase angle measure in Section 4.2. Print out the scope trace and
show how the phase angle was measured.

5.6

Using eqs. 9 & 12, determine the theoretical f0, and fm for the resonant circuit shown
in fig. 7. Compare with the experimental ones.

5.7

Plot V0 vs f on a graph paper with rectangular coordinates. Circle, on the plot, f0, fm,
and the 3 dB frequencies, f1,2.

5.8

Simulate the series-resonant circuit of fig. 6 in PSpice, and plot VR, VC, and VL+RL vs
frequency. Vary the frequency from 600 Hz to 2,500 Hz in increments of 100 Hz.
Compare with the experimental plot.

5.9

Simulate the parallel-resonant circuit of fig. 7 in PSpice, and plot V0 vs frequency. Vary
the frequency from 600 Hz to 2,500 Hz in increments of 100 Hz. Compare with the
experimental plot.

5.10 Prepare a summary.

School of Engineering
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

332:224 Principles

of Electrical

Engineering

II Laboratory

Experiment 2

Frequency Response of Filters

1

Introduction
Objectives

To introduce frequency response by studying the

characteristics of two resonant circuits on either side of
resonance

Overview
This experiment treats the subject of filters both in theory as well as with realized circuits.
The Low Pass, High Pass, Band Pass, Band Reject and All Pass filters are introduced. These
filters are characterized by their frequency response that indicates how near-ideal their filter
operation actually is. Filters of different specifications are realized as mostly 2nd order active
filters utilizing op-amps. Their frequency response (mostly the magnitude part but the phase
part as well) is measured and the cut-off frequencies are determined.

Rutgers University
Authored by P. Sannuti
Latest revision: December 16, 2005, 2004
by P. Panayotatos

PEEII-IV-2/15

Theory
Filters1

2.1

An ideal filter is a network that allows signals of only certain frequencies to pass while
blocking all others. Depending on the regime of frequencies that are allowed through or not
they are characterized as low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, band-reject and all-pass. There are
many needs for electric filters, some of the more common being those used in radio and
television sets, which allow tuning in a certain channel by passing its band of frequencies
while filtering out those of other channels. The frequency response is divided into magnitude
(amplitude) and phase parts. The amplitude curve of a filter will indicate how closely the
practical circuit imitates the ideal filter characteristics that are as follows:

|V(j!)|

|V(j!)|
|V(j!)|

Low pass

Band
pass

High pass

!c

!c

|V(j!)|

!c1

!c2

|V(j!)|
Band
reject

All pass

!c

!c1

!c2

Notice that, depending on the relative magnitude of their corner frequencies, a low pass in
series with a high pass can either completely block all signals or give a band reject. By the
same token, a low pass in parallel with a high pass can give either a bandpass or an all pass.
These ideal characteristics will at best be approximated by real circuits. How closely this
will be achieved will depend on the frequency response of the particular circuit. The design
of electric filters is based on a compromise between deviation from ideality vs. complexity
(and cost). The order of the polynomial being used (thus the order of the filter) is the major
1

The subject is treated in detail beginning with section 14.1 of the text.

PEEII-IV-3/15

indicator: the higher the order2, the more complex the circuit and the closer the frequency
response to the ideal curve. Filter operation is considered when the amplitude of the output
signal of the circuit is relatively large for some frequencies and small for others. Then one
can say that for the former the signal passes and for the latter it does not.
2.2

Practical Filters

2.2.1

Low Pass Filter

A low pass filter is a circuit whose amplitude (magnitude) function decreases as !

increases, that is, the circuit passes low frequencies (relatively large amplitudes at the
output) and rejects high frequencies (relatively small amplitudes at the output) as
shown in fig. 1.
H (j

!)

H (j

!) max

H (j

!) max

Fig. 1 Low Pass Filter

Magnitude Portion of
Frequency Response

(2) 1/2

!c

In fig. 1, !c is defined as the (3 dB) frequency, that is the frequency at which the
amplitude is (1/2)1/2 = 0.707 times the maximum amplitude. It is traditional to consider
the 3 dB frequency as the cutoff frequency. That is, a low pass filter is said to pass
frequencies lower than !c and reject those that are higher than !c. In other words, the
pass(ing) band is ! < !c.
2.2.2

High Pass Filter

A high pass filter is a circuit whose amplitude response increases with ! as shown in
fig. 2.
2

The subject is treated in detail beginning with section 15.4 of the text.

PEEII-IV-4/15

H ( j !)

H ( j !) max
H ( j !) max
(2) 1/2

Fig. 2 High Pass Filter

Magnitude Portion of
Frequency Response

!c

This filter passes frequencies that are higher than the cutoff frequency !c and rejects
those that are lower than !c. That is, the pass band is ! > !c.
2.2.3

Band Pass Filter

A band pass filter is a circuit which passes the band of frequencies centered around !0
as shown in fig. 3.
H (j

!)

H (j

!) max

H (j

!) max

Fig. 3 Band Pass Filter

Magnitude Portion of
Frequency Response

(2) 1/2

! c1

!0

! c2

PEEII-IV-5/15

!0 is the frequency at which the maximum amplitude occurs, and is called the center
frequency. The band of frequencies that passes, or the pass band, is defined to be !c1
! !c2, where !c1 and !c2 are the cutoff (3 dB) frequencies.
The width of the pass band, given by
2.2.4

B = !c2 - !c1 is called the bandwidth.

All Pass Filter

The all pass filter is one whose amplitude is constant, thus, it passes all frequencies
equally well as shown in fig. 4. It is usually put in a cascade when it is desired to keep
the amplitude part of the frequency response unaltered but shift the phase as desired.

!)

H (j

Fig. 4 All Pass Filter

Magnitude Portion of
Frequency Response

!) max

H (j

2.2.5

Band Reject Filter

The band reject filter is one that passes all frequencies except a single band. A typical
amplitude response of a band reject filter is shown in fig. 5.
H ( j !)

H (j

!) max

H (j

!) max

(2) 1/2

Fig. 5 Band Reject Filter

Magnitude Portion of
Frequency Response

! c1

! c2

PEEII-IV-6/15

As shown in fig. 5, the band reject filter passes all frequencies that are greater than !c2
and smaller than !c1. Its stop band is !c1 < ! < !c2.
Review of Op Amps3

2.3

Filters realized with RLC circuits have limited performance. Filters incorporating such
passive elements in addition to active elements such as op amps exhibit better
characteristics and are called active filters4.
Inverting Input

Vn
V-

Vi

Ri

VVp +

Av=-
+

+
V0
-

R0

Non-Inverting Input

Fig. 1 Operational Amplifier

Characteristics of an Ideal Op Amp
1. Input Resistance Ri = ": An infinite input resistance means that no current flows into
or out of either of the input terminals.
2. Output Resistance Ro = 0: In this case the output voltage Vo is independent of the
output current
3. Open Loop Voltage Gain =AV = "5:
In order to predict the behavior of an operational amplifier when circuit elements are
externally connected to its terminals, one must understand the constraints imposed on the
terminal voltages and currents by the amplifier itself. Those imposed on the terminal
voltages are as follows :

and
3

V0 = AV (Vp Vn)

(1)

A somewhat more detailed description can be found in part 2 of Principles of EE I lab IV and a full description in
sections 5.1-5.2 of the text.
4
The subject is treated in detail in chapter 15 of the text.
5
The sign of Av (whether positive or negative) depends on the definition of Vi i.e. which of the two input terminals
is defined as the reference. If Vi is defined as (Vn Vp) then Av is <0; if defined as (Vp-Vn) then it is >0.

PEEII-IV-7/15

V- =-VCC V0 +VCC = V+

(2)

Eq. 1 states that the output voltage is proportional to the difference between Vp and Vn.
If the output voltage Vo is to be finite6 it follows from the definition of voltage gain, that
Vi = Vo / Av will go to zero when Av is infinite. This, however, assumes that there is some
way for the input to be affected by the output. Indeed this will only happen if there is
negative feedback in the form of a connection between the output and the inverting
terminal (closed loop operation). For closed loop operation, it is said that a virtual short
exists between the inverting and noninverting input terminals. This means that if an Op
Amp is operating in its linear region (if it is unsaturated) then Vi = 0, or equivalently Vn =
Vp.
Eq. 2 states that the output voltage is bounded. In particular, V0 must lie between VCC, the
power supply voltages. Else V0 will be at either limiting value, and the Op-Amp is then
saturated. The amplifier is operating in its linear range so long as |V0| < |VCC|.
+15V
2

7
741

- 15V

5
Top View

Fig. 2 741 OP-AMP

The chip layout is shown in Fig. 2. The standard procedure on a DIP is to identify pin 1 with
the notch in the end of the chip package. The notch always separates pin 1 from the last pin
on the chip. In the case of 741, the notch is between pins 1 and 8. Pins 2, 3, and 6 are the
inverting input Vn, the non-inverting input Vp, and the amplifier output Vo respectively.
These three pins are the three terminals that normally appear in an op-amp circuit schematic
diagram. The null offset pins (1 and 5) provide a way to eliminate any offset in the output
voltage of the amplifier. The offset voltage is an artifact of the integrated circuit. The offset
voltage is additive with pin Vo (pin 6 in this case), can be either positive or negative and is
normally less than 10 mV. Because of its small magnitude, in most cases, one can ignore the
contribution of the offset voltage to Vo and leave the null offset pins open.

or rather unsaturated since when Vo tries to become larger than V+ or smaller than V- it gets clamped to V+ or Vrespectively (or to a constant voltage somewhat less).

PEEII-IV-8/15

Prelab Exercises

3.1 Show why the cutoff frequency (or the frequency at which the output amplitude is (1/2)1/2
times the maximum output amplitude) is called the 3 dB frequency.
3.2
(a) Determine the amplitude response and the phase response functions for the low pass filter
shown in fig. 7.
(b) Determine the maximum amplitude of the output.
(c) Determine the 3 dB frequency and its corresponding amplitude.
3.3

Repeat 3.2 for the high pass filter shown in fig. 8.

3.4

Repeat 3.2 for the band pass filter shown in fig. 9.

PEEII-IV-9/15

Experiments
Suggested Equipment:
Tektronix FG 501A 2MHz Function Generator7
Tektronix PS 503 Power Supply
Tektronix DC 504A Counter-Timer
HP 54600A or Agilent 54622A Oscilloscope
2: 620 , 2: 1 K, 2: 2K, 2: 2.2K, 20 K Resistors
0.05 F, 3: 0.1 F, 0.01 F Capacitors
741 Op-Amp
Protoboard
4.1

Low Pass Filter

Build the low pass filter circuit shown in fig. 7. Apply a sinusoidal input of amplitude 1V
rms and display both input and output on the scope.
0.1F

+
Vs

2.2 K

+
+
-

2.2K

0.05 F

Fig. 7

+
V0
-

A Second Order Low Pass Filter

Vary the frequency of the input voltage from 100 Hz to 3000 Hz, and measure the rms
output voltage and the phase angle8. Take as many readings as are necessary to develop a
well-defined plot. Make sure to set Vs = 1 V rms before each reading.
Find the exact cutoff (3 dB) frequency and the exact corresponding output voltage V0.

NOTE: The oscillator is designed to work for a very wide range of frequencies but may not be stable at very low
frequencies, say in the order of 100 Hz or 200Hz. To start with it is a good idea to have the circuit working at some
mid-range frequency, say in the order of 1K Hz or 2K Hz, and then change the frequency slowly as needed.
8
The phase angle between two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency can be determined as follows: Trace both
signals on two different channels with the same horizontal sensitivities (the same horizontal scale). To calibrate the
horizontal scale in terms of degrees, one can use the fact that the angular difference between the two successive zero
crossing points of a sinusoidal signal is 180 degrees. Thus, by measuring the distance between the successive zero
crossing points of either sinusoidal signal, one can calibrate the horizontal scale in terms of degrees. To determine the
phase difference between the two sinusoidal signals, determine the distance between the zero crossing point of one
signal to a similar zero crossing point of another signal and convert it into degrees.

PEEII-IV-10/15

Frequency (Hz)

Vo (rms) V

Phase Angle

PEEII-IV-11/15

4.2

High Pass Filter

Build the high pass filter circuit shown in fig. 8, and repeat the same procedure followed in
Section 4.1.
1K

+
Vs

+
+
-

0.1F

0.1F

1 K

+
V0
-

Fig. 8 A Second Order High Pass Filter

Take readings with the frequency varied from 100 Hz to 4000 Hz. Take also a few readings
between f = 5 KHz and f = 20 KHz. Make sure to take as many readings as are necessary to
develop a well - defined plot. Also, make sure to set Vs = 1 V rms before each reading.
Find the exact 3 dB frequency and the exact corresponding output voltage.
Frequency (Hz)

Vo (rms) V

Phase Angle

PEEII-IV-12/15

4.3

Band Pass Filter

Build the band pass filter circuit shown in fig. 9, and repeat the same procedure followed in
Section 4.1.
0.1 F

20 K

620

Vs

+
+
-

620

Fig. 9

0.01 F

+
V0
-

A Second Order Band Pass Filter

Take readings for the output voltage and the phase angle with the frequency varied from
1100 Hz to 3000 Hz. Take also a few readings between f = 100 Hz and f = 800 Hz, and

PEEII-IV-13/15

between f = 4000 Hz, and f = 15 KHz. Make sure to take as many readings as are necessary
to develop a well-defined plot. Also, make sure to set Vs = 1 V rms before each reading.
Find the center frequency, the 3 dB frequencies, and the corresponding output voltages.
Frequency (Hz)

Vo (rms) V

Phase Angle

PEEII-IV-14/15

4.4

Band Reject Filter (Optional)

1 K

Vs

0.1 F

0.1 F

1 K

2 K

+
+
-

+
+
V0
-

0.1 F

Fig. 11

A Third Order Band Reject Filter

Build the band reject filter circuit shown in fig. 11.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
4.5

Show that the circuit is indeed a band reject filter.

Determine the maximum amplitude of the output.
Determine the minimum amplitude of the output and its corresponding frequency.
Determine the 3 dB frequencies and their corresponding output amplitudes.
Determine the stopband.
Read some phase angles at some particular frequencies.

All Pass Filter (optional)

Build the all pass filter circuit shown in fig. 10. Take readings of the output voltage and the
phase with the frequency varied from 100 Hz to 10 KHz.
0.1 F

0.1 F

1K

2 K

Vs

+
+
-

+
2 K
1 K

Fig. 10

A Second Order All Pass Filter

+
V0
-

PEEII-IV-15/15

Report
5.1 For the low-pass filter, using the functions determined in pre-lab exercise 3.2 (a), determine
the theoretical values of the amplitude and the phase at the frequencies that were used to take
readings during the experiment. Tabulate the theoretical and the experimental values of both
amplitude and phase. On graph paper with rectangular coordinates, plot the theoretical and the
experimental data. Compare the theoretical plot with the experimental one.
5.2 For the high-pass filter, repeat 5.1 using the functions determined in pre-lab exercise 3.3
(a).
5.3 For the band-pass filter, repeat 5.1 using the functions determined in pre-lab exercise 3.4
(a).
5.4 Simulate, in PSpice, the low pass filter circuit in fig. 7, and plot the amplitude and the
phase response in the interval 0.001 Hz f 2000 Hz.
5.5 Simulate in PSpice, the high-pass and band pass filter circuits of figures 8 and 9 in
appropriate frequency ranges.
5.6 Prepare a summary.

School of Engineering
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

332:224 Principles

of Electrical

Engineering

II Laboratory

Experiment 3

Steady State Frequency Response Using Bode Plots

1

Introduction
Objectives

To study the steady state frequency response of stable

transfer functions of certain simple circuits using Bode
plots

Overview
This experiment treats the subject of frequency response by the use of Bode plots. The basic
equation and logic of Bode plots are introduced in section 2 for transfer functions with real
and complex-conjugate poles and zeros. The asymptotes for the magnitude and phase plots
are introduced, as is the method for correcting around the corner frequency to obtain realistic
plots.
Four circuits with transfer characteristics that exhibit illustrative examples of the pole and
zero combinations covered in section 2 are realized in section 4. Their theoretical Bode plots
are derived in section 3 and data for plotting their actual ones are extracted in section 4 by
varying the frequency and measuring output/input (magnitude of gain) and phase.

Rutgers University
Authored by P. Sannuti
Latest revision: December 16, 2005, 2004
by P. Panayotatos

PEEII-V-2/16

Theory
2.1

Introduction to Bode plots1

Bode plots are commonly used to display the steady state frequency response of a stable
system. Let the transfer function of a stable system be H(s). Also, let M(!) and "(!) be
respectively the magnitude and the phase angle of H(j!). In Bode plots, the magnitude
characteristic M(!) and the phase angle characteristic "(!) of the frequency response are
plotted vs. log10(!). Also, in the magnitude plot, instead of plotting M(!), vs. ! one plots 20
log10M(!) which is called the decibel2 (abbreviated as dB) value of M(!). By utilizing the
logarithm, one accommodates a wide range of data on a compact graph. Moreover, as will be
seen shortly from equations (3) and (4), the logarithmic operation permits the decomposition
of the transfer function into simpler parts in a natural way. By analyzing each of the simpler
parts individually, and then combining them appropriately, one can plot relatively easily the
overall frequency response of a composite transfer function. Note here that the DC frequency
!=0 cannot be represented in the logarithmic scale since log10(0) =-#.
2.2

Transfer function standard form

Consider a rational transfer function H(s) in which all the poles and zeros are shown in a
factored form as

Ks r ( s + z1 ) ( s + z2 ) .....( s + zm )
H (s) =
( s + p1 )( s + p2 ).....( s + pn )

(1)

where m, n, and r are some integers. It is convenient to rewrite H(j!) in the form known as a
standard form for Bode plots,

K ( j! ) (1 + j! / z1 ) (1 + j! / z2 ) .....(1 + j! / zm )
H ( j! ) = o
(1 + j! / p1 )(1 + j! / p2 ).....(1 + j! / pn )
r

(2A)

where

Ko =

Kz1z2 ....zm
p1 p2 ....pn

(2B)

If any of the poles or zeros are complex, each of the complex conjugate pairs of such poles or zeros
of H(s) can be combined to get a quadratic form of the type s2 + (2$/! 0)s + ! 02, and then, by
factoring out !02 and letting s =j!, it can be reduced to a standard form as
1
2

The subject is treated in detail in Appendix E of the text.

The decibel is treated in detail in Appendix D of the text.

PEEII-V-3/16

1 + (2$/!0)j! - !2/ !02

2.3

Real Poles and Zeros

First assume that all the poles and zeros are real. Then, one can easily determine the magnitude
and phase functions 20 log10M(!) and "(!) as

20 log10M(!)= 20 log10(|K0|)+ 20 r log10(j!)

+ 20 log10(|1+j!/z1|) + 20 log10(|1+j!/z2|) + ......
- 20 log10(|1+j!/p1|) - 20 log10(|1+j!/p2|)-....

(3)

"(!) = %K0 + r 90o +tan-1(!/z1) + tan-1(!/z2) + ......

- tan-1(!/p1) - tan-1(!/p2) - .....

(4)

The phase of K0 is zero if K0>0 and 180o if K0<0.

The above equations reveal that the magnitude and phase functions 20log10M(!) and "(!) are
obtained by simply adding the contributions due to several individual factors. In what follows,
we examine individually each of such factors. Once this is done, Bode plots of composite
transfer functions can easily be determined. For clarity, we denote 20 log10M(!) by MdB(!).

Note that

If ! <<

20 log10 1 +

p1 then !/p1<<1 and

j!
2
= 20 log10 1 + (! / p1 )
p1

20 log10 1 +

j!
2
= 20 log10 1 + (! / p1 ) " 1
p1

If ! >>

p1 then !/p1>>1 and

#!&
j!
2
20 log10 1 +
= 20 log10 1 + (! / p1 ) " 20 log10 % (
p1
$ p1 '

The latter represents a line with slope of 20dB per decade or 6db per octave3 since:

A decade is a ten-fold increase in frequency, while an octave is a two-fold increase in frequency.

PEEII-V-4/16

If !=10

If !=2

p1 then

p1 then

"!%
20 log10 $ ' = 20 log10 10 = 20dB
# p1 &

"!%
20 log10 $ ' = 20 log10 2 ( 6dB
# p1 &

Exactly the same is true for zeros. The only difference is that the contribution of poles is
subtracted (negative slope 20dB/dec) and that of zeros is added (+20dB/dec).
These asymptotes of MdB(!) meet at != p1. Thus, the frequency p1 is called the corner
frequency. At this corner frequency, the actual value of MdB(!) can be computed easily as 3
dB rather than the 0 dB predicted by either asymptote. At half of the corner frequency, i.e., at
! = 0.5p1, one can compute MdB(!) as 1 dB rather than the 0 dB given by the low frequency
asymptote. On the other hand, at twice the corner frequency, i.e., at ! = 2 p1, one can
compute MdB(!) as 7 dB rather than the 6 dB given by the high frequency asymptote. Using
these actual values as a guide, an exact plot of MdB(!) can easily be drawn4.
In terms of the angle, one can choose three cases;
If ! <<

If ! =

p1 then !/p1<<1 and

p1 then !/p1=1 and

If ! >>

p1 then !/p1>>1 and

"!%
tan -1 $ ' ( 0
# p1 &
"!%
tan -1 $ ' = tan -11 = 45 o
# p1 &

"!%
tan -1 $ ' ( tan -1) = 90 o
# p1 &

This means that the maximum contribution of any one zero or pole is 90 (+ for zeros, - for
poles). If one approximated much smaller than p1 by p1/10 5and as much larger than p1
by 10 p1,6 then the angle plot has a slope of -45/dec7 and is flat elsewhere.

Figure E-6 in the text shows both the low and high frequency asymptotes of MdB(!) as well as the actual characteristic.
tan-1(0.1) = 5.3o 0
6
tan-1(10)= 84.7o 90
7
+45/dec for a zero
5

PEEII-V-5/16

2.3.1

Constant gain K0:

If H(s)=K0,

then

MdB(!) = 20 log10|K0|

which is a constant with respect to log10 !. If K0 is positive, then the phase angle of
H(j!) is zero for all !; if K0 is negative, then the phase angle of H(j!) is 180o for all !.
2.3.2

Pole or zero at the origin:

For an ideal differentiator, the transfer function is s, while for an ideal integrator, the
transfer function is 1/s. Thus, the ideal differentiator has a zero at s=0, and an ideal
integrator has a pole at s=0.
For an ideal differentiator, H(j!)=

j!, and MdB(!) = 20 log10 !.

Thus, the plot of MdB(!) as a function of log10 ! is a straight line with a slope of 20 dB
per decade or approximately 6 dB per octave. The straight line passes through 0 dB at
!=1 since 20 log10 ! equals 0 at !=1. The phase angle of H(j!)= j! is 90o for all !.
For an ideal integrator, the transfer function is 1/s which is the reciprocal of that of the
differentiator. The Bode plots of 1/s are the negative replicas of those of s. That is, the
magnitude plot is a straight line with a slope of -20 dB per decade and passes through 0
dB at !=1, while the phase angle is -90o for all !.

2.3.3

Simple Real Pole or Zero:

Then the discussion of section 2.3 above is relevant and the asymptotes are at zero db
and 20dB/decade for zero and pole respectively.
2.3.4
Complex Conjugate Pairs of Poles or Zeros:
We consider next a transfer function having a pair of complex conjugate poles which
together give rise to a quadratic factor, i.e.,

# 2!
s2 &
H (s) = %1 +
s+ 2(
"
"o '
$
o

)1

where $ and !0 are respectively called as the damping coefficient and the natural
frequency of the two complex conjugate poles. For this case,

PEEII-V-6/16

!2
j!
M dB (! ) = "20 log10 1 " 2 + 2#
!o
!o

and

%
" (
2
$
'
"o *
! (" ) = # tan #1 '
2 *
"
'1#
*.
'&
" o2 *)

Two asymptotes of MdB(!), one for low frequencies and another for high frequencies,
can easily be ascertained. For !/! 0 << 1, we have

MdB(!) -20 log10 1 = 0.

Similarly, for !/! 0 >> 1, we have

MdB(!) -40 log10 (!/! 0).

That is, for high enough frequencies such that ! >> ! 0, the magnitude characteristic
MdB(!) is a straight line with a slope of -40 dB per decade and intersects the frequency
axis at != ! 0.. Both the low and high frequency asymptotes of MdB(!) meet at the
corner frequency ! = ! 0. The exact magnitude characteristic of MdB(!) depends on the
damping coefficient $. As shown in Figure 1, for small values of $, there is significant
peeking in the neighborhood of the corner (or natural) frequency ! 0. For ! < 1 / 2 and
for certain representative frequencies, one can compute exactly MdB(!) as outlined
below:
1. At the corner frequency !0, MdB(!) has a value of -20 log10[2 $].
2. At ! = 0.5 ! 0, MdB(!) has a value of -10 log10[$2+0.5625].
3. It can be shown that the peak of MdB(!) occurs at ! = ! o 1 " 2# 2 and that the peak
value is -10 log10[4 $2(1-$2)].

4. MdB(!) crosses the 0 dB axis at the frequency ! = ! o 2 1 " 2# 2

For ! > 1 / 2 the exact characteristic of MdB(!) lies entirely below its asymptotic
approximation.
For the angle, as shown in Figure 1, the exact plot of "(!) depends on the damping
factor $ . Without taking into account the value of $ , one can coarsely8 approximate
8

There exist in the literature certain better mid frequency approximations which take into account the value of $ .

PEEII-V-7/16

the phase angle plot by three asymptotes, similar to the ones derived for the simple real
pole, only now the total contribution of the pair will be 180 rather than 90 of the
simple pole or zero:
Low frequency approximation: For ! < 0.1 ! 0, "(!) can be approximated by 0.
High frequency approximation: For ! > 10 ! 0, "(!) can be approximated by -180o .
Mid frequency approximation: For 0.1 ! 0 < ! <10 ! 0, "(!) can be approximated by a
straight line having a slope of -90o per decade and passing through -90o at ! = ! 0.
Consider next a transfer function with a pair of complex conjugate zeros,

H(s)= 1 + (2$/!0)s+ s2/ !02 .

For this case, the magnitude and phase plots are negative replicas (inverted versions) of
the corresponding plots derived for the case of complex conjugate poles. In particular,
the high frequency asymptote of the magnitude characteristic has a slope of +40 dB /
decade, and the mid frequency asymptote of the phase characteristic has a slope of
+90o/decade.

20
15

% = 0.1
% = 0.2

10

% = 0.3

Fig. 1 Log-Magnitude
and Phase-Angle curves
for a pair of complex
conjugate poles

5
dB

% = 0.5

% = 0.7

!5

% = 1.0

!10
% = 0.1

!15

% = 0.2

0"

% = 0.3

"

!45

"

!90"
"

!135

% = 1.0

% = 0.7 % = 0.5

"

!180

0.1

0.2

0.4

0.6 0.8 1
$
$k

!/!&

10

PEEII-V-8/16

Prelab Exercises

3.1 Derive the transfer functions H(s) for the five circuits in Section 4. Note that the transfer
function of circuit #2 is not the product of two simple transfer functions of type #1circuits.
This is the result of the so called loading effect. Circuits #4 and #5 differ in the sense that the
transfer function of circuit #4 has a quadratic factor with complex roots in its denominator,
whereas the transfer function of circuit #5 has a quadratic factor with real roots in its
denominator.
3.2

Put each of the transfer functions derived in 3.1 in the appropriate standard form of the
transfer functions in section 2. Derive or state any necessary arguments that are essential or
necessary for plotting the theoretical Bode diagrams for each transfer function. Also, plot the
theoretical Bode diagrams for each transfer function. Make sure that you use a semi-log graph
paper for all your plots. Make sure that both plots, the straight line approximation and the
corrected plot, are shown on the same graph paper for every circuit.

PEEII-V-9/16

Experiments
Suggested Equipment:
Tektronix FG 501A 2MHz Function Generator9
Tektronix PS 503 Power Supply
Tektronix DC 504A Counter-Timer
HP 54600A or Agilent 54622A Oscilloscope
741 Op-Amp
Protoboard

NOTE: The oscillator is designed to work for a very wide range of frequencies but may not be stable at very low
frequencies, say in the order of 100 Hz or 200Hz. To start with it is a good idea to have the circuit working at some
mid-range frequency, say in the order of 1K Hz or 2K Hz, and then change the frequency slowly as needed.

PEEII-V-10/16

4.1

Circuit #1

Construct the circuit shown in fig. 2 using R = 2 K and C = 0.1 F. Apply a sinusoidal input
of amplitude 1 V to the circuit (recheck that it is 1 V whenever changing frequency). Using
the oscilloscope, measure the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage, and the phase
angle10 over the frequency range from 20 Hz to 20 KHz. Use frequencies of 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8 in
each decade.

R
Vs

Frequency (Hz)

output voltage (V)

V0

Fig. 2

input voltage (V)

Circuit # 1

Phase angle

The phase angle between two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency can be determined as follows: Trace both
signals on two different channels with the same horizontal sensitivities (the same horizontal scale). To calibrate the
horizontal scale in terms of degrees, one can use the fact that the angular difference between the two successive zero
crossing points of a sinusoidal signal is 180 degrees. Thus, by measuring the distance between the successive zero
crossing points of either sinusoidal signal, one can calibrate the horizontal scale in terms of degrees. To determine
the phase difference between the two sinusoidal signals, determine the distance between the zero crossing point of
one signal to a similar zero crossing point of another signal and convert it into degrees.
10

PEEII-V-11/16

4.2

Circuit #2

Repeat Section 4.1 for the circuit shown in fig. 3, except that the frequency range should be
from 20 Hz to 100 KHz. Use R1 = 1 K, R2 = 2 K, C1 = 0.1 F, and C2 = 0.1 F. Use
frequencies of 1, 2.7, 4.6, 6, and 8 in each appropriate decade.

Vs

Frequency (Hz)

R1

R2
C1

output voltage (V)

C2

input voltage (V)

V0

Fig. 3
Circuit # 2

Phase angle

PEEII-V-12/16

4.3

Circuit #3

Repeat Section 4.1 for the circuit shown in fig. 4, except that the frequency range should be
from 10Hz to 20 KHz. Use R1 = 1 K, R2 = 10 K, R3 = 1 K, and C = 0.1 F. Use
frequencies of 1, 1.6, 4, 6, 8, and 9.5 in each appropriate decade.

Vs

Frequency (Hz)

R1

R2

output voltage (V)

R3

V0

input voltage (V)

Fig. 4
Circuit # 3

Phase angle

PEEII-V-13/16

4.4

Circuit #4

Repeat Section 4.1 for the circuit shown in fig. 5, except that the frequency range should be
from 100 Hz to 100 KHz. Use an R so that Rg + R + RL is around 65 (Rg is the internal
impedance of the function generator, and RL is the d.c. resistance of the inductor), L = 10
mH, and C = 0.1 F. Use frequencies of 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8 in each appropriate decade.

Rg

Vs

Frequency (Hz)

RL

L
C

output voltage (V)

input voltage (V)

V0

Fig. 5
Circuit # 4

Phase angle

PEEII-V-14/16

4.5

Circuit #5

Repeat 4.4 for the circuit shown in fig. 5, except that the frequency range should be from 100
Hz to 20 KHz. Use Rg + R + RL = 200 , L = 10 mH, and C = 1 F. Use frequencies of 1,
1.6, 3, 6, and 8 in each appropriate decade.

Frequency (Hz)

4.6

output voltage (V)

input voltage (V)

Phase angle

A Band Reject Filter (optional)

This is a Band-Reject Filter Circuit. You can attempt this only after completing all the
experiments in Section 4.
1 K

Fig. 6 A Band
Reject Filter

Vs

+
+
-

0.1 F

0.1 F

1 K

2 K

+
-

0.1 F

+
V0
-

Apply a sinusoidal input of rms value of 1 V and display both input and output on the screen
of the oscilloscope.

PEEII-V-15/16

Vary the frequency of the input, read the output on the DVM, and show your instructor that
the circuit actually behaves like a band reject filter.
Find the following:
(1) The maximum value of the output.
(2) The 3 dB frequencies and the corresponding value of the output.
(3) The stop band.
(4) The phase angle at some particular frequencies.

PEEII-V-16/16

Report

5.1

Tabulate all experimental data obtained in Section 4.

5.2

Plot the Bode diagrams (magnitude and phase) for the five circuits in Section 4 using the
experimental data. Make sure that you use a semi-log graph paper for all your plots.
For each circuit, compare the experimental Bode diagrams (plots) with the theoretical Bode
diagrams (plots) previously completed in pre-lab exercise 3.2.

5.3

Prepare a summary.

School of Engineering
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

332:224 Principles

of Electrical

Engineering

II Laboratory

Experiment 4

The R-C series circuit

1

Introduction
Objectives

To study the behavior of the R-C Series Circuit under

different conditions
To use different methods for the determination of the RC
time constant from experimental results

Overview
The aim of this experiment is to study the R-C Series Circuit under different conditions by
observing input and output waveforms and studying their interrelation.
In particular the following are explored:
(a) Natural response of an R-C Circuit: The capacitor is charged to a certain value and its
decay is observed as a function of time. Such a decay is known as the natural response of
the R-C Circuit as there are no forcing inputs applied to the circuit.
(b) Response of an R-C Circuit to a periodic square wave input: When the input to a circuit
is a periodic signal (wave), the output voltage is a periodic wave as well but not necessarily
of the same waveform as that at the input. The output voltage across the capacitance is
studied for a square wave input.
(c) Differentiation And Integration Properties: Under certain appropriate conditions, an R-C
Circuit can function approximately as an integrating circuit or as a differentiating circuit.
These properties are also observed.

Rutgers University
Authored by P. Sannuti
Latest revision: December 16, 2005, 2004
by P. Panayotatos

PEEII-I-2/11

Theory
The Natural Response of an R-C Circuit 1

2.1

Consider the R-C circuit of fig. 1 where the source voltage Vs is a DC voltage source.
Assuming that the switch has been closed for a long period of time, the circuit has reached a
steady state condition. In steady state, the capacitor has been charged to

Vg = Vs R/(R+Ri)
Therefore, when the switch opens, at t = 0, the initial voltage on the capacitor is Vg volts.
With the capacitor so charged, it would be desirable to compute the natural response of the
R-C Series Circuit shown in fig. 2.
Ri

t=0

+
Vs

+
+
-

Vg

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Analysis of the circuit in fig. 2 yields the general solution

vc(t) = vc(0) e-t/RC ,

-

With initial condition: vc(0 )

t>0

= vc(0+) = Vg = Vs R/(R+Ri) !from which

vc(t) = Vg e-t/!,

(1)

where ! = RC is the time constant. This means that the natural response of the R-C circuit is
an exponential decay of the initial voltage. The rate of this decay is governed by the time
constant RC. The graphical plot of Eq. 1 is given in fig. 3 where the graphical interpretation
of the time constant is also shown.

A more detailed description can be found in section 7.2 of the text.

PEEII-I-3/11

The time constant ! = RC can be measured in several ways. Assuming that R and C are not
known, ! can be measured from the discharge data of the capacitor as will be seen in section
5 below.
V(t)
Vg

V(t) = Vg e -t/"

Fig. 3

2.2

"

Exponential Decay Of An R-C Circuit

Square Wave Response 2

Let the source voltage Vs be a square wave of frequency f and amplitude A, applied to the RC circuit as shown in fig. 4.
+

Fig. 4 A square wave

input applied across a series
R-C Circuit

R
A

-A

+
+
-

V(t)
-

Since the input is a periodic wave, the output voltage across the capacitor is also a periodic
wave, albeit not a square wave. In each period, the output voltage across the capacitor
consists of two parts:
During the half period when the input is a positive constant, the capacitor gets
charged exponentially. Hence the output voltage v(t) during this half period is an
exponentially increasing signal. At the end of this half period, v(t) has attained a
certain positive peak value.
2

A detailed description of the step response can be found in section 7.3 of the text.

PEEII-I-4/11

During the half period when the input is a negative constant, the capacitor gets
discharged exponentially. Hence the output voltage v(t) during this half period is an
exponentially decreasing signal. By the end of this half period, v(t) has attained a
certain negative peak value.

The difference between the positive and negative peaks is called the peak-to-peak voltage of
the capacitor. It can be shown that

VCPP = VPP (1-e-K)/(1+e-K)

(2)

where VCPP is the peak-to-peak voltage of the capacitor,

VPP is the peak-to-peak voltage of the input square wave, and
K is a number such that K! is the input square wave half-period when ! = RC.
2.3

Differentiation and Integration Properties

Consider the loop equation of the R-C series circuit,

vR(t) + vC(t) = v(t),

where v(t) is the source voltage vs which could be any time varying signal.
If vC(t) is kept small with respect to vR(t), then

vc (t) =

v(t) " vR(t) = R i(t), and

1
1
1
i(t)dt
=
v
(t)dt
"
v(t)dt
R
C!
RC !
#!

i.e. the capacitor voltage is very closely proportional to the integral of the source voltage. If
v(t) is a periodic function, vC(t) can be kept small by making the period T !. In this way vC
never gets time to grow large.
On the other hand, when the period T !, vC tends to follow v(t) almost exactly. In such a
case,

vR (t) = Ri(t) = RC

dvC (t)
dv(t)
!"
dt
dt

i.e. the resistor voltage is very closely proportional to the derivative of the source voltage.

PEEII-I-5/11

Prelab Exercises
3.1 Following the discussion in section 7.2 of the textbook, write down the differential
equation of the series R-C circuit in the absence of any forcing input. Then, explain or
derive equation (1) in your own way.
3.2 For R = 10M and C = 15F, determine the expected time constant ! = RC.
3.3 Equation (2) for VCPP is rather difficult to prove at this time. Take it as a challenge to
derive it as you learn increasingly more on the topic of differential equations.
3.4 Explain in your own words why an R-C series circuit can act approximately as an
integrator as well as a differentiator and under what conditions.

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Experiments
Suggested Equipment:
TEKTRONIX FG 501A 2MHz Function Generator
HP 54600A or Agilent 54622A Oscilloscope
Protek Model B-845 Digital Multimeter
TEKTRONIX DC504A Counter-Timer
TEKTRONIX P503A Dual Power Supply
100, 10K, 100K, Resistors
0.001F, 0.01F, 1F, 15F Capacitors
Breadboard
One 3.5 diskette
NOTE: The oscillator is designed to work for a very wide range of frequencies but may not
be stable at very low frequencies, say in the order of 100 Hz or 200Hz. To start with it is a
good idea to have the circuit working at some mid-range frequency, say in the order of 1K
Hz or 2K Hz, and then change the frequency slowly as needed.

4.1

Time Constant of an R-C Circuit

Construct the R-C circuit shown in fig. 5.

!

t=0
+

Fig. 5 Natural Response

of an R-C Circuit

Vs

+
+
-

Vo

Let the source voltage Vs be a DC voltage of 10 V, C = 15F, and RV = 10M is the internal
resistance of the DVM. Neglect the internal resistance R i of the source. Then, when the
switch is closed, the capacitor charges quickly to the source voltage Vs.
At t = 0, the switch opens, and the voltage source gets disconnected from the R-C circuit.
The capacitor will now discharge through the internal resistance of the DVM. Using a timer
or a stopwatch, record the DVM readings for an interval of 5 minutes taking data in 15
second intervals. Repeat the same procedure until you are assured that you have a
representative set of data. Fill Table 1 with the data and use the set of data that, in your
opinion, corresponds to the run that is mostly representative of the capacitor discharge.

PEEII-I-7/11

T (min)
0.0

v(t) V

v(t) V

v(t) V

v(t) V

v(t) V

0.15
0.30
1.00
1.15
1.30
1.45
2.00
2.15
2.30
2.45
3.00
3.15
3.30
3.45
4.00
4.15
4.30
4.45
5.00
Table 1 Capacitor Discharge Data

f(t)=v(t)/v(0)

ln(f(t))

PEEII-I-8/11

4.2

Square Wave Response

a- Take C = 0.01F and use a resistor R so that one-half period of a 1.00KHz square wave
will be 5! where the time constant ! =RC. Arrange such an R-C circuit (fig. 4) with the
function generator as the source. Observe the function generator output on Channel 1 and vC
on Channel 2. R =
.
b- Set the generator to square wave and set f = 500Hz3. Set the scope sensitivities to 1
volt/div (CAL), AC input. Set sweep to 0.5ms/div (CAL). Adjust the generator amplitude for
6 V peak-to-peak (VPP = 6 V, i.e. the square wave amplitude A=3 V) and center both images
vertically on the screen.
c- Since f = 500Hz, a half period is 10!. Notice that the capacitor has time to fully charge on
each half-cycle (see eq. (2) and note that e-10 is negligible.)
Change the sweep to 0.1ms/div. Now a half period is 10 divisions wide.
Let us write a theoretical expression for the capacitor voltage vC. Taking the origin of time, t
=0, when the square wave jumps from -A to A, we can determine the capacitor voltage vC
during the half cycle that follows t =0 as

vC(t) = A-2A e-t/!

Verify that the plot on the screen follows the above equation. This can be achieved by
checking whether four or so representative points of vC(t) on the screen are as predicted by
the equation. Download the waveform for your report.
d- Increase R and decrease C by a factor of 10, and verify that the circuit still behaves as in
part c. Download the waveform for your report.
e- From their original values, decrease R and increase C by a factor of 100 and again verify
that the circuit behavior is substantially the same as in part c. However you may notice that
the 50-ohm internal impedance of the function generator causes some distortion at the
beginning of each half-cycle when the current is large. Download the waveform for your
report.
f- Return to the original values of R and C and adjust the amplitude for VPP = 6.0 if
necessary. Change the frequency to 2.00KHz (check frequency again). The half period is
now 2.5!. Measure the peak to peak capacitor voltage VCPP and keep this value for the
Report.
VCPP =
3

V.

Because of the inaccuracy of the oscillator frequency knobs of the function generator, it is essential to actually
measure the exact frequency or period of the signal generated. Both the counter and the digital oscilloscope can be
used for this purpose. Either should be used in all experiments where a frequency or a period reading is required, in
order to obtain a correct and accurate result. In this case, use the counter.

PEEII-I-9/11

4.3

Integration and Differentiation

4.3.1 Integration of a square wave:
Choose a frequency at which you are satisfied with the performance of the circuit as
an integrator (adjust sensitivity and sweep rate as needed). Measure the peak to peak
capacitor voltage VCPP and the frequency of the waveform using the frequency
counter. Study the relation of the function and its integral and download the scope
image for your report.
4.3.2 Integration of a triangular wave:
With the circuit functioning well as an integrator, switch to triangular input. Adjust the
generator output to 6 V peak-to peak. Study the relation of the function and its integral
and copy the scope image for your report.
The image of the integral on the scope may look like a sine wave but in fact it is
parabolic. To prove this, make adjustments with the sweep, sensitivities, and variables
until the image spans 8 divisions peak-to-peak and the half period is 4 divisions wide.
Notice that the amplitude at 1/8 period is 3/4 of peak instead of 0.707 of peak as it
would be in a sine wave. Download the waveform.
4.3.3 Integration of a sine wave:
Change to sine wave input. Set the sensitivity variables and the sweep variable to
CAL. Study the image and download as before.
4.3.4 Differentiation of a triangular wave:
Return to triangular wave. Interchange the capacitor and the resistor in the circuit.
Channel 2 should now be receiving vR. Adjust the sensitivity of the scope so vR
becomes visible. Reduce frequency gradually, making changes in scope sensitivity and
sweep rate as you go, until you are satisfied with the performance of the circuit as a
differentiator.
Measure the peak to peak resistance voltage VRPP and the frequency of the wave using
the frequency counter. Study the images and download them for your report.
4.3.5 Differentiation of a square wave:
Change to a square wave and decrease Channel 2 sensitivity until the derivative
becomes visible. Study and copy the images. With 1 volt/div on Channel 1 and 2
volts/div on Channel 2, notice that the peak VR is twice the peak input.
4.3.6 Differentiation of a sine wave:
Change to sine wave. Adjust input to VPP = 6.0 and make the usual positioning
adjustments. Tweak the frequency to make the phase difference stand out. Study the
images and download them.

PEEII-I-10/11

Report
5.1 Determine the time constant ! in the following two ways:
(a). Plot f(t) data from table 1 on a graph paper with rectangular coordinates.
The value of ! is the time at which

f(t) = f(0)e-1 = 0.368f(0)

(b).
o

f(t) = A e-t/! u(t) !

=> ln(f(t)) = (-1/!)t + ln(A) for t > 0 which is in the form:
Y = A1 t + A0 and ln(f(t)) vs t should plot as a straight line.

o Plot ln(f(t)) vs t on a graph paper with rectangular coordinates and find the
best straight line fit to the data.
o The slope of the straight line must be (-1/!), hence the value of ! can be
computed from the slope.
5.2

Determine the time constant by integration using the following method:

-t/!

(a) From the equation f(t) = Ae , it is easy to show that the area under the
complete f(t) curve is equal to A!.
(b) The trapezoidal rule is used to find the area. For a set of observations f1....fN
spaced at a common interval #t, the area ! in the interval t1 < ti < tN is given
approximately by:

% f1 + fN N #1 (
Area = ! = "t '
+ $ fi *
2
&
)
i=2
5.3

Determine the time constant by differentiation using the following method:

(a) At any point on the graph of f(t) vs t, the slope line (tangent) will always reach
zero in a time t = !. Given

f (t) = f (t o )e

it can be shown that (do not prove)

! = f (t o )

t !t o
"

"t
f (t o ) # f (t o + "t)

(b) Apply the above equation for ! to each of the data points to the first 3 minutes and
average the values of ! to obtain the time constant.
5.4

From the value of VCPP measured in Section 4.2f, determine VPP/VCPP.

Compare with the theoretical value obtained from Eq. 2.

PEEII-I-11/11

5.5

Submit all images copied from the scope, using the appropriate scales and label
with the appropriate descriptive labels.

5.6

From Section 4.3.1, determine the minimum !/T for good integration of a square
wave. Determine the minimum VPP/VCPP. Compare with the theoretical value
obtained from Eq. 2.

5.7

From Section 4.3.2, Show that the integration of the triangular wave is a parabolic
wave, i.e, show that the amplitude of the wave at 1/8 period is 3/4 of peak.

5.8

From Section 4.3.4, determine the minimum T/! for good differentiation of the
triangular wave. Determine the minimum VPP/VRPP. What does the output
waveform look like?

5.9

Simulate in PSpice all parts of section 4.3. Use the frequencies obtained in the
Lab. Plot the output waveforms. Compare with the experimental ones.

5.10

Design a first order RC circuit that produces the following response:

vc(t) = 10 - 5 e-3000t V for t 0.

5.11

Prepare a summary.

School of Engineering
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

332:224 Principles

of Electrical

Engineering

II Laboratory

Experiment 5

Step response of an RLC series circuit

1

Introduction
Objectives

To study the behavior of an underdamped RLC Series

Circuit for different damping coefficients

Overview
This experiment is a study of the step response of an underdamped RLC series circuit. The
natural frequency is chosen and that determines the values of L and C. Then the damping
coefficient is varied by changing the value of R.
A short theory is presented. The prelab exercise is rudimentary but crucial for the
performance of the experiment which includes comparison of experimentally determined and
theoretically derived waveform maxima and minima.

Rutgers University
Authored by P. Sannuti
Latest revision:December 16, 2005, 2004
by P. Panayotatos

PEEII-II-2/6

Theory1
Consider an RLC series circuit subject to a unit step voltage as shown in fig. 1.
+
L

Fig. 1
A Series RLC Circuit
with a Unit Step Input

1 u(t)

+
+
-

VC (t)

For a second order linear differential equation with step function input

d 2 y(t)
dy(t)
a2
+
a
+ a0 y = Au(t)
1
2
dt
dt
the step response is the general solution for t > 0. This step response can be partitioned into
forced and natural components. Natural response is the general solution of the homogeneous
equation (with u(t) = 0), while the forced response is a particular response of the above
equation.
Following the notation of the textbook, the following notation is used for a second order
circuit:
! = The damping factor
" = The damping coefficient
#n = The damped frequency
#o = The natural frequency
For the RLC series circuit of fig. 1, the expression for the capacitance voltage in the
oscillatory (underdamped) case is

vC(t) = 1 + Ke-atcos(#d t + $)
where

! = R/2L = "#o

and

1
R 2 1/2
!d = ! " # = (
" 2 ) = ! o (1 " $ 2 )1/2
LC 4L
2
o

A more detailed treatment can be found in the text starting with section 8.4.

(1)

PEEII-II-3/6

Also,

!o =

1
LC

and

!=

R C
2 L

In equation (1) for vC(t), the term Ke-atcos(#d t + $) represents the natural response and the
unity represents the particular solution.
Consider the initially quiescent state (both the initial inductance current and the initial
capacitor voltage are zero). In this case,

% + (
% # (
"1
! = " tan ' * = " tan '
*
2
& $d )
& 1++ )
"1

K=!

1
1
=!
cos "
1!# 2

(2)

(3)

The maxima and minima occur alternately when

tan(#d +$) = -!/#d, i.e. #d t = k !; k = 0, 1, 2, .......

(4)

From the above, the maximum and the minimum values of vC are given by

%
k!$
vc ( k! / " d ) = 1 # (#1)k exp ' #
'& 1 # $ 2

(
*
*)

k = 0, 1, 2, .......

(5)

(odd values of k give the maxima)

Prelab Exercises
3.1 For L = 100mH, compute the value of C needed for the natural frequency #o = 2!fo = 104!.
To vary the damping coefficient " , vary the value of R . Compute the values of R for each
of the six different values of the damping coefficient " = 0.1, " = 0.2, "=0.4, " = 0.6,
" = 0.8, and "=1.0, (see Table 1 under section 4.4).
3.2 From Eq. 5, calculate and fill the theoretical values of the maxima and minima in
Table 1 under section 4.4.

PEEII-II-4/6

Experiments
Suggested Equipment:
TEKTRONIX FG 501A 2MHz Function Generator
HP 54600A or Agilent 54622A Oscilloscope
DC 504A Counter-Timer
Protek Model B-845 Digital Multimeter
Resistance/Capacitance Box
Inductance Box
NOTE: The oscillator is designed to work for a very wide range of frequencies but may not
be stable at very low frequencies, say in the order of 100 Hz or 200Hz. To start with it is a
good idea to have the circuit working at some mid-range frequency, say in the order of 1K
Hz or 2K Hz, and then change the frequency slowly as needed.
Any function generator used has internal resistance. Also, the inductor has internal resistance.
Both need to be determined.
4.1

Function generator resistance

The internal resistance of the function generator will affect the damping of an RLC circuit to
which it is connected. Check the resistance in the following way:
a- With a sine wave output, set the open circuit voltage to some convenient value, say 1V.
b- Connect a pure variable resistance load (potentiometer) thus forming a voltage divider.
Adjust R until the terminal voltage falls to one-half the open circuit value. At this point the
two resistances of the voltage divider have to be equal. Therefore, the resistance of the
potentiometer should now be equal to the internal resistance of the function generator.
Disconnect the potentiometer from the circuit and measure its resistance.
4.2

Inductor internal resistance

Use the digital ohmmeter to measure the internal resistance of the inductor used. The values
of R that should be used in the series RLC circuit are those computed in Section 3 (Pre-lab
exercise) minus the internal resistance of the function generator and minus the internal
resistance of the inductor.
4.3

Step response of RLC branch

Arrange a series RLC series circuit using values calculated for " = 0.1 in Section 3 (Pre-lab
exercise). Set the scope sweep rate to 0.5ms/div (CAL), sensitivity to 500mV/div. With a

PEEII-II-5/6

square wave input to the circuit, set f = 250Hz and increase the amplitude of the input until
you see the typical oscillatory response to a step input. (Instead of a step input, a square
wave of low enough frequency is used so that the repetitive wave form of the capacitor
voltage can be easily plotted on the scope). Adjust the oscillator voltage so that the steady
state value of the capacitor voltage is 1V corresponding to the particular solution for a unit
step input. Download the waveform.
4.4

Measurement of peaks

Read the values of the maxima and the minima based on a unit step input. (Use the cursor).
Repeat 4.3 for different values of " , fill all the values in Table 1 and compare with the
theoretical values that were calculated in pre-lab exercise 3.2. In each case download the
waveform.

!"

1st Max

1st Min

2nd Max
Measured

0.1

Theoretical
Measured

0.2

Theoretical
Measured

0.4

Theoretical
Measured

0.6

Theoretical
Measured

0.8

Theoretical
Measured

1.0

Critically Damped

Theoretical

Table 1 Unit step response of 2nd order system

4.5

Natural frequency

Change the sweep to 0.1ms/div and reduce damping as much as possible by reducing the
value of R. Notice that the period of the oscillation is close to 0.2ms which corresponds to
the natural frequency #o used to determine L and C values.

PEEII-II-6/6

Report
5.1

Derive Equation 1 in Section 2 for the underdamped case of a series RLC circuit.

5.2

Derive and prove Equation 4 in Section 2.

5.3

In pre-lab exercise 3.2 you have already filled the theoretical values of the maxima and
minima in Table 1. Compare them now with the experimental values. Print out the
downloaded waveforms and label them appropriately.

5.4

Prepare a summary.