THESIS

CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Submitted By

HASHIM K ABDUL AZEEZ

SD0412

Guided By

Bhairav Patel
Visiting Faculty
CEPT University

M.TECH PROGRAMME IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN

CEPT UNIVERSITY,
AHMEDABAD 380009.

I am devoted to the almighty who gave me strength of mind and health to successfully
complete this work. I am also grateful to my parents and sisters for their constant support
& encouragement..

ii

UNDERTAKING

I, Hashim K Abdul Azeez, the author of the dissertation titled Creativity and Innovation
in Structural Design, hereby declare that this is an independent work of mine, carried out
towards partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of M Tech degree in Structural
Design at the Faculty of Technology , CEPT University, Ahmedabad. This work has not
been submitted to any other institution for the award of any degree/diploma.

Hashim K Abdul Azeez (SD0412)

Date: 19th November,2014
Place: Ahmedabad

Disclaimer
This document describes work undertaken as part of the MTech degree in Structural Design at the Faculty of
Technology, CEPT University. All views and opinions expressed therein remain the sole responsibility of
the author, and do not necessarily represent those of CEPT University, the Dissertation Guide(s), or the
Dissertation Committee.

iii

Thesis Title:

CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN

APPROVAL CERTIFICATE
The above study done by Hashim K Abdul Azeez is hereby certified as a creditable work
on the approved subject, carried out and presented in a manner sufficiently satisfactory to
warrant its acceptance as partial fulfillment towards M.Tech. Degree in Structural Design
for which it has been submitted. It is to be understood by this approval that the undersigned
does not necessarily endorse or approve any statement made, opinion expressed or
conclusions drawn therein, but approves the study only for the purpose for which it is
submitted and satisfies his/her work as per requirements.

Bhairav Patel
Visiting faculty
CEPT University, Ahmedabad

HOD
Structural Design Department
Faculty of Technology,
CEPT University, Ahmedabad

iv

Abstract
The profession of engineering mainly deals with the safety of people who are occupants of
the product he is giving. The safety includes the safety of life, safety of money, safety of
resources and above all safety of human emotions. The design philosophy of engineering
mainly revolves on economy, efficiency and humanities. It is often misunderstood that
engineering is nothing more than the achievement of clearly specified technological
objectives for the lowest possible cash. This wrong notion is severe when it comes to
structural engineering where it is treated as a profession which involves complex
computational analysis of a form which is given by a more humanistic professional, the
Architect.

Beyond the analytical part of structural engineering, there is a less explored but most critical
aspect which is the formative stage of design. The stage in which the creativity and
innovation is to be exercised and the subjective content of the structural design plays its
part.

Any shelter or structure is basically a product of a design process which depends on many
factors. The design process is a collaboration of various professions. Each professional
should contribute his part to the design process where the main characteristics of a structure
are formed and its qualities and faults are determined. The structural engineer is a part of
design team where his valuable input largely influences the quality of the final product. The
main professional he will be dealing in the design process will be Architect. It is important
to collaborate with the Architect fruitfully for a better design product.

The study basically concentrates on identifying the important factors which helps for the
creative collaboration between structural engineer and architect and identifying the
qualities to be developed by an engineer to play a major role in the design process. The first
part of the thesis is aimed at understanding the basic design process, design team, role of
structural engineer in the design team, structural design culture and the relationship
between engineer and architect. It also consists of identifying the issues in ArchitectEngineer collaboration by survey among the practicing engineers and architects. Second
part aims at identifying the creative process by studying the works of innovative engineers
v

by the framework developed form the first part and identifying the factors, their personality
traits and approach to the conceptual design which made them innovative.
Keywords: design collaboration, architect, structural engineer, structural design,
conceptual design, creative skills and innovative engineers.

vi

Acknowledgements
I would like to take this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude towards my guide Mr.
Bhairav Patel for believing in my ability for the selected research and whose timely help,
guidance, invaluable comments, constant encouragement and support made this research
possible.

My special thanks to Mr. Devang Patel for igniting the spark to carry out this work in the
initial stage to his treasured support till the end.

My sincere thanks to Dr. R.N Vakil, Prof. Neelkanth Chhaya, Prof. R.J.Shah and Prof.
V.R.Shah for sharing their views on my research topic which gave me the initial direction
and encouragement to go forward. I also thank all the Structural engineers and Architects
who had spent their valuable time in co-operating with my survey on Architect-Structural
Engineer collaboration.

I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to my core faculty members, Lecturer
Aanal Shah and Lecturer Dhara Shah for their constant guidance and support throughout
my entire M Tech course. I would also like to express thanks to all my visiting faculty
members for their invaluable knowledge they had given me in my M Tech course.

I also want to give thanks to Chetan and all my classmates for their constant support and
help. I also thank my roommate Maher for his support.

This acknowledgments would not be complete without thanking my parents and sisters for
their constant support and care. I also wish to extend my thanks to all my teachers and
friends in my life.

vii

Contents
Abstract............................................................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................... vii
Contents ........................................................................................................................................................ viii
List of tables ................................................................................................................................................... xi
List of figures ................................................................................................................................................ xii
1.

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1.

Background to the problem ............................................................................................................ 1

1.2.

Research aims ................................................................................................................................ 3

1.3.

Research limitations ....................................................................................................................... 4

1.4.

Data type ........................................................................................................................................ 4

1.4.1.

Reasons for choosing this method ......................................................................................... 4

1.4.2.

Advantages of secondary analysis ......................................................................................... 5

1.4.3.

Limitations on secondary analysis ......................................................................................... 5

1.4.4.

Why not choosing the alternative methods ............................................................................ 5

1.4.5.

Data collection ....................................................................................................................... 6

1.5.

Research approach and thesis format ............................................................................................. 6

Research Design
2.

3.

Referential Background .......................................................................................................................... 9

2.1.

Planning process ............................................................................................................................ 9

2.2.

Design team.................................................................................................................................. 10

2.3.

Role and oppurtunity of structural engineer in the design process ............................................... 12

2.4.

Structural design culture .............................................................................................................. 15

2.5.

Conceptual design process ........................................................................................................... 21

2.5.1.

Types of design process....................................................................................................... 21

2.5.2.

Characteristics of creative or innovative design process ..................................................... 23

2.6.

Differences in Design Cultures .................................................................................................... 27

2.7.

Design Collaboration ................................................................................................................... 31

Investigation on Architect Structural Engineer Collaboration ........................................................... 36

3.1.

Responses from Structural Engineers .......................................................................................... 36

3.2.

Responses from Architects ........................................................................................................... 40

3.3.

Conclusions on Investigation ....................................................................................................... 43

viii

4.

Development of Referential Background ............................................................................................. 45

4.1.

Design culture .............................................................................................................................. 45

4.2.

Structural Design culture ............................................................................................................. 46

4.3.

Conceptual Design process .......................................................................................................... 47

4.4.

Differences in Design culture....................................................................................................... 49

4.5.

Framework on study of innovative engineers and their works. .................................................... 50

4.5.1.

Study of engineers ............................................................................................................... 50

4.5.2.

Creative process .................................................................................................................. 51

Study of Innovative Engineers

5.

6.

Innovative Engineers and their works ................................................................................................... 53

5.1.

Thomas Telford ............................................................................................................................ 53

5.2.

Robert Stephenson ....................................................................................................................... 56

5.3.

Isambard Kingdom Brunel ........................................................................................................... 59

5.4.

Gustave Eiffel .............................................................................................................................. 62

5.5.

John Roebling .............................................................................................................................. 65

5.6.

Gustav Lindenthal ........................................................................................................................ 70

5.7.

Robert Maillart ............................................................................................................................. 73

5.8.

Othmar H Ammann...................................................................................................................... 80

5.9.

David B Steinman ........................................................................................................................ 84

5.10.

Eugene Freyssinet ........................................................................................................................ 86

5.11.

Eduardo Torroja ........................................................................................................................... 93

5.12.

Pier Luigi Nervi ........................................................................................................................... 95

5.13.

Felix Candela ............................................................................................................................. 103

5.14.

Fazlur Khan ................................................................................................................................ 108

5.15.

Heinz Isler .................................................................................................................................. 115

5.16.

Christian Menn........................................................................................................................... 117

5.17.

Leslie E Robertson ..................................................................................................................... 118

5.18.

William F Baker ......................................................................................................................... 120

Creative process .................................................................................................................................. 121

6.1.

John roebling - Cable Suspension Bridges ................................................................................. 121

6.2.

Robert Maillart - Hollow Box Arch Bridge design .................................................................... 125

6.3.

Robert Maillart - Deck stiffened Arch Bridge design ................................................................ 130

6.4.

Invention of prestressed concrete ............................................................................................... 135

6.5.

Pier Luigi Nervi - Nervi Systems ............................................................................................ 140

6.6.

Fazlur Khan - Tubular concept .................................................................................................. 145

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Research Conclusions
7.

Discussions and conclusions on creative process ............................................................................... 159

8.

Discussions and conclusions on factors affecting creative skills ........................................................ 162

8.1.

Socio-political and Technological background .......................................................................... 162

8.2.

Educational background and formative years of career ............................................................. 167

Discussions and conclusions on Approach to Design and Personality Traits ..................................... 173

9.

9.1.

Approach to design .................................................................................................................... 173

9.2.

Personality traits ......................................................................................................................... 174

10.

Final conclusions and reccomendations ......................................................................................... 181

10.1.

Recommendations on creative skills in engineers ...................................................................... 182

10.2.

Recommendations on skill development in educational institues and professional firms .......... 183

11.

Future Scope ................................................................................................................................... 185

References ................................................................................................................................................... 186

Appendix ..................................................................................................................................................... 188
A1.
Questionnaire for Structural Engineers on relationships between Structural Engineers and
Architects ................................................................................................................................................ 188
A2.

Questionnaire for Architects on relationships between Structural Engineers and Architects .... 191

List of tables
Table 1- Responses of Structural Engineers to the statements in questionnaire ............................................ 38
Table 2- Responses from Architects to the Statements in questionnaire ....................................................... 41
Table 3- Categorization of engineer to different eras .................................................................................. 162
Table 4- Variation in socio-political and technological background in different eras ................................. 165
Table 5 - Educational Background of Engineers ......................................................................................... 168

xi

List of figures
Figure 1 Niagara suspension bridge - John Roebling's first suspension bridge with wire cables ................ 122
Figure 2- Cincinnati bridge - John Roebling ............................................................................................... 122
Figure 3- Brooklyn Bridge - John Roebling's last suspension bridge completed construction by his son
Washington Roebling .................................................................................................................................. 123
Figure 4- Evolution of cable suspension Bridge .......................................................................................... 124
Figure 5- Vienne river bridge ...................................................................................................................... 125
Figure 6- Stauffacher Bridge with masonry faade ..................................................................................... 125
Figure 7 - Difference in the structural action of Conventional Arch Bridge design and Hollow Box Arch
Bridge Design .............................................................................................................................................. 126
Figure 8- Cracks which occurred in Zouz Bridge ........................................................................................ 126
Figure 9- Tavanasa Bridge........................................................................................................................... 127
Figure 10-Provided thin cross wall near to the abutment ............................................................................ 128
Figure 11- Evolution of Hollow Box Arch Design ...................................................................................... 129
Figure 12-Cracks appeared in quarter span in Aarburg bridge .................................................................... 131
Figure 13- Flienglibach Bridge .................................................................................................................... 131
Figure 14- Differences in behavior of Deck Stiffened Arch Bridge Design and Unstiffened Deck Arch
Bridge Design .............................................................................................................................................. 132
Figure 15- Valtschielbach Bridge ................................................................................................................ 132
Figure 16- Schwandbach Bridge ................................................................................................................. 133
Figure 17 Evolution of Deck stiffened Arch Bridge design ..................................................................... 134
Figure 18- Le Veurdre Bridge ..................................................................................................................... 135
Figure 19- Villeneuve-Sur- Lot Bridge ....................................................................................................... 137
Figure 20- Plougastel Bridge ....................................................................................................................... 138
Figure 21 Invention of Prestressed Concrete ............................................................................................... 139
Figure 22- wave prefabrication element (Tullia Iori, 2005) ..................................................................... 142
Figure 23-wave prefabrication element (Tullia Iori, 2005) ...................................................................... 142
Figure 24- Evolution of Nervi Systems .................................................................................................... 144
Figure 25 Structural layout of Brunswick building (Fintel, 1985)............................................................ 146
Figure 26 Difference in effect of lateral loads when it acts, moment frame and shear wall individually and
combined (Fintel, 1985) .............................................................................................................................. 147
Figure 27 Transfer girder at second floor level ........................................................................................ 147
Figure 28- Structural layout of De Witt Chestnut Apartment (Fintel, 1985) ............................................... 150
Figure 29- shear lag effect in tubular structures (Fintel, 1985).................................................................... 151
Figure 30- Full length shear wall provided along shorter direction (Khan, 2004) ....................................... 152
Figure 31 Tube in tube concept (Khan, 2004) .......................................................................................... 152
Figure 32Load tranfer in John Hanckock Center ......................................................................................... 154
Figure 33- structural layout of One Shell Plaza ........................................................................................... 156
Figure 34- Evolution of tubular structure .................................................................................................... 157

xii

xiii

1. Introduction
1.1.

Background to the problem

Most of the present engineers rely more upon the analytical computer programs
which is the scientific part of the profession and most often neglect the humanistic
part. As a result, the engineering judgement which is the core of the profession around
which other aspects revolves is impaired. The new ideas and design possibilities to
serve the human development is lost. The social and emotional dimension of the
design is not taken into account.
D.P Billington (1983) believes that Modern works are filled with faulty works,
excessively costly and often extremely ugly. Some of our best engineers understood
the general theory and the use of complex computer analysis well, but they often fail
to see how new design possibilities arise. The undue reliance on complex computer
analysis in both professional and academic field has a deteriorating effect on the
intuitional and imaginative character of young structural engineers.

Most of the young engineers ends up as mechanically calculating stress from the
computer stress analysis programs available and follows the prevailing building
codes. The subjective and creative part of the profession takes the back seat. It is often
understood as a rational discipline where there is probably a straight forward answer
to every problem. Holgate says that some of the engineering students imagine that
when disagreements arise among technologists they are settled by recourse to purely
dispassionate, logical discussion, free of problems that normally beset human
relationship (Holgate, 1986) .

Pier Luigi Nervi (1956), one of the greatest innovative engineer of the past feels that
the development of theoretical research in structural engineering may not yield
practical results unless we obtain a better knowledge of actual behaviour of the
structure and is able to relate this to the elements of structural intuition, mathematical
calculations and ever developing construction technologies. Only a perfect

combination of these factors can realize the unlimited technological and architectural
potentialities of structural engineering. He wrote, Do building problems, even in
their technical aspects allow unique and impersonal solutions obtainable by the
mathematical formulas? Or on the contrary, can be they solved correctly only through
a superior and purely intuitive re elaboration of mathematical results, because of the
complexity of the inherent deficiency of our theoretical knowledge and finally the
wide discrepancies between theoretical premises and physical reality. In this re
elaboration lies the most promising means of penetrating the mysteries of the
structural world (Fisher, 1956) . Even though this was written before sixty years, the
situation remain the same. Most of the emerging design is probably made to suit the
theory and analytical tool available and doesnt think beyond it.

While we are looking for new technological research it is important to supplement it

with the subjective nature of the structural design by accounting the design solutions
of the great engineers. Nervi feels that The enthusiasm for the development of
mathematical theory impaired the objectivity of the engineer, who was led by his
mental make up to believe in theory even when it was contradicted by facts (Fisher,
1956). D.P Billington believes that a new perspective on structural design as an
activity independent of basic science, suggest a new type of research, basic to a design
profession, where historical, humanistic study is important as much as the
development of scientific analyses and material research (Billington, 1983) . The
two type of researches should progress parallel so that applicability of technological
research can be best extracted and could be served as fast as possible.

Knowledge in subjective nature of the design can be mainly achieved through

practice and experience. As Addis states that the art of design, like many skills as
riding a bike or swimming, is learnt mainly by doing, not from descriptions of how it
is done (Addis, 2001) .

But it is necessary to have self-awareness of the greatness of the profession and the
feel of innovative designs of great engineers. As Addis admits that I have learnt a
great deal about modern engineering and the nature of engineering design from
studying engineering history and I think it is important that all engineers should have
some knowledge of the great achievements in their field, not only to avoid reinventing
2

the wheel, but also to develop a better sense of professional identity and pride
(Addis, 2001). A conscious development of design philosophy related to the own
personality and ideals of engineer is to be encouraged as an architect develops his
own philosophy through the wide range of literature available of the past Architects.
The particular study is an attempt to have a feel of subjective and creative aspects of
the structural design.
The main inspiration for this study is derived from the books: Art in Structural
Design: An Introduction and sourcebook by Alan Holgate (1986), the Tower and
Bridge: The New Art of Structural Engineering by the renowned engineering critic
David P Billington (1983) and Creativity and Innovation the Structural Engineers
Contribution to Design by Bill Addis (2001).

1.2.

Research aims

Formative or the conceptual design stage is the most important phase around which
the whole design process revolves. The quality of the final design product mainly
depends on this stage of the design process. This stage is critical for both Architects
and Engineers to follow up their detailed design process as well as for a better design
product to the owner or client whom they are serving upon. Better collaborative effort
between Architect and engineer is required in this stage.

The first research aim is to understand the basic conceptual design process,
design team members and the role and opportunities of structural engineer in
the design process, structural design culture and the differences in design
cultures and the factors contributing to the creative collaboration between
architect and engineer in the conceptual phase of the design.

From the framework obtained from the first part on design process, the works of the
innovative engineers will be analysed to have a feel of the various creative process
within a project and within their professional careers.

The second research aim is to understand the innovative design process by

studying the works of past engineers.

There would have been many factors which made these engineers innovative. There
would have been specific approach to the design, personality traits and philosophy
which made them different and special from the other engineers working at the
similar background.

The third research aim is to identify the factors, approach to design and common
personality traits which made these engineers innovative.

1.3.

Research limitations

Due to the subjective nature of the research, information analysis is adopted. Those
engineers were chosen who are commonly recognized as innovative engineers
worldwide. It was also selected based on the available resources. Since the lives and
works of engineers are studied from available secondary sources and due to the
subjective nature of the study, more generalized conclusions could only be made.
1.4.

Data collection method

Secondary data was the main type of data used in this study. A variety of different
secondary sources like books written by eminent personalities, standard journals and
video lectures of prominent engineers are studied. If found suitable, it was used and
referenced throughout the study and quoted in reference section. For the investigation
on Architect Structural Engineer collaboration primary data was collected through
questionnaires
1.4.1. Reasons for choosing this method
Since basic methodology adopted is information analysis, use of secondary data
seemed most appropriate. Due to the subjective nature of the study, primary research
would have been too difficult to conduct. Conducting a reliable piece of primary
research is very difficult, especially if the researcher is limited by financial and time

restrictions. Additionally, secondary data is much more reliable and valid, providing
strength to the conclusions that are drawn.

1.4.2. Advantages of secondary analysis

Secondary data research has many advantages as it provides broad scope of study. It
provides a variety of approaches to the same topic. Different design process prevails
in different country and using this type of analysis will ensure generalisation as a
whole. Additionally, the data used is of high standard and reliable as it was extracted
from leading journals and prominent writers. It also saves time and money, in
comparison with highly intensive primary research. More time could be devoted to
the analysis for this type of subjective research. Researcher can propose more
accurate interpretation from different opinions.

1.4.3. Limitations of secondary analysis

The main limitation of this type of study was that some of the information of a
particular source may not relate with the research topic. Hence, after going through a
source, researcher is to take only the relevant matter for his study. Sometimes the
information will be highly complex depending on the topic and type of source. This
may leads to consumption of more time for analysis.

1.4.4. Why not choosing the alternative methods

It will be very difficult to conduct primary research due to the inaccessibility to a
reliable sample. Moreover, Primary research demands more number of samples to
have reasonable interpretation which is very difficult with the available time.
Additionally, it will be too difficult to isolate a sample with such an advanced level
of knowledge.

1.4.5. Data collection

As previously discussed, literature reviews formed the basis of the data collection
process of this methodology. A broad scope of different sources were examined in
order to isolate the most useful pieces of research for this study. The researcher
actively searched through a variety of different options to find the most suitable
reference books, journals, video lectures, presentations etc. The validity and
reliability of the data were ensured as the sources from which it was extracted were
of highly qualified writers and high quality journals.

1.5.

Research approach and thesis format

The thesis work will be structured around three parts.

1) Research design
2) Study of the innovative engineers and their works
3) Research Conclusions

In the first part, chapter 2 presents the referential background on the importance of
conceptual design in the planning process, design team , role and opportunity of
structural engineer in the design team, structural design culture, differences in design
cultures, design process and design collaboration. Chapter 3 presents the conclusions
on investigation on Architect and Structural Engineer collaboration by survey among
the practicing professionals. Chapter 4 consists of development and refining of the
referential background and also the formulation of basic structure in which engineers
will be studied.

Second part presents the study of selected 18 innovative engineers based on the
framework formulated in the chapter 4. Chapter 5 gives the basic study of engineers,
the overview of their major recognized innovative works and their approach to design
and personality traits. Chapter 6 analyses the conceptual design stage of some of
the works of these engineers.

In the final part, the conclusions are made based on the part 1 and part 2. Chapter 7
gives the discussions and conclusions on creative process. Chapter 8 gives the
discussions and conclusions on the factors affecting creative skills. Chapter 9 gives
the discussion and conclusions on approach to design and personality traits. Chapter
10 gives the final conclusions and recommendations for the development of creative
skills in structural engineers. Chapter 11 presents the future scope or the variety of
possible investigations that could be done similar to this thesis.

Research Design

2. Referential Background
This chapter presents a referential background of the planning process and
importance of conceptual design in the planning process. It describes the various
characteristics of basic conceptual design process, the various members involved in
it, the position of structural engineer in the design process, structural conceptual
design and the differences in design cultures and design collaboration. It provides the
basic understanding of conceptual design process and formulation of basic structure
of the study of innovative engineers.

2.1.

Planning process

Planning is the stage at which basic decisions regarding the commencement of a

project to the completion of the project will be made. The major decision will be
taken regarding the balancing of the functional objectives to the major aims of the
project.

Planning process can be broadly divided into four basic stages

1. Decision stage
2. Design stage
3. Construction stage
4. Delivery stage

Decision stage is where the idea of inception of a project emerges. It includes the
economic design, site selection, programme and budget, construction cost
projections, schematic physical design, land acquisition and preparation of financial
package for submission to prospective lenders etc. Design stage includes the
preliminary physical design, financing negotiations, final design, preparation of
construction document, calling tender for construction work and award of contract.
Construction stage includes project planning, commencement and completion of
construction work. Delivery stage includes investment management and maintenance
work (Holgate, 1986).

All these stages are interrelated to each other and may overlap depending on the
pressure of speedy construction of projects. The decision stage from the inception of
a project leading to the preliminary physical design greatly influences the success of
the project. This initial conceptual design stage is where client, Architect and other
consultants converges the whole aim of the project into a preliminary physical design.

The conceptual design stage is the most critical phase of the entire process as it relates
to design stage, construction stage and the delivery stage. About the importance of
conceptual design stage Steyert (1972) wrote the economic success of a project is
generally determined by the design concept developed in the first few weeks of the
design process, not in the months of work that follow. In the initial period the
architect, his client and their consultants rapidly arrive at a preliminary
design.Ninety percent of the design man hours are spent on the work that affects
cost plus or minus seven percent, while ten percent of the design man hours are spent
on the conceptual design which affects cost plus or minus thirty percent. The paradox
of modern design is that the computer programs are used to save basically pennies,
while unquantitative rules of thumb on building economy to establish overall building
form (Holgate, 1986).

Addis point out the importance of conceptual design phase in the planning process as
.it is important to remember that the best way to get better buildings is for clients
to employ good designers and to allow the enough time to think carefully about every
aspect of design including how the building will be built and maintained before
construction begins (Addis, 2001). In this thesis, design process is always
considered to be conceptual design unless described otherwise.

2.2.

Design team

The fate of a planning process is greatly influenced by the individuals involved in the
process. The firm or individual who expresses a need for the structure becomes the
client. The architectural firm will design the arrangement of space of the building, its
external appearance and internal environment if it is a habitable building. The other
consultants including structural engineer and services engineer come under the

10

Architect. For structures with utilitarian function like bridges and industrial structures
client may approach structural engineer and architect plays a subordinate role. There
may be certain variations within these organizations.
Client plays an important role in the design process. The role of the client is by no
means passive. It is impossible for a client to express his requirements in more than
the vaguest terms unless he knows something of the various possible means of
satisfying them (Holgate, 1986) . Nervi wrote The role of client is as important as
it is difficult. In my long life as a designer and builder, I have seldom found clients
capable of stating their problem clearly, of choosing the designer and his design
wisely, or of accepting the responsibility for a daring structural or aesthetic solution.
He said the client influences the architectural solution directly by defining the general
outline of the project and selecting the designers (Fisher, 1956).

Another major member which influences the early stages of the design process will
be the regulatory bodies. It employs codes produced by number of national standard
association to define the expected standards in detail. The attitude of the regulatory
authority is of paramount importance in planning (Holgate, 1986).It can greatly
influence the creative or innovative design process depending upon the degree of their
collaborative approach. Holgate says that .authoritative or excessively cautious
approach in which authority simply continues to reject proposal until the designers
happen to arrive at an acceptable version may hold up a project for many months and
cause considerable wastage of design effort (Holgate, 1986).

Even though Project managers and contractors do not directly involve in the design
process, plays an important role as the design is greatly influenced by the construction
methods and sequence of construction process. Quantity surveyors also play an
important role in the initial stage of design as their inputs are necessary for the client
to balance the capital and running cost of building. They have to prepare bill of
quantities based on which estimated cost are calculated. Their experience in
estimating costs often plays an important role in the design stage (Holgate, 1986).

Services engineers also play an important role in the early design process. Martin,
Emerson and Berry (1979) wrote .as structural engineers we had been frustrated
11

to realize usually too late that, however logical a structural solution might have
appeared in discussion with architect, once some appreciation had eventually
emerged of the objectives of the service engineer and the options that could have been
open to him, it became apparent that in terms of the total building, the structure
selected might not have been the best choice (Holgate, 1986).

Structural engineer is only a member in the design team which contains many such
important members. Politicians or executives along with the Architect play a major
part in defining the purpose of a project. The immediate member collaborating with
structural engineer may be Architect. However, it is important to know the basic
characteristics of other members. Holgate (1986) believes that the personalities and
social skills of the members involved in the design process are different and plays a
deceive role in deciding the objective of the project. It directly or indirectly influences
the structural design. The architectural design is mainly influenced by these members
which in turn influences structural design.

2.3.

Role and oppurtunity of structural engineer in the design process

When we compare the structural design to the whole planning process, it is a small
part only. Holgate speaks with respect to the building process that The cost of the
building is submerged in land costs, furnishing, interest, taxation, professional fees,
expenses involved in entrepreneurial activities and costs of professional advice. He
further says the cost of the structure is only a fraction of the total cost of the
building: perhaps 20 to 40 percent depending on the circumstances. Services may
account as much as 50 percent of total cost. Architectural finishes will account for
rest (Holgate, 1986).

Structural content of project may be unimportant with respect to the overall cost but
structure is the basic causes for existence of any form. The consulting Engineer, Bill
Addis said you cannot have an engineering structure which is made of a material,
nor a material which is not in the form of a structure (Addis, 2001). And the architect
Heino Engel have a similar ideas as he said without structure, material forms cannot

12

be preserved, and without perseverance of form, the very destination of the form
object cannot assert itself (Luyten, 2012) .

Structural Engineer Himanshu Parikh in the wake of growing concerns among the
construction sector about sustainability and conservation of resources, talks about the
importance of structure and conceptual structural design as Nowadays in
architecture there is this thing of giving lot of emphasis on how to make green
buildings? And how to use less resources. But people are not realizing. Realization
actually comes from the basic conceptualization of the building and from the basic
structural system ...Embodied energy comes from conceptualization of a
system, understanding how the loads come down and optimal structural system to
support that framing system, load bearing and its combinations. If architect doesnt
understand this then afterwards you cannot really achieve conservation of resources
in a very serious way (Belsare, 2013).

The traditional way of design collaboration between architect and engineer is

sequential rather that concurrent. Engineers of the renowned structural design firm
Arup feel that nine out of ten of their projects do not require engineering but just
responding: Architects have already decided the main design issues and the
engineers are relegated to designing to specifications (Luyten, 2012) .

R.N Vakil (2014), who is the founder of leading architectural and structural
consultancy in Ahmedabad said that it is important to know the opportunity or
freedom for creative design available to structural engineers. He said that in the
present scenario, architect gives the conceptual design and engineers follows it with
complex computer analysis programs. He further explained that in earlier days
structural engineers were given the freedom to explore. He pointed out that structural
engineers are not at all considered in the conceptual stage of design. However, he
also said that even architects nowadays are not getting ample opportunity to explore
their work and it depends on the thoughts of the particular society and people. He
also said opportunity of creative design for structural engineers depends on the type
of structure dealing with. He said in case of industrial structures structural engineer
had greater chance of exploring as architect plays a very little role in it. But with the

13

advent of pre-engineered structures structural engineers now need to design pedestal

and foundations only.
Bill Addis (2001) says that The engineers creativity and ability to innovate is poorly
understood.Indeed, in construction industry, alone amongst manufacturing
industries, innovation is seen something to be avoided. It is seen only as increasing
risk to the client. In fact the opposite is more often true in hands of good engineers
who, time and again, innovate in order to avoid risk. Engineering innovation is also
perceived as adding costs to a project. In fact devising new ways of building is often
the principal way that construction costs can be reduced. . The quantity
surveyors common practice of relying more on historic costing can also make it very
difficult to communicate the benefits of innovative engineering if something is new
there can be no historic cost data. Similarly the tendering process often discriminates
against innovative engineering design. When faced with a non-standard design, most
contractors increase their prices. It requires a dogged determination on the part of a
design engineer to persuade a contractor to collaborate in demonstrating that a nonstandard design and construction method can be less costly or quicker or more likely
to finish on time. There is a very broad spectrum to innovation in structural
engineering- from devising a connection that uses one bolt fewer than usual to
spanning an unprecedented area of floor space or devising an entirely new way of
making buildings earthquake resistant. Firms that are set up to be able to challenge
orthodoxy can assess when a standard solution is more appropriate and when there
are benefits to be gained from innovation. Clients, Architects, quantity surveyors or
project managers are entirely unable to make reliable judgments about these matters
without leadership from engineers (Addis, 2001).

Peter Dunican (1966) described the role of structural engineer in the building design
process as Designing buildings is a task for teams. The structural engineer is a most
important member of the design team, but he is not the only member. The work of
the structural engineer affects, and is affected by, the work of all the other members
of the team. On detailed structural matters-the tactics of the system, if you like-the
structural engineers views are paramount, but when it comes to the choice of systemthe strategy-the views of the structural engineer must be subject to the views of the
other members of the design team. It is the right and responsibility of the structural
14

engineer to propose, but it is for the design team to decide. How they decide is another
question, but it is clear that if the structural engineer is to make a meaningful
contribution to the design of the building, he has to be more than a capable
technologist. Not only should he care about what he is doing and why, but also he
must be able to explain his ideas, simply and clearly. He also said that The
structural engineers contribution to the design of a building has to be judged in
context. It is perhaps unfortunate that in many cases the most successful structural
solutions are those which are so integrated with the building that they are not
apparent, except perhaps to the cognoscenti (Dunican, 1966).
Holgate says that even though structural engineer is no longer master of his own
small domainthe structure still remains an essential element of any
building and the most civil engineering projects. Furthermore, recognizing the reality
of the design situation actually opens up new challenges and opportunities and
enhances the engineers contribution (Holgate, 1986).
The RIBA handbook gives the role of structural engineer in the design team as In
the field of building it can generally be assumed that the structural engineer is
working as a member of a design team with the other disciplines involved .In this
situation engineer not only contributes his own special expertise but equally
contributes to the combined work of the team; the whole as usual being greater than
the sum of the parts. Thus while the engineer has the responsibility to prescribe the
conditions for structural efficiency and stability, he also have a co-operative role in
the design contribution of other, which in turn will affect the overall structural form
(Holgate, 1986) .

2.4.

Structural design culture

Peter Rice said about the perception of public about engineers as Engineers to many
people, especially to the public, are mysterious figures. The most frequent remark is:
What do they do? They just make things stand up, as though this were not a noble
thing to do (Taljsten, 2007).

15

Alan Holgate defined structural design as the process of disposing materials in three
dimensional space as to some defined purpose in the most efficient manner
possible. He believes that in this process the structural logic of carrying the loads
coming over the structure directly into the ground must be balanced with the
qualitative properties of interior space (Holgate, 1986).
Addis believes that Structure is all about doing more with less- using less material
to support a given load or enclose a given volume, or making a stiffer or stronger
object without using more material. But the structural design is greatly influenced
by the safety factor which is taken care by the codes and regulation. More often it is
a matter of balancing structural performance with the cost of achieving it (Addis,
2001).

Structural efficiency could be defined as ratio of benefit to the output. Holgate

believes that the quantity of material could be precisely calculated but it cannot
envisage the correct picture as it ignores the relative cost of different materials and
most importantly the costs of fabrication and construction. The designer should use
his subjective judgement on the issue of fabrication and construction and its
uncertainties (Holgate, 1986).

Addis clarifies the misconception of structural design that it belongs to rational

explanations and calculations from objective scientific laws and it does not have any
choice or subjectivity by saying that But the convergence and objectivity of these
later stages only commence after earlier, highly divergent and turbulent stage of
design process during which all the members of design team propose, compare, reject
and develop alternative ideas (Addis, 2001).

Angus Macdonald distinguishes structural design in two stages. He describe it as

first, the invention of the overall form and general arrangement of the structure and,
secondly, the detailed specification of the precise geometry and dimensions of all of
the individual components of the structure and of the junctions between them
(Macdonald, 2001).

16

Mike Schlaich divide structural design process into conceiving (structural conceptual
stage), modelling (converting the concept of real structure into a model to analyse the
structural behaviour), dimensioning (sizing of the members) and detailing (details of
connection between the members). He considers structural design comprises of two
components, one with scientific and other creative (Luyten, 2012).

Subjectivity of structural design is not only content with the form conceiving but also
in other stages. Holgate underlines this subjectivity as the designer should use his
skill and imagination in foreseeing the probable combination of loads and internal
forces coming over the structure and estimating its likely magnitude. He should use
his subjective judgement of the performance of building guided by the standard codes
and building regulations and discussion with owner. He should envisage the loads
based on the life and importance of the structure, possible change of ownership and
usage and the meteorological data. He should apply suitable safety factor and when
it comes to analysis of structure, he should use the relevant application of theoretical
concepts and modelling techniques (Holgate, 1986).

Ove Arup (1963) talks about the importance of theory of structures in the design
phase as Designing therefore proceeds from a structural feeling acquired by
experience and guided by rough calculations, to a more exact analysis, checking by
further analysis, and so on. In this process a flair for making the right guess yield
quicker and better results than a lot of mathematics. But this is no reason for despising
theoretical analysis-amongst the less gifted engineers such an attitude is simply used
to cover up ignorance or laziness. After all, the efforts of theorists have brought us to
where we are today, and computers enable us to apply their results in practice. It can
never be wrong, and is often necessary to make use of all the help that theory can
give. But one cannot design by theory, and there are other means of producing
structures which will stand up perfectly well, though defying analysis (Colin, 1963).

D.P Billington completely differentiates science and engineering and defies the
notion that engineering as applied science. He says Engineering or technology is the
making of things that did not previously exist, whereas science is the discovering of
things that have long existed. Technological results are forms that exist only because
people want to make them, whereas scientific results are formulations of what exists
17

independently of human intentions. Technology deals with artificial, science with the
natural. He believes that science and technology are parallel activities which are
independent but drawing resources from each other (Billington, 1983) .

Structural design is not all about developing a form to withstand forces. Bjrn
Sandaker sees structural design with two functions. One is the mechanical and other
spatial. Mechanical function of the structure relates to the scientific factor of how the
natural forces will be transferred safely to the ground and the technological aspect of
how it effectively enables the construction process. While he subdivided the spatial
function into architectural utility, contextuality (relates the structural form with its
architectural and spatial context) and iconography (the ability of structural form to
represent an object outside itself) (Bjorn N. Sandaker, 2011).

Holgate categorize the design of structures in 5 categories; 1) support only (to loads
of fixed location) 2) support only (to loads of variable location) 3) support and shelter
4) mainly shelter 5) visual effect. For the earlier categories, load bearing function is
chosen as the starting point of design while for later categories the space enclosing or
symbolic function is chosen as the starting point (Holgate, 1986).

The artistic or creative component of structural design depends on the personality of

an engineer. Eduardo Torroja said about this artistic character of structural design as
Structural design is concerned with much more than science and techniques, it is
also very much concerned with art, common sense, sentiment, aptitude, and
enjoyment of the task of creating opportune outlines to which scientific calculations
will add finishing touches, substantiating that the structure is sound and strong in
accordance with requirements (Dunican, 1966). He also said that The achievement
of the final solution is largely a matter of habit, intuition, imagination, common sense
and personal attitude. Only the accumulation of experience can shorten the necessary
labour of trial and error involved in the selection of one among the different possible
alternatives (Luyten, 2012).

Even though all engineers works on scientific and rational underlining principles, the
design solution of one engineer may differ from others. It depends on the personality
and choice of the engineer. Jorg Schlaich underline this claim by saying that It
18

appears to be forgotten that for every engineering task there are a practically
unlimited number of solutions and that, because of this, it is never possible to make
a choice according to purely functional considerations. Of necessity, it must be hit
upon subjectively (Luyten, 2012) .

The scientific or rational component of the structural design appears to supersede the
subjective component as a structural design that cannot be proven valid according
to the building codes, or in most cases through calculation software, is not supposed
to be built. Engineers need to produce rational explanations and calculations to justify
their various decisions (Luyten, 2012) . Jorg Schlaich says that the profession of
structural engineering does not attract young people because it is considered to be
neither high-tech nor creative though it is, unlike any other profession, both
(Addis, 2001).
The leading engineering historian Arnold Pacey states that Although ideas may arise
in all sorts of ways that may be described as intuitive or participatory, there is always
obligation to translate them into more rigorous often mathematical formulations, so
that others may understand and check them and explore their precise implications
(Rappaport, 2007).

The codification and the theoretical basis exert much pressure on structural design.
Peter Rice (1996) believes that the natural engineering talent with insight and
understanding of structural behaviour is given less importance when compared to the
codification and theoretical calculation which actually originated from the former.
He says that People with insight and understanding of structural behaviour but no
formal education in structural calculation find their way into different professions in
which proof does not need to be calculated but can be achieved by performance
(Luyten, 2012) .

Billington and Gottemoeller (2000) believe that new generation structural engineers
themselves disregard their creative abilities. He says Many of todays engineers see
themselves as a type of applied scientist, analysing pre-existing structural forms that
have been established by others. Seeing oneself as an applied scientist is an
unfortunate state of mind for a design engineer. It eliminates the imaginative half of
19

the design process and forfeits the opportunity for the integration of form and
structural requirements that can result in structural art (Luyten, 2012) . Billington
(1983) also criticizes the overemphasis on computer analysis and structural
calculations of the present generation engineers. He supports his claim by citing the
great engineers of past like Maillart and Nervi who stressed on simplification of
analysis and designed the form by observing the structural behaviour (Billington,
1983) .

But there is some innovative engineers which are different from this. Rappaport
(2007) believes that the innovative engineers of today, are not just calculating
stresses and following building codes; they are testing the limits of what is
structurally considered feasible with new, unconventional ways of from finding
structures derived from natural forms, from natural systems, mathematics that often
lead to changes in codes or building concepts, with unknowns only to be proven to
the physical world (Rappaport, 2007) .

Addis believes that the development of sophisticated computing design tools

enhances exploration of different alternatives at concept and scheme design stages
and produce greater confidence in result of investigations. This has led to many
innovative structural designs in present times (Addis, 2001). But he also points out
the disadvantage with this tools as he says these are also responsible for the realisation
of many of inelegant and unnecessarily convoluted structures (Luyten, 2012) .

Even those engineers who undertake creative design make the claim that engineers
are mere technicians, stronger. As Addis says that .most design engineers seem to
be too busy designing, too modest to undertake self-publicity or lacking in
communication skills, or all three. He advices engineering fraternity by saying that
Engineers must ensure everybody knows what they do to make projects happen. We
must ensure Architects and Contractors do not continue taking all the credit for
buildings by getting on with the publicity themselves (Addis, 2001) .

Luyten (2012) points out the lack of engineers in recollecting the innovative process
they had undergone. Even when engineers come up with innovative process, they are
unclear about how they created them.
20

2.5.

Conceptual design process

Design in its widest sense is defined by the theorists as the translation of a perceived
need into a solution to that need; bringing about change of state; or moving from one
situation to another (Holgate, 1986).

2.5.1. Types of design process

There can be basically three types of design process: routine, innovative and creative.
Routine designs or standardized designs are in which the designer simply use
certain recognized ways of dealing with a particular type of problem. Holgate
describe this as when faced with a problem they normally look up a textbook for a
standard solution, or consult journals to find out how other people have tackled the
problem in the past.to them design seems a straightforward process (Holgate, 1986).
This solution may be outdated with the economical conditions and societal needs of
that particular time or does not fit into the particular project dealt with. It fails to take
advantage of new technological developments and theoretical understanding.
However Holgate feels ...on the whole, designs are produced satisfactory to
society as far as it is aware of the possibilities (Holgate, 1986) .
Similarly Addis describes this routine design as the design by making imaginative
use of existing bodies of engineering knowledge and relatively tried and tested
structural solutions. The results .not likely to be highly innovative but may
nevertheless suit a particular building project (Addis, 2001) .
Innovative designs are those designs in which something new is added without
changing the basic structure of the type or class. While the creative design are those
designs in which entirely new structure for a type or class is created. The innovative
design and creative design can be hardly differentiated (Luyten, 2012).

21

Addis describes this type of innovative design or creative design as design created
by a combination of logic and inspiration going back to the first principles (Addis,
2001) .
Holgate believes that the creative design comes from a flash of inspiration. The
innovative designers feel that after careful investigation of the problem, their
subconscious mind begins to shift the factors involved and to produce possible
solutions which they can then subject to conscious scrutiny. Thus they think that
design as a sort of interplay between conscious and subconscious processes. He
further describes creative act as leap of the imagination. It brings the subconscious
mind from a group of ideas to a single and original proposal (Holgate, 1986) .

Candela believes that creative process do not occur in the conscious mind. He says
It is always simple to explain the way you have one things after you have done them;
but in many cases such explanations are completely untrue, because one does not
know exactly how one reached a certain point in ones thinking. When it comes to be
explained, it can be seen clearly as a whole, but it is not the conscious mind which
has gone through all the steps; the logical process is always an afterthought (Colin,
1963) .

The creative design or innovative design is an evolutionary process. Holgate define

it asthe gradual change which is seen to occur in the collective wisdom of the
profession inspired by those who produce original solutions which take account of
changing conditions and opportunities. harmony is achieved slowly over
many years by a process akin to biological evolution; a series of small alterations
occurring regularly and being rejected or surviving according to the test of practical
application. A significant and under-rated factor in this largely unconscious process
is probably the gradual redefinition of needs and expectations to accord with what is
possible in terms of practicable economic solutions (Holgate, 1986) .

22

2.5.2. Characteristics of creative or innovative design process

At the start of design process there is no clear definition of problem to solve it with
step by step procedures and there is no predetermined goal to achieve but only certain
requirements. Addis call this stage of design process as a process in which the
problems themselves first need to be established (Luyten, 2012) .

In this stage designer pursues an idea without knowing where to go. Design starts
with a vague sensing of a need and a broad definition of a problem. Then designer
goes through the different possible solutions, their merits and demerits with available
data and then go back to the starting point to decide whether to stick on to the defined
problem or redefine it with the acquired new knowledge. If the problem is redefined
a new parallel investigation will be opened up similar to the first one. It may lead to
the final definition of a problem or a new redefinition. It becomes a cyclic process
until a decision is made (Holgate, 1986) .
Design proceeds through creating a bridge between problem and solution. It
oscillates in a cycle between sub problems and sub solutions. Nigel Cross describes
this process as Such an apposite bridge concept recognizably embodies satisfactory
relationships between problem and solution. It is the recognition of a satisfactory
bridging concept that provides the illumination of the creative flash of insight
(Luyten, 2012) .

Holgate believes that the effective way of generating creative design propositions in
the mind of designer is by exploiting the subconscious mind to devote a period of
time to diligent conscious work and then relax or work on a different problem for a
while. A flash of inspiration is then liable to arrive at any place or time. (Holgate,
1986) .

Every design problem is unique and specific and it requires a special personal
approach from the designer. Designer should accumulate data from the clients brief
and then take out the relevant information from huge amount of data in defining a
problem and subsequently solving it.

23

Lawson defines these precedents as either whole or partial pieces of designs that the
design is aware of. They may be previously employed solutions by the same designer,
by famous designers, buildings... (Luyten, 2012) .

Holgate speaks about the importance of the accumulation of the precedents or

references in structural design as .new ideas must be synthesized from previously
acquired elements of knowledge which appear relevant to the situation. This implies
that a wide knowledge of material and structural behavior is pre requisite. He also
says that To generate a solution it must be necessary to search through this
knowledge, assembling those elements that will fit together in a relevant and
meaningful way and rejecting those that will not (Holgate, 1986) .

The previously acquired precedents are used by the designers to adopt or changed or
combined for the new designs. Luyten describes the importance of precedents in a
creative design as Re-using, re-collecting, re-interpreting, adapting, re-making
these are all synonyms of creating (Luyten, 2012) .

Human always thinks in systems and try to understand a thing by breaking into parts.
Donald Schon describes this as First, although design is integrative, it is often not
possible to think about the totality of the problem or indeed the solution at all times.
It simply is too complex and confusing a matter. Instead designers seem to narrow
their attention by setting up a situation, focusing, or framing. These structuring ideas
are commonly found in design protocols, whether we call them frames, primary
generators, or in the more common parlance of the design studio partis. Indeed they
seem to be the very essence of design thinking and at the heart of the design process
(Luyten, 2012) .
.
Fritz Haller (2004) describes the journey of creative design process as it frequently
lost in the way, but returns to starting point. Along this way it triggers many hot spots
that trigger invention. Ultimately only few hot spots remain. Actually it is not
invention but reinvention or rediscovery. Initially some parts of the whole are
invented and later on it triggers the invention of whole. Inventing parts is important
which opens up the possibilities. The designers should not be afraid of solving
complex problems. If a partial solution is genuine with correct assumptions and
24

careful evaluation, it eventually opens up to the real problem. False assumption will
mislead the real solution. So the real challenge is envisaging correct initial
assumptions in any creative work (Haller, 2004) .

Candela believes that the greatest qualities of human mind is to define a problem and
clarify it. He says when solving a problem you must ignore what you consider
irrelevant, so that you are left with the essential. When you can see the essential,
everything becomes simple (Colin, 1963) .

Innovative design can occur in five procedures: combination, mutation, analogy, first
principles and emergence. In combination, design occurs by combining different
characteristics of existing designs; in mutation by modifying form or certain
characteristics of an existing design; in analogy by adopting a behavioral feature of
an existing design; in first principle by determining essential attributes for the design
requirements; and in emergence by discovering new, previously unrecognized
characteristics of existing designs (Luyten, 2012) .

Holgate states that there is no single perfect solution satisfying all requirements.
..we must choose between a number of possible solutions, each having advantages
and disadvantages which must be weighed against each other on some subjectively
established common scale of value (Holgate, 1986) .
Ove Arup describe this as Art in solving problems which cannot be formulated
before they have been solved. The search goes on, until a solution is found, which is
deemed to be satisfactory. There are always many possible solutions, the search is for
the best but there is no best just more or less good (Addis, 2001) .

Holgate attributes to the lack of creative ability in individuals to the lack of ability in
assembling and retaining all relevant items of information in the forefront of
conscious mind, analysing the interrelationships between them, and assembling
constructive proposals from them without forgetting or obscuring a great deal in the
process (Holgate, 1986) .

25

The main components of the strategy of design process is direction and balance.
Holgate believes that the direction in design strategy continues with the making of
similar decisions at the intermediate stages as the design progress. Sometimes the
designer must choose between two or more lines of attack which appear equally
plausiblepursue them simultaneously for a certain distance, so that he can
make his decision in the light of improved knowledge. At some point, however, he
must decide to concentrate on a single one. The balance is required to decide the
particular approach should be proceeded or discarded (Holgate, 1986) .

Accuracy of the design process depends on the number of cycles but it is restricted
by the time and cost constraints of the project. Holgate states that Cycling in the
design process is most desirable, but there must come a point at which the diminishing
returns no longer justify the effort likely to be involved.At some stage,
therefore , an informed guess must be made that the imperfect solution which has
been arrived at is the best can be achieved under the circumstances.A good chief
designer has been described as one who knows when to call a halt to the exploration
or a problem and motivate everyone in team to press forward in same direction
(Holgate, 1986) .

The quality of design solutions depends on one way the attitude and ability of
designer and other on the constraints of time and budget of the project. Holgate give
the reason why engineers often stick to the standardised or routine design as the need
to deliver reliable designs quickly and to maintain a satisfactory profit. He also says
Further inertia results from the fact that the problem definition is more mentally
demanding task than goal centred design and the tendency is to struggle with the
immediate problems in the familiar way rather than retrace ones steps and start
again.pride, prejudice, and mental inertia are liable to restrict cycling by interfering
with the proper reception and use of new information and ideas. It is these human
factors which the young engineer finds most mystifying and infuriating in the design
process (Holgate, 1986) .
Peter Dunican describes the design process as All design is a process of trial and
error-the reconciliation of conflicting conditions. One makes assumptions. One tests
these assumptions by detailed examination and modifies them in the light of what is
26

found, and then re-examines them. This process continues until all the imposed
conditions have been satisfied-until an acceptable solution has been found. This
process can be short or long, depending on experience and on the stringency of the
limitations which are imposed, particularly the time available (Dunican, 1966) .
Designers personality plays a major role in the degree of innovative design as Addis
says ..it also stems from an attitude of mind in engineer when asked how it
happened that he was continuously asked to work on interesting projects, Peter Rice
replied simply that many of them had not been very interesting when he was first
approached (Addis, 2001) .
Dunican speaks about the attitude as structural designer should keep as Nevertheless
we must be flexible. We must be able to accommodate ourselves to change and
innovation. In fact we should initiate change and innovation. We should be in the van
of development. We must try to understand the potential of any new idea (Dunican,
1966) .

2.6.

Differences in Design Cultures

Billington believes that there are three types of designers: The Engineer, The
Architect and The Sculptor. He further divides the criterion for design into three: The
Scientific, The Social and The Symbolic. The scientific criterion is referred to the
design of structure with minimum materials with the concern of safety. The social
criterion is referred to the analysis of cost compared to usefulness to the society. The
symbolic criterion is referred to the appearance of form. Scientific criterion is
important to the engineers, the social criterion is important to the architects while the
symbolic criteria is important to the sculptor. But all these designers take care of other
criterions in different order depending on their personalities (Billington, 1983) .

Holgate believes that Engineers when consulted by a client for designing a factory
will decide a form in accordance with functional specification given by the client and
an ideal solution for carrying loads. Then only think about the internal environment
and external cladding and at last think about how it could be made presentable. While

27

architects if approached by a client think reverse to this sequence. He will first think
of aesthetics and then functional and at last the structure (Holgate, 1986) .

Architectural design usually took more attention in investigating different conceptual

design before developing it further while engineering design stick to find possible
solution without investigating possibilities on others. Engineers come to one
conclusion as they are working with objective parameters. Architectural design
searches for temporary truths while engineering design search for one absolute
positivist truth. According to Addis engineers are generally brought up on a diet of
correct (or incorrect) answers to specific problems not much room there for debate.
Even in open ended projects there often tends to be an underlying idea that
proposals are either right or wrong, rather having different good and bad points
(Luyten, 2012) .

Holgate criticizes structural engineering fraternity in giving less attention to the

problem definition phase of the design. He says structural engineers are content with
the definition by solution practice. He attributes this practice to the attitude of
structural engineers in avoiding the difficulties in defining a problem as they prefer
to solve a well-defined problem done by someone else (Holgate, 1986) .

The differences in the Architectural and Structural design culture can be attributed to
the different constraints faced by Architects and engineers. Addis differentiate the
constraints applicable to architectural design and structural designs as For an
architect the form of the structure is constrained only by its function, the site and his
or her vision. For structural engineers the form is also constrained by how they intend
and expect it will work as a structure, and by the need to provide a rational argument
and calculations to justify this expectation before the structure is built (Addis, 2001).

It can also be attributed to the time constraints related with the structural engineering
profession as Holgate says The need to deliver reliable designs quickly and to
maintain a satisfactory profit margin will encourage the use of standardized solutions
for what will be perceived as standardized problems (Holgate, 1986) .

28

The other reason would be the basic understanding of a concept. It differs depending
upon perceivers personality. Architect and engineer understand different concept of
design in different ways. Whether it is aesthetics or structure, it differs upon different
perceivers.

Addis says that the concept of same structure can be perceived in different ways.
Architect and engineer interpret structure in different ways depending upon their
particular thoughts and ideas. Architects perceive it as simple geometrical shapes and
gives it the qualities of cultural, historical or psychological significance while
engineers in terms of concept of engineering science. Architect tend to conceive a
form in simple geometrical shapes in terms of various physical and natural analogies
while engineers had their set of preferred geometry concerned with the structural
science and their origins in mathematical models (Addis, 2001).

Similarly Andrew Charleson attributes the difference in the design culture due to the
difference in perception of the same reality. He states that ..engineers use the
notion of mathematics and translate what they see into an abstract model or diagram.
In contrast, architects use a visual language and look for logic in a visual
patternengineers use a vertically stacked analytical or hierarchical system
whereas architects use a lateral system which is non-categorical. The hierarchical
system used by the engineers allows for the systematical derivation of an answer. In
contrast the non-hierarchical system of architects thought processes allows for
infinite possibilities (Pirie, 2009) .
It may vary between different people in same profession itself. As Addis says, Our
sense of structure comes from combining primary sensations and somehow
interpreting them..Some of us have developed a better sense of structure than
others..Structure , then is an abstract quantity .Structure , in general sense, is
a relationship between various entities which displays a certain order and lack of
randomness.while anyone can perceive a structure, it starts to get interesting
when we look at who is perceiving it and how they think and talk about the
perception, and how they remember it or in the form of knowledge. Perceiving a
structure is an active process and utterly dependent on the eye and brain of the person
involved..Even two engineers may differ- one may describe
29

a structure as stiffened arch, another as a curved truss; they might use even different
mathematical models to investigate its structural behavior (Addis, 2001) .

Holgate attributes the differences in the design culture to the skill development of
different professions as wells as the different individuals in the same profession. He
says it depends heavily on the interests, training and philosophy of the
individual. He also says The differing roles attract people with differing
personalities and the educational training reinforces their disparities so that the
graduates emerge with incompatible scales of values (Holgate, 1986).

According to Saint, this focus on technological knowledge in the engineering

profession has led to todays more pronounced mathematical-scientific or rational
strain in engineering skills, which has made it distinct from architectural design skills
(Saint, 2007) .

Holgate support this claims as he says educational training of the architect is

encouraged to take an overall view of a problem with the accent on synthesis while
the engineer is trained to tackle problems piecemeal and the accent is on analysis.
Holgate further explains the difference in educational systems of architectural and
engineering courses as Architecture course place great emphasis on imagination,
synthesis, and planning, whereas Engineering courses emphasize analysis, factual
information, and computational techniques (Holgate, 1986).

The professor of civil engineering, Salvadori (1991) notes that there is many
differences in attitude of engineering students and architectural students, from his
experience in teaching profession. He describes that engineering students are not
ambitious enough to aspire to scientists: they are willing to accept the dictates of
science and apply them to the practical problem of our culture.they do not
develop much of a critical mind and are socially and politically conservative . While
in contrast he describes architectural students are open minded, adventurous,
critical, curious, and independentthey are less interested in practicalities of life
and more in the infinitely varied and complex problems of their society.and more
gregarious to understand their fellow human beings (Pirie, 2009).

30

2.7.

Design Collaboration

Ove Arup, one of the greatest engineer and collaborator said about the creative
process that it .must take place within one mind; and the result can be really
successful only if that mind has a knowledge and understanding of all factors
affecting the decisions that have to be made. The coordination, the apportioning of
priorities, the estimation of what is most essential to achieve and what is only
desirable, but matter less- these are things that should begin at the very birth of the
idea, when the imagination first surveys the field of possibilities and begin to reject
and select (Colin, 1963).

Billington (1983) distinguishes structural designers from architectural designers in

terms of the type of structure dealt with. Structural designers deal with form which is
large scale and single use like bridges while Architects deals with form which is small
scale and complex use like private houses. He says that when it comes to the object
which is large scale and complex use like tall buildings, architect and engineer
collaborate fruitfully.

Anjus J MacDonald summarizes the relationship between structure and architecture

in the building process in four categories: structure ignored, structure accepted,
structure symbolized and structural high tech. Structure ignored relationship is
when the architectural forms are developed without considering structural
implications. He says this option may be beneficial for the architectural design for
small scale structures. The structure accepted relationship is when structure is given
equal importance with the architectural form. The structure and aesthetic
programmes coexist in harmony. To achieve this type of relationship Architect and
structural engineer have to work together from the conceptual stage. In this
relationship technical and aesthetic agenda must be compatible and the designer has
to be flexible in their aesthetic motives because of limits in structural options. Here
structure may not expressed overly but is well designed and integrated with all aspects
of building. While in structure symbolized relationship the structure is emphasised
visually and constitutes an essential element of the architectural vocabulary. Here,
technical performance of structure is secondary to the aesthetic motives and quality

31

of structural design has to be frequently compromised. The fourth type of

relationship, structural high tech is in which structure dominates the design and is
allowed to determine completely both the overall form of a building and the nature
of the architectural vocabulary which is adopted. Very tall buildings and very long
span structures comes under this category. Macdonald says, it is the most
straightforward relationship and here aesthetic, space planning and other
considerations are given a secondary role compared to the structural integrity
(Macdonald, 2001) .
Martnez Calzn (2010) describes three possibilities for structural engineers
approach to the load bearing problems. First possibility is to accept the form as given
by the Architect and make it possible integrally by designing unsuitable resistant
system. The second possibility is that to design a structural solution with maximum
theoretical and analytical accuracy giving great load bearing and resistant capacity
and forcefully apply to the forms by taking the buildings functionality from the
Architect. The third possibility is to force or slightly modify, as subtly as possible,
the proposed form in order to try to approximate the system mostly quite casual and
without real consistent schemes towards an active-resistant arrangement on behalf
of the material of the said system, and this by integrating precisely tuned structural
arrangements into the architecture. He says the first possibility results in excessive
sizing and results in enormous cost which is like a sculptor object artificially inserted
in the natural environment. The second possibility give rise to efficient and
economically better solution than the first case but compromising the purpose of the
structure which is built. The third possibility leads creatively towards a solution
which is really embedded in a superior concept (Cruz, 2010) .

Architects are reluctant to involve engineer in the conceptual stages as they feel that
due to different aspiration of engineers, it may cut off the freedom to explore their
ideas. Candela describe this situation as .Architect wants to maintain his
preconceived idea, but has no weapons to fight against the scientific arguments of the
technician. The dialogue is impossible between two people who speak different
languages. The result of the struggle is always the same: science prevails and the final
design has generally lost the eventual charm and fitness of detail dreamed by the
architect (Colin, 1963) .
32

Holgate describes Architects way of functioning and the importance of knowledge

of structure in it as ..architect gauges the clients influence of such factors as
finance, site conditions, and material properties. He then conceives a geometry of
form to satisfy the functional requirements as far as is practicable and in accordance
with his aesthetic scheme. All this requires assumption concerning the technical
possibilities and hence some knowledge of structural engineering (Holgate, 1986) .

It is important that the involvement of structural engineer should begin from the
conceptual design process Addis says that As a non-specialist if field of structures,
the architect is often unsure, during the initial stages of design, of the potentials of
different forms of construction and of different structural systems (Addis, 2001) .

The structural engineer, Jorg Schlaich believes that on matters of structure and
materials the architect should consult the engineer in the conceptual stage itself. He
prefers to work with those architects who convey in broad terms their architectural
concept of functional and aesthetic ideas related to the project. He says Good
solutions will emerge if both professionals know their job, share the same goals,
respect each other, and most importantly, if the involvement of engineer starts early
in the architects programmatic and conceptual phase. The architect will not get best
results by demanding a structure from the engineer under already fixed and
constraining boundary conditions (Pirie, 2009) . He gives some conceptual design
proposition for structure suited to the given architectural concept and he provides new
ones until the Architects approves one of them. However, he says all architects do
not prefer this kind of collaboration and they impose their designed form which is
created without any structural advice, on the structural engineers even for structures
like bridge (Luyten, 2012) .

Frank Gehry is an architect who creates form with paper models and then convert
into digital form without any structural guidance. However, this type of forms created
entirely by Architect is made possible by the advanced engineering calculation
software which enable engineers to develop supportive structure (Luyten, 2012) .

33

However, some Architects are willing to involve structural engineers during the
design stage but they complain that structural engineers are too willing to accept the
form of the building as initially proposed by the architect and content simply make
it stand up by choosing suitable sizes for the members. These architects would prefer
a more positive contribution in which the engineer presents them, at least
conceptually, with a range of structural options or is willing to suggest modifications
which are structurally feasible and will enhance the effects for which the architect is
striving (Holgate, 1986).

Fazlur khan who had successful collaboration with Architects in producing many
innovative solution for the tall buildings admits that there was a growing tendency
among the architects in asking the best solution for a problem but he says the
engineers too often opt out from the responsibility and rather they are happy with
solving 200 simultaneous equation (Holgate, 1986) .

Ove Arup said about the assistance to be given by the structural engineer to Architect
as When structure is a major consideration, the engineer should be a partner in
evolving the design, so that proper integration of structure and architecture can be
achieved. It is of course his job to assist the architect to realise his architectural
conception, and he must accept his role as an assistant. But he should be a useful
assistant, and that means that he must understand and sympathise with the aims of
the architect, so that he, in his own intuitive thinking, can arrive at proposals which
will further the architects wishes just as a pianist in his own right should not deem
it beneath his dignity to act as an accompanist, as long as he is not asked to play with
one finger (Addis, 2001).

Dunican described about the difficulty of structural engineer to understand and digest
about various architectural ideas and philosophies as But the biggest difficulty the
engineer has is probably that of accommodating himself to the various diverse and
seemingly conflicting architectural philosophies of design. On one side, there is the
idea that the structure is the main architectural statement and the mechanics of the
structural system should be directly expressed with the utmost economy of means-a
complete, unalterable, finite unity. On another side, there is the theory of an additive
or endless architecture in which the external structure consists of a series of repeating,
34

simple, well-proportioned, neutral elements creating some geometrical network

without any emphasized boundaries or apparent limit. There are many other sides
(Dunican, 1966) .
Ove Arup talks about the defects in the collaboration as ..architects and engineers
do not sufficiently value and understand each others work, or the point of view the
constructor: or if they do, they do not have the time, the opportunity, or the inclination
to go to the considerable trouble of learning from one another what each can- or might
possibly be able to contribute to the design. And naturally the chances of achieving
harmonious integration decline with the proliferation of experts and available
techniques (Colin, 1963).

Dunican describes the problems in the collaboration and the importance of mutual
trust between each professional for the successful collaborations as Many engineers
exaggerate the importance of structure in building; this is understandable. In their
training they are very concerned with relatively simple engineering constructions and
they are not taught to appreciate the problems of the architect, or that in architecture
the only reason for the existence of the structure is the building, and that without the
building the structure has no meaning. Equally, and perhaps even more so, architects
undervalue the contribution which the structural engineer can, and does, make in
achieving a viable architectural solution of the building problem. Another difficulty
in achieving the required degree of collaboration between architects and engineers is
the question of technical competence. It is unfortunate, but nevertheless true, that
most engineers suspect the technical skill of the architects with whom they are
working. This does not necessarily apply at the top level, but this suspicion certainly
does exist in the drawing office. This often leads to technical arrogance on the part of
the engineer, which conflicts with the apparent intellectual arrogance of the architect.
This may appear to be another sweeping generalization, which it is, but at least it has
the germ of truth. Mutual respect is imperative if success is to be achieved (Dunican,
1966).

35

Investigation on Architect Structural Engineer

Collaboration

3.

To understand the problems between Architect and Structural Engineer collaboration

in more detail, survey was conducted among the practicing engineers and architects.
The primary survey was conducted by the researcher in Ahmedabad during March
June 2014 by interviewing Engineer and Architects in person and through email
communication. The questionnaire mainly focussed on the creative collaboration
during the conceptual design process.

From the referential background in chapter 2.7, it is understood that the timing of
involvement of structural engineer in the conceptual design process is the main factor
influencing successful collaboration. The questionnaire was prepared based on this
observation. The format was referred from a report in SESOC journal on similar
survey done by fourth year architecture students in Willington, New Zealand in 2004.
The main focus in the questionnaire is regarding the time spent on the conceptual
design stage by the Architect and Engineer and the problems related with approach
on each other during this stage. Suggestion of enhancing better collaboration was
also included in the questionnaire. Due to the time constraints, 15 practicing
engineers and 15 practicing architects were only interviewed. However the data
sample of both engineers and architects are relatively experienced.

3.1.

Responses from Structural Engineers

The first set of questions (refer appendix) to the structural engineers were on
information regarding their experience in professional practice.

On average each structural engineer has been practicing for 20 years and 75%
has got more than 10 years of experience.

Over the past 2 years 65% of their time has been spent on low rise buildings
(< 4storeys), 20% on medium rise (<= 8storeys) buildings and rest 15% on

36

high rise (> 8storeys). Over the past 2 years 50% of their time has been spent
on low rise industrial buildings.

Over the past 2 years 65% of their project has been involved with architects.
60% of the structural engineer has worked with more than 5 architects and
30% had worked with more than 20 architects.

This indicates that the structural engineers interviewed have considerable experience
in working with the Architects.
One question was directed on the time spent with Architects on different stages of the
project. The Engineers estimated that they spent 50% on the detailed design phase
and only 25% on conceptual design phase and rest on supervision phase.

Second set of question focussed on the comfort level and experiences of structural
engineers on working with architects. It was a set of scaled questions and engineers
rated according to the agreement on the asked questions. It was a scattered response
altogether and even the engineers of the same firm has got different responses. This
can be attributed to the personality of individual engineers and architects. The
response of engineers also varied with experience in the profession. Engineers with
more experience responded better collaboration with the Architects. It shows that
with experience in working with the architects collaboration could be improved. The
inconsistent response also may be due to the variation in type of structures they are
collaborating with Architects. The table 1 shows the responses of structural engineers
on how strongly they agreed with the statements.

37

Table 1- Responses of Structural Engineers to the statements in questionnaire

Statement

Average

response

out

of

maximum score of 9 points (1not at all true, 5-moderately

true and 9 definitely true)
I am more comfortable doing projects with

5.13

architects
Architects have an adequate understanding of

4.13

structural behaviour
Architects seek structural advice before they

5.03

have tried to finalise the structural configuration

Architects are generally receptive to structural

4.26

requirements
Architects are generally receptive to structural

4.93

requirements of seismic design

Architects are aware of architectural

3.33

implication of seismic design

Most of the responses came below average which is a matter of concern. To the
question in which comfort level working with architects were asked, the response
came to be above average which shows the willingness of the structural engineer in
working with architects. But there is considerable room for improvement. The
responses on understanding of structural behaviour came out to be below moderate
which shows the lack of structural understanding among the Architects, especially
the seismic implication which came as low as 3.33. Even though slightly below
moderate responses, Architects are receptive to the structural advice especially
seismic design requirements and are willing to ask for the structural advice in the
conceptual stage. But here also considerable improvement is required.

38

Final set of questions consist of open ended questions. To the question to point out
the weakness in Architects structural approach or knowledge, the relevant answers
are
1) Lack of basic understanding of structural behaviour which is also evident from the
scaled response.
2) Concentrate more on simple geometrical shapes and think away from the
constructional reality.
3) Late involvement of structural engineers in the design process.
To the question what what message, if any, would you as a structural engineer like
architects to hear?
Some of them answered like revisions to be clearly marked in drawings which shows
that communication in detailed design stage is to be improved. The answer relevant
to the particular study on conceptual design are
1) The basic architectural concept should be conceived based on the structural
realities and must obey the laws of forces in nature.
2) Related to the above answer the other response was involving structural engineer
from conceptual design phase and not when all the architectural design are frozen.
3) Should involve other members of design team and seek advice during the
conceptual phase, feasibility phase and during preparation of construction
documents.
To the question do you have any comments regarding your own architectural
knowledge and education?
Most of them did not comment on this, the relevant answer to the particular study is
1) Very little knowledge and basic education on architectural concepts but appreciate
and incorporate the architectural theme during the structural design.
The question itself proved to be irrelevant to the basic engineering educational system
prevailing where no such knowledge is provided but positive response was exactly
that appreciating the architectural theme and increasing the knowledge with practice
working with architects.

39

To make suggestion for collaboration, the relevant responses are

1) Should work in close interaction from the conceptual design stage itself and
continuing until the construction is completed.
2) Both engineer and architect should be open minded and respect each others
discipline.
The other important response which came out through this question was on basic
educational system of both architects and engineers.
1) Both engineers and architects should be taught on the basic concepts of both
disciplines and should work in a common platform before going out of the institutions
like they do after graduation.
2) Should be made aware of the importance of interdisciplinary relationships in the
design process.
3.2.

Responses from Architects

The first set of question as to the Structural Engineers, were asked to the Architects
regarding their experience in professional practice.

On average each Architect has been practicing for 15 years and 80% has got
more than 10 years of experience.

Over the past 2 years 75% of their time has been spent on low rise buildings
(< 4storeys), 20% on medium rise (<= 8storeys) buildings and rest 5% on high
rise (> 8storeys). Over the past 2 years 45% of their time has been spent on
low rise residential buildings and 20 % on low rise industrial buildings.

Over the past 2 years 80 % of their project has been involved with structural
engineers.55% of the architects have worked with less than 5 structural
engineers and 45% have worked with more than 5 structural engineers.

This indicates that the Architects interviewed have considerable experience in

working with the Structural engineers.
One question was directed on the time spent with Structural Engineers on different
stages of the project. The Architects estimated that they spent 45% on the detailed
design phase and only 25% on conceptual design phase and rest on supervision phase.

40

The result was same on conceptual design phase from the responses of structural
engineers.

Second set of question focussed on the comfort level and experiences of Architects
on working with Structural Engineers. It was a set of scaled as in the previous case
with structural engineers. It was a scattered response altogether similar to that
structural engineers response. Here also more experienced Architects showed
responses which show better collaboration with structural engineers. The table 2
shows the responses of Architects on how strongly they agreed with the statements.

Table 2- Responses from Architects to the Statements in questionnaire

Statement

Average response out of

maximum score of 9
points (1-not at all true,
5-moderately true and 9
definitely true)

I am more comfortable doing projects where

4.86

structural engineer is present in conceptual design

stage.
Structural engineer and I collaborate well together

5.8

Structural engineers produce structural solutions in

5.93

keeping with my design ideas

Structural engineers generally appreciate

4.93

architectural requirements
Structural engineers come up with creative

3.73

solutions to architectural ideas

Structural engineers communicate structural

6.13

requirements clearly
The most critical phase of structural engineers input

6.2

into design is during the preliminary design phase

when structural layout or configuration is finalised

41

Most of the responses came above average which shows the basic respect to structural
engineering profession from architects. To the question in which comfort level
working with structural engineer in the conceptual design stage were asked, the
response came to be slightly below average. However, Architects admit that they
collaborate well with Structural Engineers. This shows the willingness of the
architects in working with structural engineers. Architects also have high regard on
structural engineers approach to their architectural ideas. However, to the question
about coming up with creative solutions to their architectural ideas, Architects
response came to be low as 3.73. This is the main reason for reluctance of Architect
in involving structural engineers in the conceptual design stage. This also evident
from their above average response to the question that they prefer structural
engineers contribution only after the configuration is finalised.
Final set of questions consist of open ended questions. To the question to point out
the weakness in structural engineers approach, the relevant answers are
1) Lack of intuitive grasp of structure as a whole.
2) Over dependence on software and its verdict.
3) Inclination to standardized details and ways of professional practice.
4) Limited explorations and innovations.
5) Limited with ideas.
6) Lack of sense of aesthetics and architectural ideas.
7) Excessive stress on safety factor.
8) Lack of appreciation of architectural design intent
9) Lack of subjective and lateral thinking
To the question what what message, if any, would you as an architect like structural
engineers to hear?
The relevant answers are
1) Support architects for innovative works and come out of the standardized design.
2) There can be more than one solution for a problem
3) Encourage creative ideas
4) Update new technological developments and design accordingly
5) Change the way of looking contemporary architecture
42

6) Will get better packages if they are open to new ideas.

To the question do you have any comments regarding your own structural
knowledge and education?
Most of them did not comment on this, the relevant answer to the particular study is
1) Structural education- not relevant. Depends completely on Structural engineer
2) Received poor education in basic understanding of behavior of structure as well as
calculation
3) Gained intuitive understanding of behavior through the practice in Architecture.
This question proved to be difficult for both structural engineers and architects as
both profession do not realize the importance of basic understanding of each others
subject. The successful collaboration needs the urge to understand and acquire
knowledge on other field outside their expertise. The education systems of both
professions also neglect this part as they concentrates more on enhancing expertise
on own field.
To make suggestion for collaboration, the responses proved to be similar to the
structural engineers responses.

3.3.

Conclusions on Investigation

The fundamental issue addressed in the investigation was the timing of involvement
of structural engineer in the design process. From the structural engineers response
as well as the Architects responses, it is evident that structural advice during the
conceptual design is essential for creative and better design. There is weakness in
fundamental understanding of structural behaviour for architects who initially
conceive a form which may lead to inferior design. Architects are willing to involve
structural engineer in the design process in the early stages but they fear that their
freedom to explore design ideas will be restricted by doing so. They points out the
lack of subjective and lateral thinking of structural engineers for the reluctance in
involving them in the conceptual stage.

43

Structural engineers are also willing to work with Architects in the conceptual stage
and they do not shy away from this. However, for initiating this, structural engineers
themselves has to enhance their creative skills and should take active part in gaining
Architectural ideas. They should try to support architect in possible manner in their
creative ideas and also contribute creative ideas themselves to encourage architects
in involving them in the conceptual stage.

Another important aspect coming out of the investigation is the skill development of
both architects and structural engineers. Both suggested the need for a single platform
to work each other at the educational level and share each others concept. They also
suggested in giving emphasis on collaboration in educational level itself.

44

4.

Development of Referential Background

This chapter gives the conclusions obtained from Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 and
based on these conclusions the basic framework on which study of innovative
engineers will be formulated.
4.1.

Design culture

The decision stage from the inception of project to the preliminary design stage is
referred as the conceptual design stage. Conceptual design stage is the most critical
stage in the entire planning process. This is the stage in which the most important
members of the design team should collaborate together effectively for attaining
better design product.

Apart from the consultants, the client or the owner and the regulatory bodies plays an
important role in the design process. Leader of the consultants in the design team is
greatly influenced by these two members. Depending on the type of structure either
architect or structural engineer takes the responsibility of leading a design team.
Project managers, contractors and service engineers also plays an important part in
the design team. Since structural engineer is only a member in the design team, it is
necessary for them to know the basic characteristics of the other members.

Even though, structural design in financial terms compared with architectural design
and services is a small part, it plays a major role in the existence of the entire design
process. Thus a structural engineer is one of the important member in the design team.
It is the right and responsibility of structural engineer to propose to the design team
for the enhancement of design quality in the conceptual stage. The decision regarding
the approval of the proposal, rest with the design team as a whole. There will be
challenges from the other equally important design members, mainly the timing of
involvement of the Engineer in the design process itself. The challenges may be
considered as better opportunity for the structural engineer. And for a structural
engineer to play a bigger or meaningful part, he should be more than a capable
technologist and should be able to communicate his ideas to other members in the
design team.

45

4.2.

Structural Design culture

Structural design can be broadly defined as the design process in which materials are
disposed in the three dimensional space such that the loads coming over it should be
carried to the ground where it rests. The main criteria based on which it should be
done, one is purpose and other the cost.

Structural design could be divided into two phases. One is the form finding or the
conceptual design stage and other is the detailed design stage. It contains mainly two
components, one is objective or scientific and other is subjective or creative
component. Both these components are made used in both phases of structural design.
The subjective content of the structural design is mainly useful in the conceptual
design stage.

Structural design is not only content with withstanding the natural forces but it has
got various other functions also. The scientific part of withstanding forces comes
under the mechanical function of structural design. There is also spatial dimension
related to the structural design which may be identified as the architectural purposes
like utility and visual impact.

The subjectivity or the creative component of the structural design can be identified
from the different structural solution produced by different designers for the same
problem. It depends on the personality and philosophy of the different designers
similar to that of Architectural design. This subjective content mainly is applied at
the conceptual stages.

Scientific or rational component of structural design appears to supersede or in most

cases really supersedes the subjective content. Engineers give more attention to the
objective or scientific component as they are required to give the rational
explanations based on theoretical calculations to the other members of the design
team. The other reason for this is the codification. The design is not valid until it
satisfies the requirement of the prevailing building codes and also the theoretical
analysis based on the complex computer analysis.

46

The codification and theoretical basis exert much pressure on structural engineers.
Many engineers frequently fall to this pressure. They considered or are compelled to
consider themselves as an applied scientist. They consider themselves as a computer
analyst merely analysing the pre-existing structural forms that has been established
by others using ever developing complex computer programs. They disregard their
creative component of structural design and the rational component supersedes the
subjective content.

However, there are also many innovative engineers who flow with the tide.
Innovative engineers had been always developed within the socio- political and
technological background prevailing at their time. According to the present
technological development of form finding techniques, many of the innovative
engineers take advantages of this developments as a tool in testing the limits of
structures and developing new forms. They are also able to make changes in the
prevailing building codes and theoretical concepts. But these engineers are not
interested in publicity and they are busy designing unlike Architects and other
members of the design team. They dont exhibit their abilities to the outside world
and hence it appears that the rational component supersedes the creative or subjective
content.

4.3.

Conceptual Design process

There can be three type of conceptual design process: Routine, innovative and
creative design. The routine design uses the standardized design solutions which are
used for similar kind of problems in the past. As no problem remains exactly similar,
this type of design too requires imagination to make it happen. It proves to be
successful as long as it serves the purpose but with no real progress from the previous
designs. The innovative designs are those design which connect or adapt some of the
previous designs with some new dimension or expression added to it. While creative
designs are those which gives generates completely new ideas and concepts.
Complete creative design is not a reality as it requires some precedents or references.
Innovative or creative design occurs from a flash of inspiration through which it

47

develops and gradually become a reality. It is an evolutionary process which

gradually occurs in the mind of designer.

Design process can be divided into three phases: 1) problem definition and
clarification 2) Design propositions and 3) Evaluation and decision making. All these
phase is a back and forth process and there is no clear demarcation.

Design process starts with the problem definition stage. It is not a straight forward
process and is a cyclic process. The problem need to be defined from a broad idea of
need given by the client. There is an interplay with defined problem and it solutions.
The merits and demerits of the solutions are determined with the available precedents
or references and if necessary the problem need to be redefined itself and the process
continues until a proper satisfactory problem is defined.

The next step in the creative design process is the generation of trial solutions or
design propositions. Creative design process does not come from scratch. All the
design process will have a precedents or references of previously acquired knowledge
on which designers develop upon. They use these precedents by adapting,
transforming or combining to produce new design solutions.

The clarification of the problem is the most important aspect of the design process. It
depends on the assumptions which are made in solving the defined problem. The real
challenge in this phase is the validation of assumption and available data. If there
occurs any problem with false assumptions it will mislead the whole process. Another
thing is the careful evaluation of the defined problem. The solution of the whole
problem cannot be solved altogether. Designers always think in parts and the
invention of some parts of the whole problem leads to the solution of whole problem.
The challenge is in structuring a problem into different parts.

No solution satisfy all requirements of the problem. The relevant factors should be
prioritized and should choose the best from many number of suitable solutions. The
evaluation and decision making occur in the subconscious mind.

48

The defined set of constraints or conditions plays its part in narrowing down the
number of available solutions. The main two components in which success of the
design process depends is its direction and balance. The direction of design process
gives the possible ways of attacking a particular problem while balance gives the
alarm when and how to stop or proceed a particular way. Cycling in the design
process is more desirable but it is restricted by the time and budget constraints of the
project. Other main component in the restriction of cycling process is the personality
or attitude of designer. This is where individual structural designers can be
differentiated from each other.

The ability of designers in collecting the available references specific to a design and
connecting it with the set of constraints or conditions plays an important criterion in
differentiating creative abilities of various designers. The creative process happens in
the subconscious mind but the inputs are fed by the conscious mind and after the
creative process has happened it returns to the conscious mind in evaluating it. The
conversion of imaginative ideas into realistic ideas also happens in this evaluation by
the conscious mind of the designer.

4.4.

Differences in Design culture

There will be variation in design culture between different professions, between

different individuals within the same professions, between different periods and
between different cultures. It depends on the personality of the individuals.

The difference in the design culture of engineers and architects can be attributed to
their different priorities in design. Generally, Engineers main focus of design will be
strength and stability of the structure with accordance with the function of the
building. Economy in design is also a main criteria. While Architects main focus
will be on the appearance of form with accordance with function. Engineers too look
for the appearance of form as Architects also look for the stability. But the degree of
consideration differs from each other.

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Architects usually concentrates more on the form finding of the conceptual stage and
devote more time for this. While engineers are content with the one solution and
devote more time working on it. This differences can be attributed to different
constraints faced by these designers and also the differences in understanding of the
various concepts of design.

Architects are faced with the functional and site characteristics and their priorities
like aesthetic vision. While engineers along with these constraints should not only
predict the structural behavior but also it has to be done with rational and scientific
explanations.

Architects conceive structure in terms of simple geometric shapes pleasing to their

vision while engineers conceive in terms of their preferred geometry pertaining to
their vision to analyze it in mathematical models and structural theory. Even different
individual of same profession perceive it in different way.

The variation in design process among different individual can be attributed to

personality and philosophy of the individual based on their skill development.

4.5.

Framework on study of innovative engineers and their works.

From chapter 3.3, it is evident that for the successful and creative collaboration
between Architects and Structural Engineers, it is important from the structural
engineers part to enhance their creative abilities. In order to have a clear picture on
the creative process and how engineers could attain the creative skills, the innovative
engineers and their works are studied. The frame work of study is obtained from
chapter 4.

4.5.1. Study of engineers

As described in the chapter 4.4, the skill development of individual plays an important
part in nurturing their creative abilities. It also depend on the socio- political and
technological background as it influences the constraints related to the design
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process. Engineers are studied under the Socio-political and Technological

background prevailing at their time. The educational background and formative years
of their career which relates to their skill development are also studied. Chapter 4
describes the importance of attitude of an individual designer in the design process.
Thus engineers approach to design and personality traits are also studied.

4.5.2. Creative process

As described in the chapter 4.3, the creative ability of a designer depends on the
ability to effectively connect the available reference or precedents with the set of
conditions or constraints related specifically to the project. To understand the creative
process described in the chapter 4.3, some of the innovative works of the engineers
are analyzed by extracting the precedents available prior to the particular project and
the set of conditions pertaining to the particular project and how they come to the
solution from this. As evaluation is an important phase in the design process as it
make the imagination of designer into the reality and serve as the new precedent to
the new design, the relevant evaluation is also extracted wherever possible.

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Study of innovative engineers

52

5.

Innovative Engineers and their works

5.1.

Thomas Telford

Socio-Political and Technological Background

The new material in iron became the most influential factor in the late 18th century
industrial revolution. The new methodology was introduced in the smelting process
of iron using charcoal instead of coke. Coal, a non-renewable resource replaced the
renewable resource in wood. Coal was stronger and denser than the softer organic
wood (Billington, 1983).

Another technological advancement during this period was the invention of steam
engine. It greatly aided the transportation of materials and led to speedy construction.
Industrial revolution had direct influence on socio- political scenario. Centralized
mass production become more economical and conservation of natural resources
became an important political agenda (Watson, 1957).

Designers were forced to think of new forms in cast iron from that of the forms in
stone and wood. New forms and spans cannot be designed without calculation or
testing. Advancement in technology and management made Engineers in to soul
author of bridge building (Saint, 2007).

The first iron bridge was Coalbrookdale Bridge at England, built by Abraham Darby.
It revolutionised the bridge building. The width of the main span was 100 feet and
made up of five nearly semi-circular ribs of cast iron. It was constructed from 1700
precast section of iron. It was an arch, since the new material is always expressed
in traditional, familiar forms until it is passed through a transitional, experimental
stage. It was erected just like masonry arch (Watson, 1957).

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Educational Background and Early Years of Career

Telford was self-educated and begins his career as a mason. In 1778 he helped in
building 3 span masonry arch bridge. He then worked as a draughtsman in architects
office from 1784 to 1787. Along with this work, he designed his first bridge, three
stone arch spans which was completed in 1792.Telford is the founding president of
worlds first civil engineering society. He turned from masonry to metal and began
creating first series of Iron Bridge (Billington, 1983).

Innovative works

Bonar Bridge Design

Thomas Telford first used this bridge design in 1810 for a bridge over Dornoch Firth
in Scotland. Telford proposed 150 foot span cast iron arch bridge. He also used it in
the design of Craigellachie Bridge in 1814 at Scotland. The Arch in design is flat
circular profile at constant depth made of two curved pieces connected by x braces
and radial struts. The Thin roadway has slight vertical curve joined to arch by
diagonal members whose general direction is radial. Arch is made of standard pieces
throughout its curved length. Single arch span supported by a masonry face cut
perpendicular to the arch slope and in spandrels, instead of circles or upright pillars.
Triangular forms are introduced to keep points of pressure in the direction of radius.

Menai Suspension Bridge

The 580 foot span bridge was completed in 1826. It was the longest span bridge in
world at that time. The bridge had to run over most difficult section of the Holyhead
road connecting London to the Dublin ferry in Holyhead on the island of Anglesey.
The masonry towers are fifty three feet above the roadway and were designed to
support sixteen chain cables that have a deflection of thirty seven feet. At one end
there are three arch approaches and another end, four arch approaches. These arches
were monumental in size.

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Above the roadway the towers taper up to the top, where saddles of cast iron bear the
suspension chains. It is fitted upon wrought iron self-acting rollers that regulate the
expansion and contraction of iron according to the temperature variations. The
suspension chains are anchored in to the rocky banks on either side of straits. 18 m
long tunnel was created and at end of the tunnel strong iron frames were positioned.
The end of the chains were dragged in to the tunnel and bolted with the iron frame
with 3 m long bolts.

Approach to design and personality traits

His central design idea of design was efficiency of material, economy in

construction and appearance of form. Visual lightness and strength of iron
stimulated Telford to think about the new material and new forms. His iron arch
bridges were both visually attractive and technically superior than most of his
contemporaries. He does not see separation between use and beauty. He emphasized
in an article in Edinburgh encyclopaedia that the primary visual purpose of
architecture was to express its load carrying function. For him it was the laws of
nature and the needs of society that gives stimulus to form, not preconceived
aesthetic rules (Billington, 1983).

He used technology very little. He was untrained in mathematical formulations.

He does not have even knowledge of geometry. He worked purely on intuition and
with no mathematical analyses. He did not use much of the scientific researches
during that time in his design (Billington, 1983). Even though he didnt use the
theoretical basis much, he validated his design by innumerable practical tests and
observed the behavior of structures closely. He had worked for all public works
like bridges and canal.

Many of the designers of his time were still designing with same old design of stone
and wood while he considered the possibility of newer forms related to the strength
of new material in cast iron and wrought iron. In his bonar arch design he saw the
efficiency of cast iron and design longer span. The design was appropriate for the
appearance of form. Since wrought iron was stronger in tension compared to cast iron
he introduced wrought iron in his suspension bridge. He was ambitious with design
55

of long span bridges. Even though the construction of suspension bridges were at
infant stage, he designed the longest suspension bridge at that time. The main problem
with the construction of suspension bridge were the anchorage of suspension chains
which he solved by anchoring into the rocks. Since he was unaware of the strength
of wrought iron at that time, he ran several test before designing its parts. Every
piece of iron cables were put to test.
He was closely connected with architects of his day to absorb their love of the
picturesque and to sense the significance of setting to structural form. He constantly
wrote his structure in an aesthetic point of view. Telford never objected to the
beautification of bridges (Saint, 2007). He was the founding president of Institute
of civil engineers and was influential in establishing the institution as a professional
learned society that become a model for others worldwide.

He was instrumental in identifying the people of ability and making use of their
knowledge. He was a great motivator to the emerging engineers. Discussing a young
mans choice of civil engineering he wrote In this way we secured the
means, by hard labour, of earning a subsistence; and, in time we obtained in good
conduct the confidence of our employers and the public; eventually raising in to the
ranks of civil engineering. This is the true way of acquiring practical skill, a
thorough knowledge of the materials employed in construction, and last not but
least, a perfect knowledge of the habits and dispositions of the workmen who
carry out our designs. (Watson, 1957)

5.2.

Robert Stephenson

Socio-Political and Technological Background

Iron structure moved out from the arch bridges to broad domain of factories, public
buildings, ships and rail roads. The structure and architecture seemed to be same.
Even in the 19th century, buildings in Britain were made up of stone while the iron
was used extensively for rail roads. The new engineering problem at this time was
the locomotive load of trains. This forced structural engineers to think fresh as for

56

first time heavy and dynamic loads were to be supported by light metal form of iron.
Previously they had to take care of only dead load of the structure. Idea of arch bridge
form was disrupted due to this reason. The other problem was that railroad should be
level and not curved, so girders or trusses were more practical than arches. Dee Bridge
which was made of cast iron failed at this time. This stimulated to search of new
forms in wrought iron. (Billington, 1983)

Immense industrial wealth was accumulated in Britain from the iron industry. At this
time, the cost was less important and safety was more crucial due to the many bridge
failures occurred. The other crucial aim in the design of railroads was the speedy
construction, so that it could put in service quickly. (Billington, 1983)

Educational Background and Early Years of Career

He studied in Edinburgh University for six months. He had distinguished engineer as

father. His father George Stephenson, built worlds first successful steam railway in
1825. His father worked very close to him for locomotives rail bridges. He was
appointed as the Chief Engineer of the Leicester and Swannington road. He created
record breaking spans, different solutions and different forms. Many of his works
reflected Telfords arch forms. (Billington, 1983)

Innovative works

High Level Bridge over the Tyne

The railroad bridge was conceived as arched beam or bowspring girder held together
by horizontal ties. He designed a double deck structure, upper deck for the railroad
and the lower for the carriage road. Total length of the bridge was four thousand feet
and one hundred thirty feet above the river. The upper deck was carried by a ribbed
arch by compression while the lower deck was suspended from the arch by wrought
iron vertical rods with horizontal tie bar to resist the thrust and to give rigidity. There
were six arches each with span opening of 125 feet.

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Britannia Bridge at Menai

The bridge was conceived as a girder or beam type where tube act as a beam through
which trains might run and with chain cables as auxiliary support. The experimental
tests were undergone to determine the strength of a circular or elliptical tube
supported by a chain. The experiments showed that rectangular shape is best for the
tube and wrought iron was preferable than cast iron. It was also proved that
suspension chains were not necessary to support the tubes. Even though the provision
had been made for auxiliary cables, it was eliminated from the design.

Two vertical wall iron girders were integrated by horizontal plates top and bottom to
form a hollow box. The straight horizontal iron box appeared to be solid carried by
three straight vertical two eyed stone towers looming over 200 feet above water. Span
had solid walls of total depth ranging from 27 to 30 feet. Extra care was taken by
stiffening of bridge deck due to the dynamic vibration of locomotive loading and the
wind problems noticed in Telfords Menai Bridge. Tower rises well above the road
way with no purpose.

Many practical difficulties were faced during the construction of this bridge. Here the
waters of the Irish Sea rise and fall twenty to twenty five on each tide. (Watson, 1957)
Heavy storm waves dash against the shore, with great force. Shorter beams were
erected in place upon scaffolding while the longer middle span beams were
assembled on land and floated out on barges.

Approach to design and personality traits

He designed many record spacing span bridges and were technically superior. Most
of his design solutions were not economic because of the conditions prevailing at that
time. He gave more concentration on beautification of towers than expression of
structural form as in the case of Britannia Bridge. He designed his new forms by
numerous practical tests and observation.

He designed and worked for all the public works like bridges and railroads. His
main idea was on the technical superiority of form. He invented the new form of
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hollow box for long span bridges. He do not take make much risk in his designs
which was evident from his Britannia Bridge at Menai. Even though, he was
exploring the new form, he never went against safety. He had done enough care by
doing experiments. He also thought of the construction related problems, before
conceiving the new form. He experimented with wide variety of forms and in
developing railway machinery and designing whole system of transport. He was
instrumental in eliminating the auxiliary chains conceived in the original form after
the test results showed it was not necessary. Due to the Dee bridge disaster he was
always conscious of the safety and he conceived the new form in Britannia by
stiffening the deck due to the wind load problems appeared in Telfords Menai
Bridge.
5.3.

Isambard Kingdom Brunel

Socio-Political and Technological Background

Infrastructure of Britain was not fully developed as per the demand and there was a
need of new planning and development for the growth of the country. (Billington,
1983). Each of branches of engineering was comparatively simple and was possible
for one man compete in them all. After this period engineers were forced to specialize
more and collaborate more with other in teams. (Crowther, 1959)

Educational Background and Early Years of Career

He was the son of one of the Britains foremost engineer, Marc Brunel. He studied
mathematics and watchmaking in Paris for three years and return back to Britain at
the age of 16. He began his career in engineering along with his father then onwards.
In 1824, he started working with his fathers project of boring of a tunnel under
Thanes. He quickly became the resident engineer of the same project. He then turned
to railroads. Between 1831 and 1841, he was directed to design, construct and operate
the longest major line in the world, western railway. The project consists of the
worlds longest railway tunnel and worlds longest spanning brick arched bridge. He
along with the rail lines also designed the rails, the switching and the station with

59

buildings. He also conceived ideas for the locomotive design. He was a private
entrepreneur who designed entire works. (Billington, 1983)

Innovative work

Satlash Bridge

The suspension bridge consists of two main spans of 455 feet each. There was 17
shorter approach spans ranging from 69.5 feet to 93 feet. Span is open and depth is
62 feet from top tube and bottom chain at mid span. It is bow shaped trusses
consisting of huge tubes of 17 feet broad and 12 feet high to take compression and
chains support the track which takes tension. The Towers rise well above the road
way to connect arch and cables.

Approach to design and personality traits

Even though he was working in the socio political background of Robert
Stephenson, he valued economy in construction and efficiency of material in his
forms. He used less material than that of Britannia Bridge and conceived more
efficient form in Satlash Bridge. He showed his interest in lightness and elegance
in his wide variety of projects. He removed unnecessary decoration of tower in
Satlash Bridge and concentrated more in the expression of form.

He selected intersecting iron vaults over the Paddington train platforms at London
in 1854. Brunel described his design of Paddington train platform roof as I am going
to design in a great hurry, and I believe to build, a station after my own fancy; that is,
with engineering roofs, etc.etc. It is a Paddington , in a cutting, and admitting of no
exterior, all interior and roofed inNow such a thing will be entirely metal as to all
the general forms , arrangements and design; it is almost of necessity becomes
an Engineering work , but, to be honest , even if it were not , it is a branch of
architecture of which I am fond of , and, of course , believe myself fully competent
for ;but for detail of ornamentation I neither have time nor knowledge, and with
all my confidence in my own ability I have never an objection to advice and assistance

60

even in the department which I keep to myself, namely the general design. (Saint,
2007)
By a mixture of simple calculation, experience and judgement he was able to get
practical solutions for all the engineering problems of his period as long as it does not
require scientific research. He made many engineering designs adequate for the
condition of that period and tested materials and made experiments and models
before finalising the design and building it he was expert in handling the most
complex mathematics to the simpler handling of wheel barrows. (Crowther, 1959)

He fascinated people by his imagination and determination to work in every field of

engineering starting from tunnels, bridges and stations. He made increasing use
of wrought iron. He calculated the strength of his girder design with theory but never
depended on the numbers. He was depended on mainly on his visual geometrical
sense.

He was imaginative and intuitive. Brunel tried too many different projects even
though some of them were failures. Experimented with wide variety of forms and
developing railway machinery and designing whole system of transport. He was
sent in 1829 by his family to look upon the Avon Gorge project. Brunel envisaged
four different type of design without any previous experience in bridge
engineering. Each design was a suspension bridge with a central span of around 270
m which was the greatest span than ever conceived at that time. Since it was the
longest span, there was objection from the bridge commission to approve the design.
But with his persistence in the same design with some changes, Brunel was able to
convince the commission and got approval and work started on 1831. He conceived
a completely new form for his Satlash Bridge.
Brunel once wrote in a journal one thing however is not right; all this mighty press
brings me but little profit - I am not making money. I have more by my Great
Western shares than by all my professional work what is my stock in trade and what
has it cost and what is it worth? (Billington, 1983)

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5.4.

Gustave Eiffel

Socio-Political and Technological Background

18th century ended up with two European revolutions, Frances political revolution
and Britains industrial revolution. France was in desire to recapture her past glory.
They want their structures to show the symbolism related to this. Eiffel tower shows
that symbolic nature of the new world. (Billington, 1983)

Railways were largely the province of engineers. On early continental railways, most
bridges were designed by independent engineers or consultants to the companies,
non-engineer contractors or fabricators. In France, that meant the graduates of Pontset
Chaussees, who after some years of state service shifts to private practice as railway
engineers. Then contracting firms started attracting their own trained engineers and
became better capitalized and equipped. Railway companies under the chief
engineers began to seek competitive bids in the form of design and built packages.
(Saint, 2007)

Educational Background and Early Years of Career

In 1852, Eiffel failed the examination for entrance into the public Ecole
polytechnique in Paris. He then enrolled privately at Ecole Centrale Des Arts et
Manufactures, from where he passed out in 1855 with chemical engineering degree.
He after leaving the Ecole Centrale found his first job with Paris engineer fabricator
contractor Charles Nepveu which designed and built railway equipment. In 1858,
he was sent to Bordeux to build 1600 foot long seven span, Cast Iron Bridge across
Garonne River. By 1867, he established a factory for metal construction and
established himself as designer and builder. By 1855, he had become Frances leading
engineer in iron. He built many iron structures including bridges, railway stations,
exhibition halls, Gas works, reservoirs, cranes, factories and department stores. His
works were most visually impressive and most technically refined. He gained
international fame by constructing railway bridges and ended his career in unique
masterpiece. (Billington, 1983)

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Innovative works

Rouzat Viaduct
It is visually most striking viaduct of the four viaducts he made between 1867 and
1869. This viaduct is over the Sioule River. It is the highway pass which is most
accessible of the four as it is 200 feet below the railway. When it was completed in
1869, it was the highest tower in iron. Three 59 m wrought iron towers support the
60 m span trellis girders which in turn carries the rail.

There was only one rail line. Viaduct is both narrow and weak in lateral direction. He
envisaged that it will be structurally unstable when there is the dynamic loading of
train as well as high wind. It may overturn sideways. He provided the lateral stiffness
by spreading the base of the tower in a curve to meet the masonry foundation below.
He used this form to counter the wind load effects. (Billington, 1983)

He also developed new way for constructing girders by building them horizontally
out from high cliffs over the towers to join it in the center. This was to avoid
scaffolding in deep valley. The construction technique proved to be economical.
(Billington, 1983)

Eiffel Tower
In 1885, French official celebrating 100th anniversary of the French revolution wanted
to build a monument like structure to symbolize the new world. They decided to top
the Washington monument which was 557 feet high with a 1000 feet high tower. In
1886, the French government invited French architects and engineers for a design
contest for erecting an iron tower. (Saint, 2007)

Eiffel with help of his deputy engineers, Emile Nouguier and Maurice Koechlin
proposed an iron tower with a base of 125 m square and 300 m high. It was the least
expensive solution proposed.

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There are decorative features which he requested his architect to install on his form
but he argued the towers aesthetics is on basis of pure engineering. Nearly all parts
of the tower were pre-fabricated off site in his workshops and erected at site.

Crescent Arch Bridge Design

In 1875, royal Portuguese opened international competition for bridge over Douro
River near Oporto. Eight different designs were submitted. Six out of them were long
span of roughly 525 foot centre span, which showed the development of bridge
building through the history. Only two of the simplest forms showed a new form with
short centre span and were priced lowest. Out of the two, Eiffels crescent bridge
proved to be more elegant as well as less expensive. It was almost 31% below the
other bridge design. The structure provided required utility in terms of efficiency and
elegance at least cost. It also proved to be durable. It was constructed in 1877.
(Billington, 1983)

He used hinged support of arches. Second crescent bridge was constructed at Garabit
over the Truyere River in 1884. The 165 m span wrought iron viaduct, when
completed was the longest arch bridge. The two hinged arch was visually separated
from the thin horizontal girder and kept continuous.

Approach to design and personality traits

He relied upon theory to build structure which is lighter, cheaper and stronger.
Eiffel once said the first principal of architectural beauty is that essential lines of
construction to be determined by a perfect appropriateness to its use. Here use
meant primarily the towers ability to carry loads (Billington, 1983). He constantly
wrote his structure in an aesthetic point of view. He did not think that scientific
theory and calculations leads to good design unless it leads to simpler systems and
lighter members. He believed that designers look for simpler system than complex
system as they know how the load is carried in simpler system.
He said that theory permits exact calculations from which structures which are much
lighter and at the same time are stringer than those built earlier. (Billington,
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1983) He believed in theory combined with practice rather that theory in

combination with trial and error practical tests.

He started of fabricator-contractor of railroads. He then expertise his practice to

symbolic structures. He believed in conceiving a form based on the flow of forces
and construction sequence. Le Corbusier once said about Eiffel that he was pained
by not being seen as a creator of beautyhis calculations were always
inspired by an admirable instinct for proportion, his goal was elegance. (Saint,
2007)

He was an Engineer- builder. He devised construction sequence along with his

designs. His designs were all based on the practicality and constructability of the
projects. He made over 5000 drawings of the pre-fabricated parts for the smooth
constructional sequence of Eiffel Tower. The construction sequence was carefully
planned and safety measures were taken to erect such a high tower in the design stage
itself. He provided lateral stiffness after evaluating the Rouzat Viaduct that
dynamic loading may make the tower unstable.

He collaborated well with architect Stephen Sauvestre for the Eiffel tower. He gave
his design for beautification of the tower to the architect. More than a designer, he
was a great entrepreneur. Eiffel Tower was preliminary sketches were done by his
deputies, Emile Nouguier and Maurice Koechlin. He stimulated these engineers in
doing it.

5.5.

John Roebling

Socio-Political and Technological Background

Suspension bridges were in a decline in Europe due to the problem it faced for the
vibration of trains and locomotives. But in America, its progress continued with
Niagara rail suspension bridge and the Brooklyn Bridge which in turn reversed the
public imagination of suspension bridge. (Saint, 2007)

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Educational Background and Early Years of Career

John Roebling grew up in a middle class family and showed up early talent for
mathematics. He got engineering diploma in 1826 from the Royal Polytechnical
Institute at Berlin. He was well educated and well trained in mathematics, engineering
and architecture. (Watson, 1957)

He after moving to America started farming. He then took job as an engineer for the
state of Pennsylvania, building dams and locks and surveying line for a prospective
railroad route. He soon became principal assistant to the chief engineer. (Watson,
1957)

He established a wire rope manufacturing plant by 1841. He was an unknown figure

until 1841, a state employee without a single design realized. He set his design
imagination only in one type of structure from 1826 and worked towards the goal.
His works signalled the beginning of clear understanding of behaviour of suspension
bridges. (Saint, 2007)

Roebling built his first suspension aqueduct in 1844 which carried a canal over the
Allegheny River. He was successful at both factory production and bridge building.
His first suspension bridge for Roadway was built in Pittsburgh, over the
Monongahela River in 1845.He gained international fame by constructing railway
bridges and ended his career in unique masterpiece. His son completed Brooklyn
Bridge. (Billington, 1983)
Innovative works

Niagara River Railway Suspension Bridge

Engineering contract of Niagara span was awarded to Roebling. Work began in 1851.
Span of the bridge was 821 feet, at a height of 251 feet above. It was suspended from
four cables which in turn rested on two masonry towers at each end of central span.
Cables were anchored in to the solid rock. The suspended structure had an upper deck
for railroad tracks and a lower deck for foot and carriage way. The two decks were

66

connected together at each side by posts and a diagonal rod to form deep stiffening
trusses.it was completed in 1855.
New method was introduced for construction of wrought iron cables with separate
strand consolidated in to a compact cylindrical cable and wrapped with softer wire
from protection from weather which contributed to longevity of the bridge. (Watson,
1957)

Cincinnati Bridge

In 1846, Roebling surveyed the river, measured the banks, and examined geological
structure of bed. In four months, he completed his plan and the report and published
it. It contained the section and elevation of bridge and technical discussion and
analysis of commercial problems involved. He proposed to make the floor of the
bridge 90 feet above low water at the wharf and 121 feet near the center. There was
opposition for the bridge and they obstructed further progress of bridge by siting
problems of construction of suspension bridge of such a long span of over 1000 feet.

New committees were appointed and Roebling was recalled to take over the project
after 10 years. He presented a new report on the practicability and probable cost of
the bridge. Construction started and had to face many practical difficulties due to high
water and cold climate. Along with it, there were also financial difficulties. Work
resumed in 1863 .it reached 90 feet mark above the low water mark. Again the work
was interrupted due to extreme weather conditions and financial crisis. In 1865, work
again resumed and move forward with less interruptions. The massive two masonry
towers were finished. Bridge stood 230 feet above the river and span of 1057 feet. In
1867, the bridge was opened to public.
Brooklyn Bridge

In 1857, Roebling proposed a bridge over the east river to connect the two cities of
New York and Brooklyn. State bill was passed in 1867, to erect bridge over east river
and Roebling was appointed as the chief engineer of the project. Within three months
he completed the preliminary plan and submitted the report. He proposed with central

67

span of 1600 feet, which was 50 % more than then longest span. Along with this,
bridge was design to bear huge load carried by four cables of diameter 16 inches.
In order to rest the growing doubts and apprehensions of the public, he himself
asked a board of most prominent engineers to review his plan. After two months of
considerations, board declared unanimously the clarity of feasibility, strength and
durability of proposed structure. Official approval was given and public confidence
was won to progress the project. But he could not fulfil his dream as he died because
of injury suffered from the site location. (Watson, 1957)

Washington Roebling, son of John Roebling took over as chief engineer to complete
the work. The central span of the bridge is 1595 feet and each side span of is 930
feet. The total length of the bridge including approaches is 5989 feet and width is 85
feet. Each of the four cables contains approximately 5434 parallel galvanized steel,
oil coated wires, closely wrapped to a compact cylinder.

In 1883, after 14 years of commencement the Brooklyn Bridge was completed. New
method of pneumatic caissons was adopted for the construction of foundation piers.

Approach to design and personality traits

His design was light as possible, safe and enduring. He said where strength is
combined with lightness and elegance, nature never wastes heavy cumbrous
masses. He described about his tower design as the mass is not solid but divided
in to two parts.the central projecting part forming a buttress. This feature of buttress
is preserved throughout the whole height, not only on account of appearance, but
also for the sake of strength, to save material and to reduce the weight upon the
foundation. (Watson, 1957) He said the towers should not be ornamental but it
should show simplicity, massiveness and strength. His last three designs, those at
Niagara, Cincinnati and Brooklyn- were each as close to limit of scale than any other
works in the 19th century.

He had done his work largely on empirical by field experience. He thought of

theoretical aspects after he conceived a form. Not the other way around form to suit
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theory. Most of the innovation comes from this aspect of thinking away from the
practice prevailing at that time. He explored his mind away from the conventional
thinking. He provided numerous stays in various direction in his Niagara railway
suspension bridge to counter the dynamic loading mainly on empirical basis.

With his experience in building suspension aqueducts and bridges come to the
conclusion about the strength possessed by wire cables. He focused mainly on the
design and construction of suspension bridges. He focused mainly on using the
cables in suspension bridges coming out of the philosophy of economy in
construction. He began building suspension bridge with his original aims severely
pragmatic. He had to prove that with his patent spun cable suspension bridges made
of short repeated spans could carry heavier loads, dead load imposed by water in
aqueducts and live load like horse haulage carts. He stretched the limit of the wire
cables in wake of getting more efficient cable suspension bridges. He also took care
of the expression of his form and towers.

When he announced that he will be building Niagara valley suspension bridge, the
engineers world-wide proclaimed it as impossible. But he was fully confident .John
Roebling wrote in his final report with so much confidence to the bridge companies
that the success of this work may now be considered as an established fact
One single observation of the passage of a train over Niagara bridge, will convince
the most sceptical, that the practicability of suspended railway bridges, so much
doubted heretofore, has been successfully demonstrated. (Watson, 1957) He
evaluated his designs with those bridges failed at that time. He wrote in his report on
the failure of wheeling bridge as ..the bridge was destroyed by the momentum
acquired by its own dead weight, when swayed up and down by the force of the
wind.A high wind acting upon a suspended floor, devoid of inherent stiffness, will
produce a series of undulations, which will be corresponding from the center
each way... Weight should be simply an attending element to a still more
important condition, viz: stiffness. (Watson, 1957) He envisaged the aerodynamic
instability in bridges which was the cause of failure Tacoma Narrows.

His enormous determination is evident from the hardship underwent by him all his
major bridges. Cincinnati Bridge had to counter many hardships for more than 10
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years in completion. The design, construction and completion of the Brooklyn Bridge
is an astounding feat for the whole Roebling family. John Roebling had undergone
many difficulties in approval of the design and he died in the course of construction.
His son Washington Roebling took over the scene but he soon was paralyzed during
the construction activities. He then controlled the construction process without
going to the site with the help of his wife. It took 14 hard years for the completion of
bridges having faced many hurdles.

He wrote constantly wrote his structure in an aesthetic point of view. He said about
the elegance in suspension bridge as the elevation of bridge floor would be too light
in appearance, as compared to the massiveness of towers.but the whole has a
pleasing effect, and at the same time presents strong and reassuring proportions,
which inspire confidence. (Billington, 1983)
He always considered technology contributes to social welfare. He said that nation,
which attains to the highest perfection in its skilful production and application to the
various arts of life, will rank also highest in the scale of social advancement and
political power. (Saint, 2007)

5.6.

Gustav Lindenthal

Socio-Political and Technological Background

Between the civil war and World War I railroad was the main infrastructure. It was a
time of urbanization. It poses one of the major technical and aesthetic puzzles of
industrial revolution (Billington, 1983)
In 1880s, when Chicago architects wanted structural help, they turned to railway
bridge engineers. Designers were forced to develop rigorous scientific approach to
design in steel structures after civil war. Designers struggled to build new forms
appropriate to the newly economic steel. (Billington, 1983)

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Educational Background and Early Years of Career

Gustav Lindenthal is an Austrian. He studied engineering at the Polytechnical

institute in Dresden, Germany. He came to United States in 1874. He first worked as
a stone mason and then became supervisor of construction of buildings. After that he
worked as railroad bridge engineer and in 1881, he started his firm in Pittsburgh.
(Billington, 1983)

In 1888, he proposed a river bridge over Hudson River crossing but it did not
progress. In 1902, he was the bridge commissioner for the city of New York. He
completed already begun Williamsburg Bridge, planned Queensboro and Manhattan
bridges and studied reconstruction of Brooklyn Bridge. (Billington, 1983)

Innovative works

Smithfield Bridge
The bridge was the replacement of Roeblings 1845 roadway suspension bridge over
the Monongahela River at Pittsburgh. The multi and shaky spans were replaced with
two spans using German style lenticular trusses which combine suspension chains
for the lower members and tubular members for top members. Trusses were made of
steel.

Hell Gate Bridge

The Hell Gate Bridge was situated at the junction of Long Island Sound and the great
rivers of New York City. It forms a striking gateway to over the approach to
metropolis. (Watson, 1957)

The arch bridge had a span of 1017 feet between the faces of abutments, 977 feet
center to center of steel bearings, a clearance height of 135 feet and total height of
395 feet above mean high water. The roadway is suspended from the arch and carries
four railroad tracks on a heavy ballasted floor. It was the heaviest bridge in the world

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being designed to carry total load coming over it, the live load of train and the selfweight combined, at that time. It surpassed his own design of the Manhattan and
Queensboro bridges which were the heaviest load carrying bridges.

Four of the end sections of bottom chords of arch were the biggest single members
of the steel ever erected. It was transported using two freight cars. The transportation
of these sections created many problems. The depth of each member was 11 feet and
it was divided by horizontal partition or diaphragms in to two compartments.

It was built by cantilever method, two sections of the arch built from each shore. To
counter the huge weight of projections, they were connected to temporary massive
steel backstays behind the piers. Back stays were removed after two halves of arch
was joined and they were used for the fabrication of permanent structure

The shape of the bottom chord is parabola. This made the bottom chord, the principal
carrying member of the arch. The bottom chord parabolic shape was the line of
equilibrium or ideal arch curve capable of carrying uniform load over entire span.
The other member serves mainly as the bracings to resist the moving loads which do
not cover the whole span. The spacing of two chords at the support were increased.
It was the longest arch bridge in the world when it was completed and this record
continued up to 10 years.

Approach to design and personality traits

He experimented with variety of forms. He designed cantilever bridge without

suspended span for Queensboro Bridge and eye bar chain suspension bridge for
Manhattan bridges. He separated aesthetics from structure, to prefer massive form
to lightness (Billington, 1983). He built the longest arch bridge prevailing at that
time when he built Hell Gate Bridge.

When he was asked give proposal for bridge over Hudson River the Engineering
News Record wrote There is probably no one on either side of the ocean who could
counted on more confidently to deal successfully with the intricate engineering
problems involved than Mr. Lindenthal. Certainly, no one of the eminent engineers
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who have already constructed great long span bridges could have been justly regarded
as better equipped for his work at its inception. (Griggs, 2010)

He consulted architects when the work becomes large and complex. He called
upon architect for his Queensboro as well as Manhattan bridges. It was probably
first time in American bridge history an architect was called upon to collaborate in
design (Billington, 1983). It was in through training in his office, two of the great
steel bridge designers of the 20th century in David B Steinman and Othmar H
Ammann took shape.

5.7.

Robert Maillart

Socio-Political and Technological Background

If 19th century was age of iron, 20th century was an age of concrete. There arrived a
completely new material concrete reinforced with iron. The romans previously had
used cement powder which was mixed with sand, stones and water to make this
artificial stone. Dome of pantheon which stands today is a product of this material.
(Billington, 1983)

Discovery of concrete had three main sources. In 1867, French gardener Joseph
Monier patented idea of strengthening thin concrete vessels by putting wire mesh in
concrete. This idea was later used in bridges and buildings by him. In 1879, Francois
Hennebique made a private metal frame house, fire proofed by covering the iron
beams with concrete. This made the new structural system where metal carried
tension and the concrete compression. Bridge builders found this technique more
economical than using natural stones. This idea was taken to Germany by a trained
engineer, G .A. Wyass. Thus reinforced concrete became a standard building material
whose strength could be tested and mathematically calculated. But those structures
which were made showed no lightness and no aesthetics lie the stone minded
architects. In direct combination to Wyass, Hennebique established an international
business in 1892. It rose very rapidly and built many structures ranging from bridges,
factories, city buildings, water towers to industrial structures. His works showed

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drive for lightness, a distaste for calculations, and growing self-confidence as his
experience widened. He relied on his own experience, while Wyass on public
scientific calculations. The emphasis on calculation made designers to think
rationally while drew away from forms which they had no calculations. This
narrowed technology as applied science, where the developments must proceed from
science defined by mathematical formulations. Wyass saw structure as element fit
together by mathematical formulas while Hennebique took structure as whole from
previous structures behaving successfully. (Billington, 1983)

Educational Background and Early Years of Career

Maillart studied engineering from Federal Polytechnical Institute at Zurich in 1890.

Wilhelm Ritter taught him graphic statics, structural design and bridges. Ritter was
also the consultant of client of Maillarts design. His attitude toward design
influenced Maillart in big way. Maillart first worked on railway design of Bernese
engineering firm in 1894. In early 1902, he founded his own firm in Zurich, Maillart
and company after he had worked for the design and construction of bridges and
buildings under a designer builder firm. (Billington, 1983)

Innovative works
Hollow Box Arch Design
Zouz Bridge
Maillart was working for Zurich construction Forte and Westermann firm in 1900.
He designed the bridge over Inn River in small Swiss town of Zouz. The bridge
spanned 30 m. He introduced new Hollow box arch design in which road way deck
and arch connected by 3 vertical walls, 2 hollow box running through out. Load will
be transferred by all 3 parts deck, arch and walls. Near the abutments, load will be
funneled into arch and abutment hinges. (Billington, 1983)

This bridge is a Single arch bridge with hinges at abutments and the crown so as to
prevent bending stress at these points with flat road deck The thickness of the arch
was 1/3rd of the conventional one.
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He used a simplified graphical analysis for the feasibility study. Wilhelm Ritter was
Consultant to project. Ritter could not analyse it as no mathematical theory was
available at that time to analyse the new form. But he found it as a sound design and
recommended to be built. It passed full scale load test by measuring the displacement
of the structure when heavy horse drawn carts rolled across the span. It was a
physical success in spite of being a mathematical mystery. It was completed in 1901.
(Billington, 1983)

Over the next two years some cracked appeared in the vertical walls near the bridge
abutments. It was no much problem structurally. It occurred due to gradual drying of
the walls nearer to abutment as tension developed in walls. The walls were restrained
from both ends by the arch and deck. The arch and deck were exposed to moisture
while walls were not, so walls dried slowly.
Maillarts idea was to cast the thin arch first and hence scaffold could be very light.
After the curved slab had gained strength, the longitudinal walls and deck slab is to
be casted. So the arch was to carry the full superstructure above with scaffold serving
merely as bracing.

The arch of the bridge over Inn River was three hinged arch. Concrete arches were
made of two identical halves and connected to both abutments and to each other at
crown by hinges which permit rotation at those three points.

Tavanasa Bridge

In this design he used only two vertical walls to connect the deck to arch and removed
the section of walls near to the abutments. The deck is resting on a thin cross wall
separated from the abutment. The deck was designed primarily to carry live load of
heaviest single vehicle. The concentrated wheel load is to be carried by the deck to
the transverse walls. He removed the central longitudinal wall and increase the deck
span in the transverse direction. This made to increase the deck thickness by 2 cm
from his previous bridge. It produced a slender and lighter form which is more
visually pleasing than his previous bridge. (Billington, 1983)
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Deck Stiffened Arch Bridge

Bridge at Aarburg over Aare River
In 1911, Maillart won a competition for concrete bridge at Aarburg over the Aare
River. The location of the bridge was at a striking location at a sharp bend in the river.
The authorities insisted on a handsome structure with single span arch as it was
displeasing if there was a pillar at the midstream.

A relatively heavy hinge less arch capable of taking both dead and live load was
designed. In the design the deck, arch and columns were designed to perform
independently unlike the Tavanasa Bridge. All the three structural components were
clearly visible. The concrete arch supported very thin concrete columns. The columns
take the load of both the 5m wide longitudinally ribbed deck and two solid 1.25 m
high concrete parapets. The arch of 67.83 m was the longest span built by Maillart up
to that time.

Flienglibach Bridge

After the world war, Maillart returned to Switzerland and started working in bridges
again. In 1923, he designed a small bridge in the Waggital over Flienglibach. The
span of the bridge was 39.5 m. He connected the arch to the deck by transverse wall.
He had analysed about the effect of vehicular load when added to the dead load of
the bridge. Arch was designed for taking the dead load by compression He stiffened
the deck by putting reinforcement in parapet.

Valtschielbach Bridge

In 1926, he designed another deck stiffened bridge at Donoth over Valtschielbach

River by refining some of the components for increasing visual appearance. The
bridge span was 40 m. He used conventional stone abutments and smoothly curved

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arch and straight roadway deck. He designed number of deck stiffened bridges after
that.

Schwandbach Bridge

He designed another deck stiffened arch which is visually more pleasing in 1933. The
bridge span was 37.4 m. In this bridge, he removed the heavy stone abutments. The
arch was made polygonal and integrated with horizontally curved roadway deck. The
heavy deck parapet was replaced with lighter curb beam and metal railing. He refined
both form and method of calculations.

Mushroom Floor for Giesshubel Warehouse

After the installation of his firm in 1902, he moved on to other forms in reinforced
concrete structures other than bridges. In 1908, he tested models of one panel floor
slab of concrete supported by isolated four columns with no beams by hinged
supports. It deflected excessively and failed. In another model, he instead of one slab
panel made nine panels and 16 columns directly connected to the slabs. The model
tested fine and he applied for patent. The patent claim did not mention any spans,
thickness or reinforcement patterns. It was only a mere conceptual system. He wrote
his test results in 1926.

The load transfer in flat plate structure unlike bridges is very complex. The load at
center of nine panel slabs may not uniformly carry to all columns like when central
load in an arch bridge move to two abutments. So test results instead of complex
mathematical methods were used to know about the behavior. Maillart used the
overall behavior by measuring the vertical deflections while on contrary; Arthur R
Lord who was also doing research on the flat slab went for localized behavior by
measuring the horizontal strain. Maillart on the basis of his deflection measurements
designed a simple reinforcing pattern for flat slab construction.

He designed a mushroom floor in 1910 for the Giesshubel warehouse. He eliminated

all beams and the floor loads are directly transferred from slab to columns through
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the column capital. He designed a column capital which gives a smooth transition.
He used the hyperbolic profile.

Magaazzini Generali Warehouse Shed

In 1924, he designed a single story warehouse outdoor shed for Magaazzini Generali
at Chiasso. The supports were placed in regular rectangular grid. The roof structure
was a gabbled truss. Long span roof like Long span Bridge had similar characteristics
and hence geometric design rather than the material design was taken care. He
designed the top compression member monolithic with the concrete roof slab. He also
designed compression element between the zero point and the support monolithic
with the transverse frame between supports. He connected gable roof in compression
and inverted arch in tension by struts. The overall form shows a gable- parabolic
profile with simpler and thinner elements.

Cement Hall

The city of Zurich held a national exposition in 1939.Maillart was commissioned to

build an exhibit for the cement research group. Maillart described the work as a small
thing, which even so required much work. He made a cardboard model of hall to
check his intended design. The concrete shell roof of thickness 6cm consists of two
parts. A thin upper barrel arch and lower slanting walls acting as a cantilever beams.
Two support ribs carrying the 11.7 m high vault were placed on either side of a
connecting walkway and were extended into four small tapered columns. The column
then transfers whole loads of the structure into ground. The two ribs stiffened
parabolic barrel vault spanning 16 m was constructed on wooden formwork by
guniting process.

Approach to design and personality traits

He considered economy as major criteria and won contracts because of this attitude.
His structures were reasonably priced. He rejected the decorative approach by
some of the designers. He resisted imitating architectural styles and using
structure for ornamentation. He was neither sculptor nor architect; all of his works
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were rooted in the numerical, rational world of engineering structure.

(Billington, 2000)

He rejected complex mathematical analysis which was followed by his

contemporaries. From his refined knowledge from his own projects, he developed
simplified approach to analyse his structures. He used simple graphical analysis
for feasibility study in Zouz Bridge. He derived formula for the flat plate patent
entirely on basis of his test result mainly for the simplification of analysis rather
than based on the mathematical analyses developed by others on this matter at
that time. Maillart derived the correct amount and location of reinforcement by
looking in perspective of whole slab and not localizing. He measured the vertical
deflection of overall slab.

His basic assumption was that concrete structures are unpredictable and the
behaviour could be found out by direct observation. He developed the flat plate
mushroom slab without theory, without using stress as control, without any codes,
and on the basis of full scale load tests. He said about his philosophy of structural
design as theories are dangerous, numbers are merely guides, codes are
restrictive, full scale testing is crucial, and safety can be guaranteed.
(Billington, 1983)

He focussed mainly on the concrete bridges. But he well versed in design of other
concrete structures. He designed water tanks, flat plate, bridges and shell
structures. He mainly depended on the creative intuition rather than complex
mathematical solutions. He had that special knack of conceiving new shapes to solve
engineering problems. He started his career as designer- builder even though he later
establish as a designer. So he had got always the builder mentality in him. His
structures were all of lower costs. All his innovation came from his constant
evaluation of his own works. He evolved his new designs form analysing his own
failures, whether it be his hollow box arch design concept, deck stiffened arch
concept, flat plate construction or his shell structures. Maillarts design was
continuously attacked by these researchers whose research was mostly
concentrated to the past structures. He resisted all this with his confidence from

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knowing the behaviour of concrete structure thoroughly and producing it in his

designs.

Maillart paid much of his attention in the appearance of bridges and he was in no
need of input from architect. Public official were more comfortable with the old
fashioned stone faced bridges. In order to satisfy local officials, he was forced to
collaborate with architects in some of his bridges, which he considers that it
arrested his creative mind. He was against the architects attempt to give bridge a
monument looks. (Billington, 2000)

His works were not recognized when he was alive. After his death Architects and
engineers started acclaiming his works. In 1947, after seven years of Maillarts death
the architectural section of Museum of Modern Art in New York City conducted an
exhibition entirely on his works. In the following years, engineers also recognized
him and realized his structures technical soundness. After World War II, his hollow
box arch design became dominant design for medium and long span bridges in
U.S. In Switzerland the professors at the Federal Polytechnical institute finally
began to teach Maillart's ideas, which then influenced a new generation of
designers.

Christian Menn, leading bridge designer in present day had been largely influenced
by Maillarts style. His first constructions were largely influenced by Maillarts
concepts of designing light arches with light decks. Felix Candela, Heinz Isler,
Fazlur Khan all of these great engineers were stimulated by Maillart's ideology and
philosophy. In fact they all propagate his philosophy throughout their career.

5.8.

Othmar H Ammann

Socio-Political and Technological Background

1920s was an age in which more importance was given to the scientific theoretical
knowledge. The industrial revolutions second period began and developed at rapid
space with little emphasis on the careful study of previous experience. The new forms

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were created based on the scientific researches rather than based on earlier
experience. No longer, the institutions stressed on those structures which had been
built but on general theory and mathematical analysis. Designers of large scale
structures worried about their old simplified calculations used to construct their
structures and look more towards the researchers for guidance. (Billington, 1983)

There was also a basic shift in the bridge building as heavy locomotive was giving
way for light locomotive. (Billington, 1983)

Educational Background and Early Years of Career

Othmar H Ammann graduated in 1902 from Swiss Federal Polytechnic Institute in

Zurich. He first wanted to become an architect but due to his talent in mathematics
led to engineering. Ammann was also Wilhelm Ritters student as Maillart. Ritter was
the first to demonstrate how a modern suspension bridge could be analysed simply
and correctly for static loads. Ritter emphasized on simplicity of analysis, on the full
scale experience and on aesthetic urge for a structure (Billington, 1983)

He came to America in 1904 and started working under many famous American
designers. He first worked with Joseph Mayer, a consulting engineer. Then he worked
for Pennsylvania Steel Company. He in 1907 started studying causes of failure of
Quebec Bridge and worked along C.C Schneider who was entrusted by the Canadian
government to investigate the failure case. (Watson, 1957)

From 1912 to 1923, he worked for Lindenthal as his assistant chief engineer for Hell
Gate and Sciotoville bridges. He left Lindenthal in 1922 and started working on
design of Hudson River crossing. (Virlogeux, 2007)

When he moved out for his own design, he had got almost twenty years of direct
experience in design and construction of working in worlds largest arch bridge,
worlds largest continuous truss bridge and worlds largest suspension bridge.
(Billington, 1983)

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Innovative works

The George Washington Bridge

The idea of building a single span bridge over Hudson River between New York and
New Jersey had been envisaged by many engineers of the past. John Roebling,
George Morison all had studied the possibilities for the bridge. Gustav Lindenthal
had dreamt about it for forty long years. In 1923, finally the announcement came of
building the bridge under Port authority.

He designed very shallow and flexible trusses of vertical depth of the deck 1/350 of
the span. The bridge span of 3500 feet was the longest span in the world at that time.

Two high towers hold the four cables, three feet in diameter from which slender floor
system is suspended by wire ropes. Provision was made in the bridge for lower deck
which was installed in 1962 because of the increase in traffic. It is an unstiffened type
bridge as stiffening trusses are to form a part of the lower deck.

He designed tower to be steel covered with reinforced concrete to strengthen the

structure and then cover it with stone masonry for appearance. The composite tower
may lead to less steel but he did not felt to use to a new idea for such a large work.
But due to the economic crisis at that time the steel tower remained uncovered.

The ground on both sides of the river is high and rock lies comparatively near to
surface. This was ideal natural condition for building a suspension bridge as cables
could be anchored in to these rocks. On the New York end concrete anchorages had
to be built. The piers of east tower could be built on land but the west tower was to
be constructed under water. For this purpose largest cofferdam of that time was used.
Prefabricated members were erected at the site for the construction of tower.

Bayonne Bridge

In 1925-26, the state legislatures of New York and New Jersey passed acts to
authorize Port Authority to construct and operate a bridge over Kill van Kull. Othmar
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Ammann was the appointed as the bridge engineer of the Port Authority. Feasibility
studies were conducted and confirmed the requirement of a bridge and founded out
the cost for the bridge. The site location was determined by economic and structural
requirements and it was conceived to build the bridge were excellent rock foundation
was available. (Watson, 1957)

The final design consists of an arch span of 1652 feet, longest at the time of
construction. The bottom chord followed a parabolic curve with rise of 266 feet that
is the one-sixth of the span length. It is an overhead arch type bridge where the central
part of the deck is suspended from the trussed arch by wire rope hangers.

The arch was designed as a two hinged arch. The distance between top chord and
bottom chord increases from center towards the end. His bridge proved to be lighter
and 70 percent longer than the Hell Gate Bridge.

The model of the bridge was tested in laboratory where strains were measured and
checked with computed stresses and deflections. Carbon manganese steel was used
for the lowest chords which cost little less than nickel steel. The carbon manganese
steel was first used in this bridge. The massive abutments are made of concrete and
faced with granite.

Approach to design and personality traits

A long-time associate with Ammann & Whitney wrote about Ammann the
outstanding characteristics of Ammanns design is simplicity; he was the enemy of
the ornate, the complicated, the extravagant, the ponderous. Throughout his
career the guiding philosophy of was Economy and utility are not the engineers
only concern. He must temper his practicality with aesthetic sensitivity. (Griggs,
2013)
Le Corbusier said about the George Washington Bridge designed by Ammann
..is the most beautiful bridge in the world..When your car moves up the
ramp the two towers rise so high that it brings you happiness; their structure is so
pure , so resolute, so regular , that here finally , steel architecture seem to laugh.
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(Saint, 2007). Ammann said about the bridge aesthetics as Pleasing appearance must
be produced by a clear expression of the natural function of the structure; and by
simple, pleasing lines and proportions. (Saint, 2007)

He relied more on the theoretical concept. George Washington was conceived by the
deflection theory of that the length of the suspension span increased, the stiffness
required for the gravity load decreases. He used it to attain his design philosophy of
light and pleasing structure along with his burning desire of building long span bridge
larger than any other. He conceived the form of Bayonne Bridge by the experience
he got from taking part in the design and supervision of Hell Gate Bridge. He
focussed mainly in design and construction of steel bridges.

He had a lifelong ambition to build bridges and build them larger than anyone else.
He went on to build longest span steel bridges in George Washington Bridge
which is the only unstiffened long span suspension bridge and then Verrazano
Narrows Bridge. After the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse which used the
deflection theory to design thinner deck, he retreated his design idea which is evident
in his Verrazano Narrows Bridge.
He said about the importance of aesthetics for a bridge designer as His structures
should please the eye .In fact an engineer designing a bridge is justified in making a
more expensive design for beautys sake alone. After all many people will have to
look at the bridge for rest of their lives. Few of us appreciate eyesores, even if we
should save little money in building them. (Griggs, 2013)

5.9.

David B Steinman

Socio-Political and Technological Background

Steinman worked at the same time and same background of Ammann.

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Educational Background and Early Years of Career

David Steinman graduated in civil engineering from Columbia in 1909 with the thesis
on The Design of the Henry Hudson Memorial Bridge as a Steel arch and got
Doctorate degree in 1910 where his thesis was Suspension Bridges and Cantilevers:
Their Economic Proportions and Limiting Spans. He translated a book on bridges
name theory of arches and suspension bridges in which Melans theory of
deflection for the suspension bridge was present. He taught civil engineering in
university of Idaho between 1910 and 1914. He then worked under Lindenthal and
then again took up the teaching job in 1917 as associate professor. Along with the
teaching, he worked with well-known bridge designer, J.A.L Weddell. In 1920, he
started to work with experienced suspension bridge designer Holton Robinson and
formed a partnership. (Billington, 1983)

Innovative works

Mackinac Bridge

On the wake of collapse of Tacoma Narrows Bridge and World War II, the crossing
of Mackinac Straits bridge was postponed. Steinman was selected to design this
major bridge. He adopted his conclusions on study on collapse of Tacoma narrows
Bridge by designing deep trusses, a partially open grid deck and a center tie. The
bridge when completed in 1957 became the longest suspension bridge with 1158 m
main span.

Approach to design and personality traits

He valued lightness and safety, economy and permanence, as well as aesthetic
appeal. Steinman wrote I want to drive home the truth that we have, in steel, a
material that poses the highest potentialities of expressing the harmonious union of
beauty and strength. He also wrote true artistic potentialities of steel .not by
ornamentations, but by the development of structural forms that will be
inherently beautiful in their simplicity. (Billington, 1983)

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With his hold of theoretical aspects of bridge design, he relied more on theoretical
concepts to tackle the problems related with bridge design and construction. He
analyzed the cause of collapse of Tacoma Bridge in 1940 by conducting a series of
studies and mathematical modelling to analyze the relationship between weight and
depth of girders, stay bracing and rigidity in relation to aerodynamic stability of
suspension bridges. He concluded the study by recommending open spaces floor
like using open steel deck or the addition of wind deflecting elements. (Bruschi, 2008)

He had the desire and determination to construct long span bridges form his
childhood days when he got inspired by the Brooklyn Bridge. He wrote after the
completion of Mackinac bridge which attained the world longest bridge title, As far
back as in 1893, when I was a newsboy selling papers near the Brooklyn Bridge, I
told the other newsboys that someday I was going to build bridges like the famous
structure that towered majestically above us. They laughed at me. Now I can point to
400 bridges I have built around the world, and to my masterwork the Mackinac
Bridge the greatest of all. (Bruschi, 2008)

He innovated the use of a center tie to rigidly connect the superstructure to the main
cables for stiffening and stabilizing the superstructure. He also innovated use of
stiffening cables connecting the superstructure near the tower to various points along
the main cables.
He was the founding president of National Society of Professional Engineers in
1934 through which he urged to use the professional title of Engineer in front of
individual names of engineers in North America.

5.10. Eugene Freyssinet

Socio-Political and Technological Background

South central France was in a stage were designers were forced to seek forms which
are simple and at most economical.

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The arch purely carry load by compression or axial force or direct stress, while the
beam carry load by bending or indirect stress. A parabolic arch carries uniform load
only by pure axial compression, provided abutments are firm. Arch tries to flatten out
at the abutment and abutment hold this so that there will be a horizontal reaction.
Abutment prevents both vertical settlement and horizontal sliding. Concrete or stone
requires huge mass to counter tension. The arch carries load by geometry whereas
beam by mass. Geometry make forms lighter while mass makes form heavier.
Hennebique showed that concrete with metal could take substantiate tension without
increasing mass and close spacing of columns. But cracks may occur at bottom where
tension is prevailing and much of the concrete was used to protect reinforcement from
corrosion rather than carrying load. (Billington, 1983)

Educational Background and Early Years of Career

In 1898, he tried for admission in Ecole Polytechnique. But he was rejected. He tried
again and was then admitted to the institution with not much high rank. The teachers
of the institute greatly influenced his later career. The spark of the idea of prestressing
came from the lectures of Charles Rabut during 1903-04. Rabut stressed on
importance of experimentation and practical experience. (Billington, 1983)
Freyssinet wrote about the invention of prestressing as in itself the idea of
prestressing is neither complicated nor mysterious; it is even remarkably simple, but
it does belong to universe unknown to classical structural materials and the difficulty
for those first coming to the idea of prestressing is to adapt themselves to this new
universe. (Billington, 1983)

He started his career in Moulins in 1905. He built numerous bridges in this region.
His early works were in such a set up in France that he was forced to seek
simplification of forms and economy. He was employed as an engineer with highway
department. (Billington, 1983) He left the highway department in 1914 to join the
firm Claude Limousin where he stayed until 1929.

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Innovative works
Praireal- Sur Besbre Bridge

The bridge was built in 1907. The design was a three hinged arch of span length of
26 m. it was the first bridge in the world to have the formwork of the arch removed
by creating forces using jacks at the crown hinge. He positioned the jacks at the key
of the arch. Then using the jack applied horizontal thrust so that the two arches detach
from each other. Then he lifted the arch off the centring. The compression produced
in the arch offset the shrinkage.

Le Veurdre Bridge

Three old suspension bridges over the Allied river need replacement. Highway
department had made a stone bridge design. It was estimated to very high cost.
Freyssinet had a close association with like- minded contractors Francois Mercier,
Claude Limousin, and Edme Campenon. He agreed with Mercier that he will design
and construct three arch bridges Veurdre Bridge, Boutiron Bridge, and Chatel-deNeuvre Bridge with the budget allotted to Veurdre Bridge. He made an alternative
design to the conventional stone masonry bridge.

The bridge was a flattened three span reinforced concrete truss span bridge having a
central span of 72.5 m and a rise of 5m. At the time 72.5m span was the longest span
so far constructed. His design was less expensive than the standard masonry arch
design.

In spite of extreme economic constraints, he decided to have full scale test arch to
study the behaviour of concrete at such large scale. For this he made 50 m span arch.
He designed steel tie bars running horizontally from one abutment to the other. He
then anchored it into one arch end and pulled at other end and then anchored. The
two arch ends resting on abutments which could not provide no horizontal reactions,
moved together and it put arch in permanent compression. The arch moved too much
but he got idea of creep, the continual contraction of the compressed material even
when compression load does not change.
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The decentering of the large vaults. It was achieved by creating thrusts using jacks at
the crown hinge. After the construction of the bridge was completed in 1911,
deformation due to creep and shrinkage started to appear first slowly and then
progressively. Freyssinet had left at the centre of crown of the arch an opening in
which he put the jacks and it pushed the two sinking arch halves apart. This raised
the arch and then the opening was filled with concrete. The opening became solid
part of the arch and it was permanently fixed in its new and higher location.

Villeneuve-Sur- Lot Bridge

After joining the new firm in 1914, he designed and built many famous works. The
bridge was over Lot River. It consists of a plain concrete arch having a span of 96 m,
world record span at that time. The construction started in 1914. Due to the world
war, it was only completed in 1919.He used the locally available cement to make
high strength concrete. He designed his structures in such a way that it remains in
compression throughout.

He used decentering jacks so that he could use it for striking the form as well as
correcting stresses created by deformation of the arch due to creep and shrinkage. It
was possible to carry out this procedure at any time during the lifetime of the bridge.
The hingeless arch concrete arch supports an arcade viaduct faced in brick.

Saint-Pierre-du-Vauvray Bridge

The Saint-Pierre-du-Vauvray Bridge crosses the Seine River with a single span of
131m, a world record at the time. It followed the method of jacking the arch apart at
the crown to compensate for rib shortening and to lift the structure off the scaffold. It
was completed in 1923.

Plougastel Bridge

He won the competition for a larger project over the Elorn River at Plougastel. It was
the near to the City of Brest, close to its harbour. Freyssinet designed three hollow
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box arches spanning 186 m each, a world record at that time. The double deck
accommodates a roadway on the upper deck and a railway on the lower deck.

Each arch is a hollow box 27.5 m in rise 9.5 m wide. Because of the great scale, he
studied intensively on creep of concrete. It was during the course of designing this
bridge Freyssinet came to the study of creep and shrinkage of concrete. He started
researching how the permanent pre stress could be attained.

He used the same technique which he had been used to move the arch apart by jack.
He took advantage of the tides to bring on floating barges an enormous wood truss.
This was used for successive construction of three arches. The truss was built on the
river bank. Then it was launched with aid of two barges at high tide for the installation
of first arch. After the construction of first arch, it was lowered and floated in to
position of the other two arches successively. The bridge was completed in 1930.

Orly Dirigible Hangars

The function of hangar was to cover a space with unusual requirements of 50 m

clearance and long span for the airships. He designed reinforced thin shell barrel
vault with parabolic cross section. He conceived a trough shaped folded profile. The
longitudinal section followed an undulating pattern designed to make formwork
withdrawal process easier.

There were two hangars side by side. The enormous arches seems to coming directly
out from the ground. Each hangar consists of series of single arches side by side and
carries load directly to the ground. Each hangar is 300 m long, 86 m wide and 50 m
high. The parabolic profile of arch followed thrust line of dead load. The thickness of
slab forming the trough increases from top to base in range of 8-20 cm. the stresses
were taken up by foundation without generating severe tension in vaulting. Centering
which carried the formwork for casting the trough section was moved on rails as
construction progressed. It was completed in 1921.

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Approach to design and personality traits

All of his invention came from direct prerequisite of minimum cost because of the
local condition prevailing over that time. His main ideals were extreme concern
for the simplification of forms and economy of means. (Billington, 1983)

He approached problems in a graphic way using free hand drawings and simple
calculations. He sometimes used Graphic vector resolution. He relied strongly on
first hand physical perception of reality and on a sound intuition which was
developed by years of experience to the extent of questioning the results of
calculations if intuition was in contradiction with them.

Eugene Freyssinet in his youth was very much interested in the mechanical things
made by his fellow villagers by using hands. He says by the age of twenty I was able
to solve any problems that cropped up with the mill or the farm and quite capable of
using my own hands on the job. (Pierre Xercavins, 2010)

The paramount character of his career was the knowledge of materials he gained
by close observation of behaviour of material. He focussed mainly on research of
properties of material and forms and not on the art form as he says Matters of art
are foreign to me.I am of peasant stock and come from a district where the
harshness of life leaves no room for art. My only training as polytechnician, made a
physic and engineer of me, passionate about professional matters but pretty well
ignorant in every other domain, especially that of architecture. I have applied my
mind to nothing except research into the properties of materials and into the
forms they may be given, and into improving the conditions and ways in which
we use them. (Saint, 2007)

He was determined to eliminate cracking in arches by horizontal compression

force.
Freyssinetintensified concrete as a material that had to be in compression. He
always believed in the great potentiality of compressed concrete. Freyssinet said,
It was in 1903 that I first had the idea of consolidating concrete by prestressing. It
took me twenty-five years of laboratory tests and much profound thought to
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discover the difficulties involved and a way of overcoming them. Finally in 1928, I
decided that in order to realize my idea I would devote all my efforts and all the
money that I had earned in fifteen years during which I had worked for a Public
Works company. (Pierre Xercavins, 2010)
Many of his contemporary engineers were well trained and had field experience..
but none had the same emotional drive as Freyssinet.

At the time of the

1928 patent, the scientific community did not believe in prestressing. Thus,
Freyssinet had to go out alone in the world to demonstrate the merits and possibilities
of prestressing. I decided to risk all I possessed in the way of fortune, reputation,
and energy to transform the idea of prestressing into an industrial reality, he
reflected. However, in five years he had lost the entire fortune he had accumulated
during the previous part of his career. He regretted nothing, stating: For the first time
in my life I had had the opportunity to concentrate my thoughts on a single problem,
with no other preoccupations. Thanks to this, over a period of five years of the
hardest labor which any man could set himself, I had obtained technical results which
I considered far more important than all those which I had achieved between 1905
and 1928. (Pierre Xercavins, 2010)

He never went behind architectural ideas. His initial small bridges were not pleasing.
But he gained confidence in aesthetics when he started designing bridges in larger
scale. His record spanning bridges and the Orly Hangar structures are always
acclaimed by architects. The clear and simple structural concept of folded trough
profile of Orly hangar influenced Nervi and other designers greatly.
He began his career with small works. He wrote about this as made me perfectly
happy because the joy a work gives to its creator does not depend upon its size
but upon the love which he brings to it and those things would stay with me to
old age. (Billington, 1983).It brings great satisfaction to him in knowing and
reasoning a particular problem and solution to it.

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5.11. Eduardo Torroja

Socio-Political and Technological Background

From 1940s, reinforced concrete with variety of new thin shells were able to follow
the old tradition of compression roof structures like roman domes and barrel vaults
, gothic vaults and baroque domes . This came with the development of new scientific
theories which could confirm the stability of shells and required justification.

Educational Background and Early Years of Career

He attained his degree from Madrid School of Civil Engineering in 1923. His
father was both an architect and professor of geometry, who introduced and
developed in Spain the geometry of ruled surfaces. He was engineering professor
and designer. He started his career in design of concrete structure by 1920.
(Billington, 1983)

Innovative works

Zarzuela Hippodrome

The roof structure was made in 1932 near Madrid to cover the stands of racing track.
The form was neither rational nor imaginative. Torroja said about the creative
design process as the imagination alone could not have reached such a decision
unaided by reason, nor could a process of deduction, advancing by successive cycles
or refinement, have been so logical and determinate as to lead inevitably to it.
(Billington, 1983)

This project required a spectator stand with clear view of the track; a promenade at
top of stands which faces the track on one side and paddock which is a small enclosure
to house the horses on other side; a betting hall below this promenade; two rows of
betting offices, one alongside the betting hall and other open to the gallery below the
stands; another enclosed gallery on the track level with more betting offices; finally,
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the roof structure to cover the stands. The load on the column at the paddock side of
betting side hall will be less and hence this column could be omitted for better
circulation of air. (Torroja, 1958)

The weight of the cantilevered roof over the stands will be large compared to the roof
on the promenade side and the rear side would require a tension member to counter
this. The main support should take the load from the tie member along with the whole
roof and hence it will be massive. (Torroja, 1958)

Since the support near to the main support to take the load of the betting office could
be taken by the massive main support itself, there is no need of column there. It could
be cantilevered from the main support. Support at the bottom edge of stand is also
not required as a cantilevered beam could support it to the topside of the stand from
the bottom edge. (Torroja, 1958)

According to the altered structural concept, the thickness of the roof slab will increase
from the free edge to the crown and then decrease to the support at rear side. The
cantilevered roof over the betting hall should also be increased when approaching
towards the main support. The main support should bear the moments from this roof
and it should be firmly supported at the foundation to resist the wind forces. (Torroja,
1958)

Then these entire concepts were refined and it was conceived to provide a curved roof
on the bottom of roof as well as on the main roof. To make his aesthetic intensions
clear Torroja said about this decision as to make this a flat slab supported by strong
ribs hidden above it seemed a heavy and unaesthetic solution. For a longitudinal row
of columns, the most obvious choice would be a series of vaults from support to
support. (Torroja, 1958)

The other decision to be taken was that which from is more suitable for this curved
roof. The main structural function of the roof would be arched cantilevers and for
the strength problem it was necessary to have a roof which have height span ratio
greatest over main supports and increases when it go towards the crown. Out of the

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possible known solution either it would be a conoid or a hyperboloid. Conoid was

discarded as an unattractive solution. (Torroja, 1958)

The roof was designed as a 12 m cantilevered thin doubly curved hyperboloid shell
structure without ribs in the main direction and 7 m foot in other direction. At about
4.5 m back there is a vertical tie member which supports the cantilever. The shell is
5 cm thick and light appearance. The thickness increase gradually increases when the
shell moves toward the crown in the line of supports. The supports are spaced at
around 5 m. The roof carried three times the design load when full scale load test was
conducted. (Billington, 1983)
5.12. Pier Luigi Nervi

Socio-Political and Technological Background

Italy lagged far behind in the technological advances that had been achieved in
construction work post World War II. Due to the long and difficult years of the postwar reconstruction, the Italian construction industry remained unaltered. It was both
technologically and industrially behind, had no specialized labour or machinery, and
was controlled by small, improvised firms. (Tullia Iori, 2005)
The new material in concrete revolutionized the world of construction in Italy The
diffusion of reinforced concrete in the early years of the twentieth century opened
new boundaries and horizons to the art of building and to architecture in broad sense.
(Cruz, 2010) The scientific and technological developments were accompanied by
conscious efforts of artistic results in new constructions. Engineering became the
object of critical interventions from the world of Architecture. (Powell, 2011)
After the 19th century developments of theory of elasticity, the structural
engineering profession had acquired necessary tools of analytical solution to the
problems of construction. Rational and structural mechanics had been developed.

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Educational Background and Early Years of Career

Pier Luigi Nervi graduated in Civil Engineering from the University of Bologna,
Italy, in 1913. He studied under Silvio Canevazzi and Attilio Muggia, who were the
leading figures in Italy of reinforced concrete constructions. After an initial period of
training in technical office of a construction company he started his own design and
construction firm in 1920. (Cruz, 2013)

Innovative works

Municipal stadium in Florence.

It was his first major work. It was designed in 1928. It was a competitive bid project.
Aesthetic field was open and the design of spectator requires ample seating of large
crowd and roof shielding from weather. The project scope entailed seating for 35,000
spectators split between an uncovered grandstand on one side of the field and a
covered grandstand directly across from the first.

The main challenge of the project was the long span structure requiring an
unobstructed view for the spectators and providing 25 m overhang that spanned the
width of the seating at approximately 100 m long.
Aircraft Hangars at Orvieto
His firm Nervi & Bartoli had built eight Aircraft hangars for the Italian Air Force.
First a pair of identical hangars were built at Orvieto during the period 1935 to 1938.
It required a column-free interior of 40 m by 100m with one side composed of two
openings measuring 50 m wide and 8 m high for large movable doors. He conceived
a design of single resisted vaulted form based on lamella vaulting method that crisscrossed structural members to create various three or four sided shapes that varied from
a triangular, rectangular and diamond forms. The shapes were quadrangular in shape, or
four sides connected by four points. Monolithic and in situ reinforced concrete

construction were used.

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Aircraft Hangars at Orbetello and Torre del Lago Puccini

Reinforced concrete, which requires steel for the reinforcement was banned in 1939
as Italy was preparing for the World war and wanted self-sufficiency in economy
independent of European countries. Nervi started experiments to discover more
efficient use of steel and concrete. Fundamentally he worked on two aspects. The first
one to save steel, reduce cement as thin layers of densely reinforced concrete are more
efficient and therefore more economical than larger bodies of concrete with less
reinforcement. The second aspect he worked upon was reducing use of wooden
formworks for directly erecting elements as it was economical than the in situ
concrete construction. He started experimenting with slender concrete slabs densely
reinforced with steel and started an experimental building yard for prefabricated on
site concrete elements.

A series of 6 hangars were built at Orbetello and Torre del Lago Puccini during the
period between 1939 and 1942. It required 100 m by 40 m unobstructed space. The
design of these hangars were also based on geodesic structures of criss crossing
arches that meet at right angles. But unlike first group of hangars these were
constructed with prefabricated truss elements in which he abandoned the complex
and expensive wooden moulds that he had needed to erect the great ribbed vault. He
devised a prefabricated reinforced concrete system with as little steel, stress or weight
as possible through the use of quadrangle pre-cast forms reinforced with steel rods
that were then welded together, creating a relatively light interlinking chain. This
group of hangars were less complicated than the first with more pleasing effect.
Turin Exhibition Complex
Hall B

Ferro cement and structural prefabrication were used for the project. After taking
patents in both he used this in this project and perfected the system which was called
as Nervi system. The hall B of Turin Exhibition hall of 94 m span barrel vault was
built in 1948. The thickness was not more than 4cm. It is designed like a cathedral
conceived to host automobile shows in capital of car making industry.

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The Ferro cement Wave elements were patented and used. Wave element give
prefabricated sections a geometrical design that would guarantee an elevated moment
of inertia. It was done by bending the wire mesh with a brick mould and then fill the
mesh with mortar. It gave rise to a light construction element of few centimetres thick
and resistant to transport. The elements were closed at either end by non-deformable
headers and their rigidity ensured by two or three internal diaphragms. This keep the
slender walls from deforming. The concreting of ribs were done along the top and
bottom of the wave of the element when they were mounted on false work. The
connection between the precast element as and ribs were made by the reinforcing rods
of the ribs with the reinforcement protruding from the elements.

Hall C

The hall C of Turin Exhibition hall of 55 x 157 m dome was built in 1950. The Ferro
cement Rhomboidal elements were patented and used. These are in the form of 20
mm thick, diamond-shaped brick that were assembled and then served as formwork
for cast-in-place concrete on their upper surfaces and within the contact channels
formed at the brick edges. The form cannot be dismantled and it became an integral
part completed structure. The element must be geometrically exact parts of the
surface to be created. This was done by creating a surface model replicating the exact
surface to be erected. The wooden model is used to prepare the moulds in cement,
plaster or wood, which are then used to make the entire series of this elements. It is
economically sound only if the same moulds can be utilized for hundreds of pieces.
Gatti Woollen Mill, Rome
He used lines of forces in a structure to achieve economy and material efficiency. He
called the lines of forces isostatic lines. The system of Ferro-cement molds, mounted
on travelling scaffolding- Nervi points out, also made it possible to design roofs with
ribs located around the isostatic lines of the principle bending moments, a design which
makes possible a strict adherence to the laws of statics and, therefore, makes the most
efficient use of materials. (Huxtable, 1960)

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1960 Rome Olympics games

Four structures in Small Sports Palace, Sports Palace, Flaminio stadium and Corso
Francia Viaduct were built. Here he used his Nervi system of Ferro cement and
structural prefabrication. Symmetrical curved forms were selected with complex
surfaces, extremely rigid and ribbed surfaces. He design it with minute details of
weight, material cost and scale of each section. The depth of the section were not
thicker than 3cm. The shape of the section was to be designed in such a way that it is
rigid enough to resist the handling and erecting stress as well as it should be
replicable. Translation and revolution surface designs were used.

The prefabricated elements were directly prepared at site and stacked while those
connecting the precast elements which needed to be cast in place were created. By
using scaffolding it were erected. The monolithic character was ensured by cast in
place ribs.
Small Sports Palace

The Palazzetto dello Sport (Small Sports Palace) was built during 195657 in the
Flaminio area of Rome. The roof is made of sixty-meter diameter dome, which is
held up by 48 radial Y shaped struts. Its divergent upper arms develop the rim
decoration. The dome is externally smooth dome and internally it is large rhomboidal
ribs. The spherical vault of the Palazzetto dello Sport is composed of total of 1.620
elements where 12 rhomboidal elements of varying shapes and 1 anomalous piece for
the apex were repeated 108 times, while the 6 elements for the edge were repeated 36
times.
The struts or exterior buttresses supports the dome and counter the lateral spreading.
The buttresses in turn are supported below the ground on a ring which takes upon the
horizontal thrust whereas the vertical load is transferred to the ground. He wanted to
express the ribs and buttresses of the structure.

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Large Sports Palace

The Palazzo dello Sport (Sports Palace) was built during 195659 in the EUR area.
It is also a dome-shaped, but with a hundred-meter diameter. Externally the grandiose
ribbed spherical cap dome, with a diameter of almost

100 m is concealed by a high glass cylinder. The internal surface is characterized by

minute pleated V-shaped waves. The spherical vault is formed by 1008 elements of
9 different types, 6 V-shaped ashlars forming 144 identical waves and 3 for the 48
fan-shaped elements.

Flaminio Stadium

The Stadio Flaminio (Flaminio Stadium) was built during 195659 is characterized
by the numerous moulded frames, upholding the slim ridged canopy covering the
grandstand, which vary in width along the oversail and completely flatten out along
the rim. A single identical piece was repeated dozens of times for the canopy and

Corso Francia Viaduct

The Corso Francia Viaduct built during 195860 is in the Flaminio area. It is
characterized by varying width pillars the sections change from rectangular to
cross-shaped and the transitional surface from one to the other in a hypar surface,
formed by straight lines and by the V-shaped beams, precast and prestressed.

Approach to design and personality traits

He approached concretes structure in terms of a designer as well as a builder. He

says about his origin of form finding process as had formed in a habit of searching
for solutions that were intrinsically and constructionally the most economic, a
habit which the many succeeding competition tenders have only succeeded in
strengthening (Billington, 1983). He designed his structures to get maximum
results with minimum means from the conception phase to the realization. He
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allowed aesthetic performance in his structure as a leading criterion. His early

years of a career was in terms of a designer related to a building contractor. The final
phase of his career was related in terms of solely as a structural designer or consultant
after 1950 s. He was a designer, engineer and contractor designer for a large portion
of his projects and he strongly favoured a philosophy and practice that married
form, function and design. Professor Mario Chiorino of the Turin Institute of
Technology described Nervi as an engineers audaciousness, an architects
imagination, and a businessmans practical realism. His use of the most advanced
technical solutions always went hand-in-hand not only with the pursuit of formal
elegance but also with an equally strong attention to the technical and economic
aspects of the building process. (Pier Luigi Nervi: The Grand Master of Concrete
Structures, 2012) Many perceived Nervi as an architect out of his aesthetic
intentions, yet trained as an engineer and contractor he never considered himself an
architect but approached all of his engineering solutions with the aesthetic component
of building in mind. In all of Nervis greatest structures, he aimed to provide
unobstructed views of a buildings key components, so that it shows the structural
expression to the common viewer.

He prepared simple mechanical models for the analysis of structure in the design
phase like in for the aircraft hangars at Orbetello and Orvieto. Convinced with
limitations of mathematical formulas, he always preferred empirical approach to
design. He feared that the undue reliance on computational analysis for the
reliability assessment of structure may lead to lack of designers inventiveness. He
used his extensive experience in the field of structural modelling, an experimental
technique developed in Europe in the thirties. This technique was developed to study
the behaviour of complex structures, consists in making highly detailed scale
models with respect not only the geometry of the construction but also, with
proper proportions, all the physical characteristics needed. He considered
experimentation as the best strategy to overcome practical impossibility of
complex structures. He patented Ferro concrete, the material obtained from dense
overlapping of layers of steel mesh made from small diameter wire, incorporating
lightweight armature with a concrete rich mortar. It was highly elastic and resistant
to cracking.

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He focused mainly in design and construction of structures in reinforced concrete.

His research mainly concentrated on structural design of intrados of roof structureslabs, simple vaults and domes. He worked on the concept of Ferro concrete
extensively. His main ideal was that the concept of structures besides passing the
fundamental checks of stability and reliability assessments , it has be verified in
terms of economy in construction. He stresses on the intuitive ability of a designer
as The conception of a structural system is a creative action only partly based on
scientific data; static sensitivity entering in this process, although deriving from
equilibrium and strength considerations, remains, in the same way as aesthetic
sensitivity, an essentially personal aptitude (Cruz, 2013). He showed interest in
the new instruments of numerical modelling and computational mechanics to the end
of his career. Structural prefabrication became his main tool for pursuing his intent
of minimum economy. Majority of his works were recognized as the masterpieces
because of the efficiency he bring about in the construction process and planning.
He centred his entire career in aesthetics. .. Nervi saw himself as an artist whose
mission was to create beautiful objects. Nervi wrote articles like The Art and
Technique

of

Building,

Thoughts

on

Engineering,

Problems

of

Architectural Achievement, and Technology and the New Aesthetic

Direction. He did not write much on scientific analyses. He wrote his first book on
Is Building an Art or Science in 1945. (Nordenson, 2008). He believed that great
architecture could not exist without engineering and held particularly strong
opinions on the necessary curriculum of future designers: that architects and
engineers should be essentially one and the same or at least have enough cross-over
to understand the esthetic and structural hurdles.

He collaborated well with many architects. He worked with his sons who were
architects in many projects. He also had a scientific collaboration with Guido
Oberti at Laboratory of the Politecnico di Milano where he tested models for his
major works. He was the professor and lecturer in prestigious universities around
the world and author of books debating the conceptual and technological
fundaments of construction, with particular regard to concrete construction

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5.13. Felix Candela

Socio-Political and Technological Background

Mexico after the World War II was a place open to new ideas and it encouraged
modern approaches. Between 1950 and 1970, Mexico went through an industrial
revolution. It was financially equipped and a building boom arose. There were no
codes for restriction on design of shell structures and labour was inexpensive and new
construction techniques emerged. (Nordenson, 2008)
Educational Background and Early Years of Career

Felix candela graduated in architecture from the Escuola Suoerior de Architectura in

Madrid in 1935. Architectural training in Madrid included preliminary scientific
studies. He studied under Luis Vegas, professor of resistance of materials who taught
structural theory. He had got the talent in analytical geometry and trigonometry and
it made him Assistant to the professor. After graduation he started a studio with his
friends in Mexico. In Mexico Architects engaged someone form their own profession
to do the structural calculations and hence Candela and friends received works to
calculate steel and concrete structures. (Akruwala, 1997)
He submitted a thesis named the influence of New Trends on Architectural Form
in 1936.He got a fellowship to study about thin shell structures in Germany. He went
to Mexico City following the Spanish civil war in 1939 and he started his architectural
firm. He started designing shell structures after a while. He started collecting articles
of the recent works in shell structure and was greatly influenced by the Maillarts
philosophy of relying more on experience rather than the mathematical theory. In
1949 he build his first shell of an experimental funicular shell based on the prototypes
constructed in England. He then started a company with his Architect friend building
lamina structures. From 1954, his business became successful as he started building
umbrella shells. (Billington, 1983)

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Innovative works

Fernandez Factory

The conoidal vault for Fernandez Factory was one of his first shell structures. He
introduced tie rods in top of the shells and provided steel rods on either side of the
vault. The shell was based on the funicular vault with the directrix being the catenary.
The thickness of the conoidal vault was 3cm.He developed an entire factory based on
this experimental design to complete a longitudinal segment of the factory. The
broader phase of the conoid forms the north light. It was completed in 1950.

Cosmic Rays Pavilion

The director of construction at University of Mexico entrusted Candela for building

a laboratory to measure neutrons. The special requirement for the roof was it should
be thin and should not exceed 5/8 in so as to permit the entry of cosmic rays. Such a
thin permanent roof was unknown at that time. The Architect had a preliminary
design of a cylindrical shell.

The building consists of two laboratories, an air conditioning plant room and a small
vestibule that leads to two laboratory spaces. The structure is raised approximately 3
m above the ground. It was the functional requirement that the shell should not have
no more mass than 40kg/m2. The thickness at the crown was reduced to 1.5 cm. He
conceived a form of two hyperbolic paraboloids or hypars coupled along a principal
parabola to counter buckling of the shell structure.

The skew or non developable surface is generated by two series of parallel lines
parallel to the vertical plane. Each vertical plane makes at an angle of 60 degree. Each
generator of one system of lines intersects with each other. This form gives pure
membrane stress expect bending moments from undulations at the edge which is
concentrated a small zone near the springer beams. The problem of buckling is further
made safe by stiffening arches.

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The form was conceived on the intuitive basis. There were no theoretical calculations
to show the precaution taken against buckling. He calculated on rough basis the
normal stress acting over a cylindrical funicular vault of the same span and rise and
designed the shell accordingly.

Xochimilco Shell

This is the structure which Candela regarded as his most significant work. The
restaurant is designed as lotus from with respect to the topological context of the site.
The restaurant was to be built as replacement to wooden restaurant destroyed by fire.
The site is a floating garden were moss, weeds and other organic matter from aquatic
medium grow. The land is created primarily as a floating platform with interwoven
twigs and creepers and piled mud on top of it. The site is surrounded by canals.

The lotus form is spread over an octagonal plinth, 30 m across. The form of the
restaurant is a free edge structure where it is anchored to the plinth at only eight points
near the periphery. The other edge rises upwards and it appears from outside as if a
freely curving shell edge that hovers the plinth without actually touching it. The
activities of restaurant are designed on basis of the geometry of structure. It is
organized in a radial symmetry over an octagonal plan. The structure is formed by
four saddled shells intersecting at a common point. The assembly of hyperbolic
paraboloid has a vertical z-axis. The distributions of stresses are facilitated through
the valley of groins. Shells workability without edge stress could be could be
mathematically analysed with simple hypar formula. The edge stresses are transferred
to the groin through the generators. The forces in the groin in turn are transferred to
the supports.

The site consists of silt and was of expansive nature. Umbrella footings were provided
as foundation to the support which along with the purpose of transferring vertical
loads to the ground eliminated the vertical settlement. Perimeter tie were provided
between the supports to counter the lateral thrust produced by the shell.

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Approach to design and personality traits

He was a builder himself and he designed his shells in terms of economy and ease
of construction. This also made his design simple and devoid of all extravagant
fittings in the structure but aesthetically pleasing and expressing the structure.
Ove Arup commented on Candela as .he is not just an engineer, or an Architect,
or a contractor and constructor, but all three rolled into one. (Colin, 1963).
Candela while conceiving a form thinks about the construction technique and
economy as he is a contractor. His engineering skill he use it in efficiency of
design by minimising material and his architectural knowledge, he applies it for
the elegance of the structure he conceives. Out of the doubly curved shells which
he classified as the proper shell, he only used those forms which are ruled in
perspective of ease of formwork for the concrete.

He wrote about the over reliance of new generation on complex mathematical

analysis as I think, we are at an end phase of a period in history, when all the stress
has been laid on analytical methods. With the invention of higher mathematics it
became a common practice to use it for any problem at all, at times even forcing the
problem in order to solve it mathematically, ignoring the many ways in which it
could be solved. In the building, the fittest forms are not often easy to investigate
from a strenuous mathematical point of view and they have been much neglected
in favour of less appropriate shapes which delight the mathematician. I hope this era
of obsessive analysis is near its end so we can begin a new period when the
synthesized design of things will become popular again. For science goes on
analysing until it attains an ultimate part of the things analysed but art, the synthesis
process, pools many things together, so as to get the complete vision. (Colin,
1963)

He recognizes the importance of structural analysis based on the theory of structures

but he is conscious of its limitation and applications. He studied the behaviour of
materials by direct observation. He said about the exact analyses which is taught in
engineering schools When I began building shells, my mind was just developing
from the student or scholar stage. As students we believe everything we are told: that
we have, for instance, what they call exact methods for calculating structures. Now
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I began to lose faith in all the things I have believed in before. But This is a
necessary point of departure, if you are going to do anything on your own (Colin,
1963)

His construction firm was focussed in one field of shell construction. This allowed
him to try variety of forms. He had never found design easier and had not designed
for designs sake. Under stress he just comes out of a solution of a problem in
some ways. He took inspiration from the nature to create hyperbolic paraboloid shells
which resembles more to the natural forms. He termed these doubly curved shells as
proper shells as it carries direct stress and no bending as in the case of natural forms.
He said it has always been desirable to observe natural examples in search for
inspiration to solve a vaulting problem. It is more so than ever when a monolithic
material which can be cast in any desired form has become of common use in
building. But proper shells cannot have any willfull form. The stone shells of nature
are always doubly curved and the reason for this become clear if we consider the
advantage of avoiding bending moments in petrous materials. The avoidance of
bending and on the whole the resistant function of a structure depends on its
form. (Colin, 1963)

He published his first paper on his work after his seventh shell of cosmic rays pavilion
which was an innovative works in terms of thickness of shell it achieved. Candela
said about the importance of evaluation of own work as The evolution of ideas is
not something you are aware of when you are working. You know of course, what
you are doing, but you have to look back to get a clearer picture of how you
developed it. I realize now that this is the time I began to sure of myself feel that
even I had an opinion. To have an opinion is something I never dared before not
only this but on many other matters.

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5.14. Fazlur Khan

Socio-Political and Technological Background

There was a re-emergence of construction of tall buildings demand in 1960s. Even

though there was a separation between engineering and architecture as all times, there
was certain level of admiration for engineering and its principle of efficient use of
materials. The construction was largely guided on the basis of economy and
architectural directives. Fresh approach to tall buildings proved to be essential.
(Khan, 2004)

There were only few structural systems appropriate for use of high rise buildings.
Basic structural system was moment resisting frame. The joints at beam column
junction with lateral load resisting shear wall and wind bracing systems. Shear wall
or bracings were positioned parallel to direction of wind or seismic forces and act as
vertical cantilevers in resisting lateral forces. These systems were adequate for
buildings below 20 30 storeys. But when structures taller than these were built,
considerable sway and unacceptable member stresses were encountered. They were
flexible and experienced large storey drift. To reduce these problems, designers
increased the size of the frame members and efficiency of beam- column junction.
But it only brought slight improvement while the material cost increased
proportionally to height.
Educational Background and Early Years of Career

He joined Calcuttas Bengal Engineering college in 1946 and obtained degree from
Dhaka University which administered the final examination furnished by central
government due to the problems prevailing at that time.

His first job was in Bureau of Roads for East Pakistan and worked on two concrete
highway bridges. He then took up teaching job Ahsanullah Engineering College in
Dhaka in 1951. He got fullbright scholarship to study prestressed concrete at
university of Illinois. He also got government scholarship for advanced studies. He
combined these two scholarships as both included airfare to United States.
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Full bright scholarship was aimed at broadening young peoples capacity for
imagination, empathy, and understanding of different ways of life and to promote a
sense of responsibility to an international community through education exchange.
He was determined to make the most of his three years stay. In 1953 he earned the
first of his advanced degrees, Masters of science in civil engineering. In addition to
typical design curriculum, students were required to examine the philosophy and
evolution of building codes in order to understand their intent. Universitys combined
focus on theoretical as well as practical methods provided him a foundation to work
on throughout his innovative career. (Khan,2004)
He earned doctorate degree on topic optimization of prestressed concrete design.
He joined SOM for training for two years. SOM, Chicago office was an established
architectural and structural design firm and he practiced here, multidisciplinary
working environment which comprises architects for the first time. He left United
States in 1957 to Pakistan and he return back to Chicago and joined SOM in 1960.
He also taught structures and served as thesis advisor to architectural students at
Illinois Institute of Technology.

Innovative works
U.S. Air Force Academy Bridges

After completing the supplemental thesis work, he started to look for training in the
design offices. He started working at SOM. He was provided an excellent training
experience there.(Khan,2004)

Roads into the academy needed bridges in to link with the U.S highways. It also
required railroad bridges. Initially SOM, decided to call outside consultants for the
project, but due to Fazlur khans urging it was decided that the structural group of the
firm itself will take care the designing of Railroad Bridges.

He spaced shear reinforcement at the half spacing of that recommended by codes. He

designed it for composite action between the precast girder and cast in place slab by

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upsetting the girder flange 3 inches into slab and strengthened the connections by
putting shear keys and reinforcing steel in between.

Brunswick Building

In late 1950s, SOM began conceptual design of 37 storey Brunswick building at

Chicago. The building scheme directed to have a 2800 square meter floor space for
eight to nine floors and then the remaining floor to smaller in plan. Smaller plan was
envisaged to be more attractive to tenant firms because of the more window exposure
and privacy of sharing single floor. The chief design architect Bruce Graham and
senior designer Myron Goldsmith opted a tall tower attached to a low rise bustle.
Shear walls at core was conceived as lateral resisting system.

Fazlur khan was new to office, a young engineer at this time. He was given the
responsibility for the design as project structural engineer. He conceived a joist floor
system to span the interior space between central core and the building perimeter. At
corner, it became a waffle slab. He placed the concrete columns in the perimeter much
closer than the usual practice. He recognize the frames participation in lateral
resistance by careful analysis (Khan, 2004).
Starting at the 29th floor and continuing at the top of building khan detailed effective
hinge at slab- wall connections. The ends of the floor joist were placed on neoprene
pads reinforcing bars were covered with elastomeric material that allowed slab to
rotate.

On each of the buildings elevation, mere four columns was to be extended up to the
base. A massive girder was designed at the second floor level to transfer the load from
column spaced closer in the above floors. Columns at the upper floor were placed at
around 2.85 m while at the base of the structure columns were spaced at 17m. The
designers supported 2.5 m wide, 7.3 m deep transfer girders on 0.65 m2 columns. It
was then the worlds largest concrete girder

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De Witt Chestnut Apartment

In 1961, SOM received commission for 43 stories Chestnut- DeWitt apartments in

Chicago. Design was conceived to be a concrete structure with a shear wall lateral
load resisting system. He placed majority of columns on the exterior as far as possible
from the center and creating a closed structural shell around the perimeter.(Khan,
2004)

Khan perceived this concept when there was no computer based analytical tool to
know the behaviour of structure and he worked on this scheme. After gaining much
confidence, he proposed this idea of closely spaced columns at the periphery and
deep, stiff spandrel beams to resist the wind loads, to the design team.

The interior shear walls were eliminated. The closely spaced columns at the exterior
provided a new faade concept from the sleek steel- and glass towers and the
masonry wall type facade.
John Hancock Center- Trussed Tube Concept
The tubular system with the openings was not much effective as it deviated from the
solid tube concept. He came into a conclusion that by introducing minimum number
of rigid X shaped diagonals in to exterior wall panels, the lateral load resisting of the
system could be enhanced as it would act as cantilevered tube. This new system of
optimumcolumn diagonaltruss tube was presented to the design team of John
Hancock center. It does not required close spacing of columns at the exterior but the
large diagonal members will run vertically across many stories. This eliminates the
narrow window space imposed by the tubular system but it would cross some of the
windows. (Khan, 2004)

His tube structure provides relatively little material, relatively high strength and
stiffness. The dead load is mainly carried by the outermost columns and also the wind
load without much overstress which the made the structure safer. It also provides
safety against excessive vibration as each floor is stiffened. A major criterion for tall
buildings is the effect of movement under wind loads to human occupants at upper

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level. This system proved satisfactory for this criterion because of the reduced
vibration. (Billington, 1983)
The other problem aroused by the architectural programme of narrow floor plan for
the apartments at the top for the maximum window exposure and broader office space
at the bottom. This led to the gentle tapering of exterior walls from base to the roof.
(Khan, 2004)

One Shell Plaza- Tube In Tube Concept

Fazlur Khan had previously developed a tube in tube concept after the two projects
of Brunswick and De Witt Chestnut Apartment. Khan suggested that with his new
concept even taller building could be built without increasing the cost per unit floor
area and building footprint within the building line and leaving open site area around
the building. He also proposed light weight aggregate concrete construction so that
additional floors could be added with the savings obtained by using the light weight
aggregate concrete against the normal weight aggregate concrete. (Khan, 2004)
With initial investigation with the tube in tube concept and the use of lightweight
aggregate as the structural material Khan proposed a 45 storey tower to the client. He
also altered the plan dimension with width to depth ratio held at 1:15 required to resist
wind load prevailing at the site as well as to control the overburden pressure of soil.

Approach to design and personality traits

His engineering and mathematical brilliance was matched by his social sensitivity
and love of the arts, elevating his structural solutions to systems that shaped "the
overall design of the buildings in which they were implementedand they were
worthy of doing so". (Khan, 2004)

The greatest feat of his professional life is his collaboration in the multi-disciplinary
design team. His career demonstrated the productive possibilities of collaboration,
within the same firm, between academics and practitioners and building clients and
engineers, and among professional associations, trade groups, computers,
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contractors, and designers. Many of the projects with which Khan was involved were
experimental in terms of height, new materials, and/or cultural expectations. The
language of mathematics and rational engineering, Khan maintained, could not give
form to architecture of substantive quality on its own, no more than could ungrounded
aesthetic inclination. Rather, by conjoining creative energies and different
perspectives, better innovative and responsive design solutions could be
developed than either architect or engineer might conceive in isolation. (Ali,
2001)

This openness of mind strengthened his aesthetic and contextual sensibility. He had
developed a fruitful collaboration with a partner of SOM and chief design architect
Bruce Graham. His openness to the structure as organizing theme for building
architecture inspired him to seek for structural systems that were not only structurally
efficient but also something which would become a core idea for architectural design.
(Ali, 2001)
He strove for judicious use of structural materials, employing them in such a
way as to achieve the strength and stiffness required for super tall building
construction without requiring premium for height. The skyscrapers built previously
depend on skeleton framing system and it lead to high construction cost as the height
of the building rose. (Khan, 2004)

His exploration was not limited to any one of the structural material. His early
concentration was on prestressed structures but gradually he developed new structural
systems for high rise construction, cable roof stayed structure for bridges,
sophisticated tensile structure for hajj terminal and investigated vernacular building
construction for university campus. (Khan, 2004)

He extended his study after the design of Brunswick building in analytical methods
for investigating combined effect of shear wall frame structures. He along with
John Sbarounis researched about torsion of a structure, shear wall termination
at intermediate height, axial deformation of framed columns, base rotation for
shear wall and presented a paper on it in a conference in California. (Khan, 2004)

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His commitment to realize optimum design of a building as whole is the most

commendable contribution to the structural engineering. He believed that there was
no one solution that fit all buildings, instead it is case specific. Appropriate concept
should be developed based on the specific requirement and site conditions of a
particular project. He believed that the clear understanding of structural
behaviour and resulting form would help both engineers and architect in which
aesthetics and technology could merge to create buildings that are symbolic of
that time. (Khan, 2004)

Khan often realized his aesthetic feeling as a structural engineer by working as a

partner in formative design process by defining the architectural/structural
schemes for building projects together with his Architectural colleagues. His
personal appreciation of the disparate design priorities of function (usefulness for
its purpose), structure (economy and efficient use of materials), and aesthetics
(satisfaction of an emotional need for meaning and visual interest) enabled him
to assume an influential role in the creative process of designing architecture. His
poetic sense of structural logic enabled him to affect the course of high rise
architecture in the twentieth century; it likewise gives him the means with which to
meld historical precedent with sophisticated technology to create an efficient and
economic structure for an airport terminal in Saudi Arabia that honours the spirit of
the pilgrimage at Mecca. (Khan, 2004)

With the advent of computers in 1960, it was possible to develop realistic computer
models for complex structures. While the need of expensive full scale laboratory
model testing was expensive and time consuming, he quickly accepted the
technological advancements. Chester Siess says that Khan demonstrated in the
SOM office how with the use of computer programs could change design
parameters and investigate different Colum types. (Ali, 2001)

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5.15. Heinz Isler

Socio-Political and Technological Background
During the last quarter of century, perhaps for the first time in about two thousand
years, virtually no compression roof structures have been built. From 1970 the
construction of shell structures had been greatly fallen out of favor due to the labor
and material intensive process of casting in situ concrete. (Addis, 2001)
Educational Background and Early Years of Career

Heinz Isler graduated from the Federal Technical Institute at Zurich in 1950 with a
degree in civil engineering. His final year design project was on thin shells, the only
one to choose shell structure out of more than hundred students in the class. After
graduation he worked as assistant to Pierre Lardy from 1951 to 1953. He helped
Lardy in his teaching and along with he worked on many cases of structural failure
which Lardy had been asked to explain. After leaving the Institute, he worked as
freelance designer. (Billington, 1983)

His innovative career blossomed after the sensational paper he presented in the First
Congress of the International Association for Shell Structures held in Madrid at 1959.
The then eminent engineers like Eduardo Torroja, Ove Arup and Nicholas Esquillan
were present as the discussants. He presented the paper named New Shapes for
Shells which contains one page with some text and nine illustrations describing three
new ways to arrive at shapes of shell.1) The freely shaped hill making mount of
material like earth and casting concrete over it. 2) The pressure membrane where an
inflated rubber membrane gives the shapes.3) The hanging cloth reversed where a
draped fabric defines the surface shape in a similar manner of hanging cables gives a
funicular arch line. (Nordenson, 2008)

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Innovative works
Concert hall in village near Bern
Architect of the project of the concert hall wanted a barrel shell on top with rounded
ends and straight sides. He knew that with curvature the efficiency of the shell to
carry loads increases. So he decided to make curved at the edge instead of straight
line. Since there was no computer at that time, he designed the form by using simple
small curved instruments and hand calculations. To get the co-ordinates of all the
curves at different sections, he had to define 400 points and if some mistake occurs
at one point, all other points were to be changed. All these had to be done along with
the construction. The biggest concern was that last girder should match with the first
with precise construction and it did happened and the project was successful.
(Nordenson, 2008)

Eschmann chemical factory at Thun, Switzerland

The idea of pressure membrane was used for another project, Eschmann chemical
factory at Thun. A pillow with a rubber membrane was made to test the idea. The
balloon was clamped in the lower frame, so that the air could not escape. Another
frame was attached at the top with very old hardwood. A bicycle pump was used as
pneumatic apparatus. A measuring device was attached to the top frame to measure
the balloon
The balloon was measured at a fraction of millimetres at every point and all the curves
were obtained. Based on these measurements wooden scaffolding were made and the
roof covered an area of 23m X 14 m. On top of each shell there was an opening of 5
m as skylight.

Approach to design and personality traits

His work shows hid deep understanding of reinforced concrete as a material. He
always thought practically. The beauty of shell construction is that it is light, thin and
importantly under direct compression stresses which makes it resistant to cracking.
The challenge for the designer is to integrate this in to a single form wherein it

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satisfies the sharp changes in thickness, in curvature or in boundaries. Isler in his

work had done exactly same where he was allowed to conceive the form. (Billington,
1983)
His central design ideas were economy in construction and integration of
elements. Along with these two criterion his designed showed symbolic or visual
aesthetics of structure. (Billington, 1983)

He use physical analogies in seeking form. He then develops scientific theory

appropriate to developed form. He took little help from the complex theoretical and
analytical techniques. Even though he stresses on the importance of physical
observation, he was open to the new analytical computer techniques. He use it as
tool without changing his design philosophy. (Billington, 1983)

5.16. Christian Menn

Socio-Political and Technological Background

The United States and Western Europe began extensive highway projects after the
Second World War (Billington, 1983)
Educational Background and Early Years of Career

Christian Menn graduated from the federal technical institute at Zurich in 1950. In
1953, he became assistant to Professor Pierre Lardy gaining his PhD in 1956. He had
learned in detail about Robert Maillart from Professor Lardy during his doctoral
work. His father Simon Menn had been chief engineer to the builders of Maillarts
two largest bridge projects. Maillart and Menn were engineering associates.
(Billington, 1983)

After receiving his doctorate he began working with Dumez firm in Paris. He worked
for a UNESCO building whose designer was Pier Luigi Nervi. In 1957, he returned
to Switzerland and opened his own firm. His first constructions were largely

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influenced by Maillarts concepts of designing light arches with light decks.

(Virlogeux, 2007)

In 1971, he was made the professor of structural engineering at federal technical

institute at Zurich where he studied he graduated. After that he had been consultant
for most of large bridges in Switzerland and had been the president of the commission
of revision of the Swiss building code for reinforced and prestressed concrete.
(Billington, 1983)

He retired in 1992 from the institute as professor and has been working as
independent engineering consultant. (Nordenson, 2008)

Innovative works

Felsenau Bridge

The bridge is designed as Cantilever prestressed hollow single box girder over arch
bridge to avoid scaffolding. The curved hollow box girder is supported in the main
spans by two narrow and thin high concrete walls. It provided long overall curved
span (156 m) with a girder of material property of straight span (144 m). Wide spacing
of the wall is provided for increasing longitudinal stiffness.

5.17. Leslie E Robertson

Socio-Political and Technological Background

Started his career at the same period when Fazlur Khan started and at same sociopolitical and technological background.

Educational Background and Early Years of Career

He studied electrical and civil engineering at University of California, Berkeley. He
started his career on power distribution and towers. Later he switched to building

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structures. He started his structural engineering career in San Francisco working with
John A Blume and Associates. In 1958 he moved to Seattle, Washington where he
worked with Worthington, skilling, Helle and Jackson. In 1964 he moved to New
York City as partner to lead structural design of world trade centre complex with
architect Minoru Yamasaki. In 198l he formed his own practice at New York., Leslie
E Robertson Associates. He also teaches at Princeton University.

Approach to design and personality traits

He had many innovation in tall buildings in his credit. He says about innovation as
Innovation should not be sought for its own sake. Nor should it be undertaken unless
substantial rewards and the full understanding of clients and investors are realized.
Innovation is what happens while in design process. The goal is to design great
buildings in the total sense to meet societal, artistic, structural and financial
goals. (Weingardt, 2007)

He focused mainly on design of tall buildings. He pioneered many new systems for
the analysis and design of tall buildings. He was the first one to develop boundary
layer wind tunnel and he conducted first experiments on human sensitivity to the
sway of tall buildings. He was the one who conceived the idea of visco elastic damper.
He also developed shaft wall partition and technique to measure stack pressure in tall
buildings. He always had the desire to build better buildings.

He collaborated well with Architect I.M Pie, Minoru Yamasaki, Philip Johnson and
John Burgee. I M Pie talks about his collaboration with Robertson in Bank of China
Project as Instead of involving anyone in my office, I went straight to Les. The
idea had great aesthetic possibilities, and I had an inkling it would make sense from
structural point of view. Less immediate reaction was that it did. I saw the building
as a series of triangles. He saw them as structure, as a super frame. That was his
conception. (Tuchman, 1989)

He talks about his interest in structural engineering come from the intellectual
satisfaction he receives, he says Im overly supportive of structural engineer as a
career because the profession has been so good to me. Being a structural engineer
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brings a level of personal satisfaction not found in other disciplines , and does so
at all levels of achievements, at all levels of salary ,a and at all levels of longevity in
the profession . At what other endeavor can one be engulfed in the joy of seeing ones
effort molded into a modern masterpiece? And getting the sensation, Hey I did
that! (Weingardt, 2007)

5.18. William F Baker

Educational Background and Early Years of Career

He took his engineering degree from the University of Missouri in 1975. After
graduation, he went to work for oil companies. He quit his job and enrolled at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, to expand his knowledge in structural
engineering field. In 1980, he earned a Master of Science in Civil Engineering.
(Wallace, 2011)

He was very much fascinated with Chicago firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP
(SOM) in his graduation days. The firm was led by well- known structural engineers
like Fazlur Khan and Hal Iyangar who had also studied at the University of Illinois.
When he was working as a junior engineer at SOM, he worked along with Myron
Goldsmith at Illinois Institute of Technologys College of Architecture. He helped
Goldsmith and other architectural professors on the structural aspects of their
students architectural masters thesis, which would often involve design of tall
buildings. (Wallace, 2011)

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6.

Creative process

6.1.

John roebling - Cable Suspension Bridges

Niagara railway suspension bridge

Precedents or references

Set of conditions

1) His suspension aqueducts over

the Allegheny River and other
place and his first suspension
roadway

bridge

over

Monongahela River.

1) Long span bridge

2) Railroad combined with foot
and

carriage way.

3) To counter oscillation due to

dynamic loading from rail line-

2) He also had a factory which

manufactures iron wires. From
his experience he came to know

increasing stiffness.
4) Economy decreasing material
and cost.

that he came to know about

strength of cables.

Solution

1) He selected a rocky site to anchor the cables and designed suspension bridge
with wire cables.
2) He designed a suspended structure with upper deck as rail roads and lower
deck for carriage and foot way.
3) He used weights, truss and stays to increase stiffness and thus counter the
dynamic loading.
4) He used mixed application of timber and iron for deck. He introduced new
concept of cables which poses great tensile strength.

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Figure 1 Niagara suspension bridge - John Roebling's first suspension bridge with
wire cables

Cincinnati Bridge
New set of conditions
1) Longer span than the Niagara
Bridge.
2) Visual expression of tower

Adaptation
He used for first time arch in masonry tower.

Figure 2- Cincinnati bridge - John Roebling

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Brooklyn Bridge

New precedents or references

1) Invention of pneumatic caisson.

New set of conditions

1) Longest spanning bridge- since
span was long, it forced to build
pier in the river.
2) More

visual

expression-

symbolic structure

Solution and adaptation

1) Used pneumatic caisson to build the pier.
2) Increased the structural expression.

Figure 3- Brooklyn Bridge - John Roebling's last suspension bridge completed

construction by his son Washington Roebling

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FLASH OF INSPIRATIONHe built four suspension aqueducts Establish wire mills on large scale
(1841).suspension aqueduct over the Allegheny River (1844), suspension
bridge over Monongahela River (1845).

CONCEPT OF CABLES in Suspension Bridges

Niagara railway suspension bridge (1851-55)
260 m span

MUTATION

Cincinnati Bridge (1846-1867)

322m span

MUTATION
Brooklyn Bridge (1857-1883)
486 m -50% more than then longest span

Figure 4- Evolution of cable suspension Bridge

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6.2.

Robert Maillart - Hollow Box Arch Bridge design

Zouz Bridge

Precedents or reference

Set of conditions

1) Vienne river bridge- arch bridge with 1) To express his structure- he was
no hinges showed cracks at places near not satisfied with his previous
to abutments and crown hinge. Von bridge where he was compelled to
Emperger had suggested providing conceal
hinges

to avoid cracks.

the

concrete

with

masonry by Architect
2) Efficiency- To remove nonstructural masonry faade
3) Economy - In order to satisfy
the local official he knows that it
should be cost effective. The local
officials wanted to have steel

Figure 5- Vienne river bridge

bridges.

To

convince

them

economy was the only criteria.

2) His Stauffacher Bridge -it was three 4) Construction process- as he was
hinged conventional arch system. The builders designer, he should care
the
economy
masonry wall was included in the about
design which was not a structural construction process.

of

element but only as a decorative 5) Thermal stress reduction

element.

Figure 6- Stauffacher Bridge with masonry

faade

125

Solution
1) He considered the longitudinal walls instead of an ornament but as a
structural element and expressed it.
2) He found out that forces were transferred through the walls along with the
deck and arch and it became more efficient. He introduced a new concept of
hollow box arch design different from conventional way.

Figure 7 - Difference in the structural action of Conventional Arch Bridge design

and Hollow Box Arch Bridge Design
3) This resulted in reduction of materials and hence the cost.
4) Achieved economy in construction by making the casted arch itself to support
longitudinal walls and deck.
5) Three hinged arch served the purpose of reduction of thermal stress.

Evaluation
1) Maillart recorded three vertical cracks in the earlier Zouz Bridge. The stresses
due to dead load and live load were very small, so he came to the conclusion
that the cracks occur due to the temperature variations. He emphasized that it
is not a structural crack and will stop in one year or so.

Figure 8- Cracks which occurred in Zouz Bridge

126

Tavanasa Bridge

New precedents or references

1) Cracks appeared in wall near the
abutment
due

to

in the Zouz Bridge

the

temperature

variations.

New set of conditions

1) Less span of roadway than Zouz
Bridge.
2) Economy
3) Efficiency

2) In three hinged arches, the live

4) Lightness of structure - elegance

load bending will be highest at

the quarter span, while zero at
abutments and crowns.

Adaptation and Solution

1) Removed the part of wall where crack occurred as it was not required
structurally.

Figure 9- Tavanasa Bridge

2) Some load comes over the removed part so he solved it by resting the deck on
a thin concrete wall. It also acts as a part of overall arch. Deck carried only
the live load while overall arch carried only dead load.

127

Figure 10-Provided thin cross wall near to the abutment

3) Narrow span means less load of deck. So he removed the middle longitudinal
wall.
4) Removing one longitudinal wall meant reducing dead load over the arch and
hence reduces stress.
5) The arch was shallow at crown and abutments while deeper at quarter span,
two points between crown and abutment.
6) Stresses due dead weight in arches is independent of cross section as increase
in stresses due to small cross sectional is nullified by decrease in stresses due
to lesser forces. He tried to keep the stresses same in every region; but as it
moves from the crown to abutments, stresses increases and hence cross
section increased.

128

FLASH OF INSPIRATION
Stauffacher Bridge

FIRST PRINCIPLES

HOLLOW BOX ARCH DESIGN CONCEPTZouz Bridge

MUTATION
Tavanasa Bridge
EVOLUTION

Figure 11- Evolution of Hollow Box Arch Design

129

6.3.

Robert Maillart - Deck stiffened Arch Bridge design

Aarburg Bridge

Set of conditions
1) Single span arch
2) Visual expression

Solution
1) Hinge less single span arch with all three structural elements clearly visible
and additional parapet.
2) He designed thin columns and gave an impression of two strong member
connected by vertical lines.
3) The vertical columns acted as a strut to carry the deck and no to stiffen the
top or bottom members against bending.

Evaluation
1) Cracks appeared in the deck near the quarter span which showed that the deck
deflect together with arch. It was against the common assumption that deck
was supported on unyielding arch.

130

Flienglibach Bridge

New Precedents or reference

New set of conditions

1) Cracks appeared in the deck near the

quarter span in Aarburg Bridge.

1) Lighter form and thinner

arch.
2) Eliminate crack in deck.
3) Economy in construction

Figure 12-Cracks appeared in quarter span in

Aarburg bridge
2) If asymmetric vehicular load comes
over the roadway, arch bends and to
take the bending moment arch should
be thickened.
3) Ritters idea of thin arch supporting
stiff deck.

Adaptation and solution

1) Connected deck and arch by transverse wall.

Figure 13- Flienglibach Bridge

2) He designed in such a way that parapet to be part of the deck. Stiffen the deck
by providing reinforcement in parapet. The bending moment will be
distributed among the arch and deck. So if deck is more stiffened, there will

131

be less bending in arch and thickness of arch could be reduced. Moreover,

parapet was necessary for guard rails.

Figure 14- Differences in behavior of Deck Stiffened Arch Bridge Design and
Unstiffened Deck Arch Bridge Design

3) It used less material and more economical than the previous bridge.

Valtschielbach Bridge
New set of conditions
4) Increasing visual expression

Adaptation and solution

He used conventional stone abutments and smoothly curved arch and straight
roadway deck.

Figure 15- Valtschielbach Bridge

132

Schwandbach Bridge

Stone abutments used in Valtschielbach bridge

New set of conditions

Increasing

Structural

expression

Adaptation and solution

Removed the stone abutments and the arch was made polygonal and integrated with
horizontally curved roadway deck. The heavy deck parapet was replaced with lighter
curb beam and metal railing.

Figure 16- Schwandbach Bridge

133

FLASH OF INSPIRATION

Aarburg Bridge

FIRST PRINCIPLES

DECK STIFFENED ARCH DESIGN CONCEPTFlienglibach Bridge

MUTATION
Valtschielbach Bridge

MUTATION

Schwandbach Bridge

Figure 17 Evolution of Deck stiffened Arch Bridge design

134

6.4.

Invention of prestressed concrete

Le Veurdre Bridge
Precedents or reference

Set of conditions

Praireal -Sur Besbre Bridge-

1) Extreme economy in construction- He

Formwork of the arch removed by

had to build three bridges with the

creating forces using jacks at the

allotted budget of one bridge.

crown hinge.

2) Decentering of arches

Solution
1) Concrete used instead of stone masonry.
2) Decentering of large vaults achieved by creating thrusts using jacks at the
crown hinge.

Figure 18- Le Veurdre Bridge

135

Evaluation

1) In spite of extreme economic constraints, he decided to have full scale test

arch to study the behaviour of concrete at such large scale. For this he made
50 m span arch. He designed steel tie bars running horizontally from one
abutment to the other. He then anchored it into one arch end and pulled at
other end and then anchored. The two arch ends resting on abutments which
could not provide no horizontal reactions, moved together and it put arch in
permanent compression. The arch moved too much but he got idea of creep,
the continual contraction of the compressed material even when compression
load does not change.
2) After the construction of the bridge was completed in 1911, deformation due
to creep and shrinkage started to appear first slowly and then progressively.
Freyssinet had left at the centre of crown of the arch an opening in which he
put the jacks and it pushed the two sinking arch halves apart. This raised the
arch and then the opening was filled with concrete. The opening became solid
part of the arch and it was permanently fixed in its new and higher location.

Villeneuve-Sur- Lot Bridge

New Precedents or reference
1) Effects of creep and shrinkage in
Le Veurdre Bridge
2) Larger span - efficiency

New Set of conditions

1) Larger span efficiency
2) Economy in construction.
3) Appearance of form

Solution
1) Avoided crown hinge.
2) He designed more efficiently by keeping the structure in compression
throughout.
3) He used decentering jacks so that he could use it for striking the form as well
as correcting stresses created by deformation of the arch due to creep and

136

shrinkage. It was possible to carry out this procedure at any time during the
lifetime of the bridge.
4) He provided reddish exposed brick arcades that hide the spandrels resting on
the arch matching with the buildings in the town.

Figure 19- Villeneuve-Sur- Lot Bridge

Saint-Pierre-du-Vauvray Bridge

Larger span bridge with a single span of 131m, a world record at the time. It followed
the method of jacking the arch apart at the crown to compensate for rib shortening
and to lift the structure off the scaffold. It was completed in 1923.

Plougastel Bridge
New Set of conditions
1) World record span of 186 m
efficiency.
2) Economy in construction.
3) Railway and roadway

137

Solution
1) He designed three hollow box arches spanning 186 m each, a world record at
that time.
2) The double deck accommodates a roadway on the upper deck and a railway
on the lower deck.
3) Because of the great scale, he studied intensively on creep of concrete.
4) He used the same technique which he had been used to move the arch apart
by jack. He took advantage of the tides to bring on floating barges an
enormous wood truss. This was used for successive construction of three
arches. The truss was built on the river bank. Then it was launched with aid
of two barges at high tide for the installation of first arch. After the
construction of first arch, it was lowered and floated in to position of the other
two arches successively.

Figure 20- Plougastel Bridge

Evaluation
1) It was during the course of designing this bridge Freyssinet came to the study
of creep and shrinkage of concrete. He started researching how the permanent
pre stress could be attained.

138

FLASH OF INSPIRATIONHis lecturer Charles Rabut lectures(1903-04), Praireal- Sur Besbre Bridge (1907)
Formwork of the arch removed by creating forces using jacks at the crown hinge

Le Veurdre Bridge( 1911)

72.5 m -World record span
full scale test arch to study the
behaviour of concrete-Idea of creep

Villeneuve-Sur- Lot Bridge (1919)

96 m -World record span

Saint-Pierre-du-Vauvray Bridge (1923)

131 m -World record span

Plougastel Bridge (1930)

186 m -World record span
Study on creep and shrinkage
Research to attain permanent prestress

INVENTION OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE - Patented in 1930

Figure 21 Invention of Prestressed Concrete

139

Pier Luigi Nervi - Nervi Systems

6.5.

Prefabrication, Ferro cement and Ribbed floor systems

Aircraft Hangars at Orvieto
Precedents or reference
1) Temporary exhibition halls

Set of conditions
1) Efficiency.

constructed in steel or

2) Economy in construction.

laminated wood using a

3) Structural Expression.

network of intersecting geodetic

frame elements primarily in
Germany: Junkers and Zolbbau
systems, respectively.
2) The new concept in the design
of the structure of aircrafts,
based also in this case on the
use of intersecting geodetic
aluminium alloy frame
elements as in the Vickers
Wellesley and Wellington
aircrafts, designed by Barnes
Wallis in early 1930s

Solution
1) He conceived a design of single resisted vaulted form based on geodesic
structures of criss- crossing arches meeting at right angles for economic. He
utilized a lamella arch that diffused tension over the expansive area of a barrel
vault that culminated in buttress-like columns on the outside edge of the structure.

2) Monolithic in situ concrete construction were used.

140

Aircraft Hangars at Orbetello and Torre del Lago Puccini.

Precedents or reference
1) His experimental work on

New Set of conditions

1) Extreme

economy

in

prefabricated elements to reduce

construction due to World

wooden formwork and

war.

subsequent patent on it.

1) He designed the same form of the aircraft hangars at Orvieto.

2) Prefabricated elements were used in construction which required less steel.
He divided the ribs into as few small and identical elements as possible. These
individual elements were prepared in series in moulds that could be reused
dozens of times. The elements were then lifted into place by using a light
scaffolding system and joined with concrete pour. Once the work was
completed the resulting structure proved to be statically monolithic.

Turin Exhibition Complex

Precedents or reference
1) The technique of Ferro cement had

Set of conditions
1) Economy in construction

been originally adopted by Jean

cheap

Louis Lambot in 1846 to produce a

construction techniques.

"ferciment" boat hull. The hull

2) To

labour

use

the

and

structural

comprised a thin layer of concrete

prefabrication technique -

reinforced with a thick mesh of

efficient de-composition of

small diameter wires, and it

the structure into a few types

exhibited remarkable ductility and

of elements that could then

resistance to cracking.

be pre-fabricated.

2) Patent by Nervi in Ferro cement.

3) Efficiency of material

3) Tested the new techniques in

Magliana hangar and then together
in a series of minor experimental
construction jobs.

141

Hall B
Solution

1) Ferro cement and structural prefabrication were used for the project. Both
requires cheap labour. Ferro cement is a light material composed of layers of
steel mesh grouted together with cement and sand and unspecialized labourer
can easily prepare it with very simple equipment. Structural prefabrication
requires accurate planning but don not require specialized labour or
machinery.
2) Wave Ferro cement light construction elements were used which minimizes
material use with elevated Moment of Inertia.

Figure 22- wave prefabrication element (Tullia Iori, 2005)

Hall C
1) Rhomboidal Ferro Cement elements were used. Thin curved surface stiffened by
ribs was very complicated to cast, so he invented this type of elements.

Figure 23-wave prefabrication element (Tullia Iori, 2005)

142

1960 Rome Olympics games Structures

Precedents or reference

Set of conditions

1) Nervi system used in Turin

1) Long span roof.

Exhibition complex- invention

2) Counter lateral thrust.

of special elements of Ferro

3) Structural expression.

cement, the wave elements and

4) Economical

rhomboidal elements.

construction
prefabricated

and

speedy
use

of

elements

structures had to be decomposed

and individual elements has to
be prepared ahead of time.
5) Repeatable and easily erectable
elements.

Solution
1) He used Ferro cement and structural prefabrication. Symmetrical curved
forms were selected which were complex surfaces, extremely rigid and
ribbed surfaces so that it could be erected according to the plan.
2) The structural elements were small and light for easy lifting and erecting.
Minute details of shape, scale and weight was carefully designed.
Small sports palace
1) He conceived a dome roof supported by Y shaped buttress.
2) The buttress counter the outward thrust of the dome and the buttress at the
ground in turn is hold by a ring which counter the lateral load of buttress and
vertical reaction go to the ground.
3) Structure is purely expressed with smooth external surface and ribbed inner
surface. The flexibility of Ferro cement and precast elements allowed Nervi to
create lightweight, curved forms.

4) 19 types of repeatable elements with varying shape, weight and size were
used.

143

FLASH OF INSPIRATIONBan of reinforced concrete in 1939 in Italy demand of more efficient use of steel and
concrete. Experimental works on Ferro cement and patent on prefabricated
constructions during the construction of Aircraft hangars at Orvieto lamella vaulting
ADAPTATION
Aircraft hangars at Orbetello and Torre
del Lago Puccini (1939-1942)
using prefabricated elements.

Patent in Ferro cement (1943)

ADAPTATION
Structural prefabrication + Ferro cement
Turin Exhibition Complex Hall B (1948)
Patent of Ferro cement wave element.

Turin Exhibition Complex Hall C (1950)

Patent of Ferro cement rhomboidal element

Ribbed floor slab system patent in 1949

Use of isostatic lines- principal bending
moment lines

ADAPTATION
Rome Olympics Game Structures (195660)
Small Sports palace, Sports palce,
Flaminio Stadium, Corso Francia Viaduct

Figure 24- Evolution of Nervi Systems

144

6.6.

Fazlur Khan - Tubular concept

Brunswick building

Precedents or reference

Set of conditions

1) Conventional moment resisting

1) Column

frame system were not effective

for

building

above

20-30

storeys.

free

interior

space-

functional planning.
2) Economy in construction.
3) Architectural

faade-The

2) Steel frame structure with long

architectural design called for an

span beams was not efficient

elevation to correlate with the

for tall buildings and Concrete

facade of Chicago civic center

framed structure with shear

building.

wall lateral load resting system

buildings elevation, mere four

is more

columns was to be extended up to

economical

than steel structures and has

added

advantage

of

fire

the

each

of

the

the base.
4) Effective structural system - as

proofing.
3) For

On

height of building increases cost

simplification

of

analysis by neglecting lateral

increased.
5) Environmental

condition-

load capacity of moment frame

temperature stresses at the upper

system while shear wall and

floor- vertical movements of

bracings were made to take

exterior column larger than that

entire lateral loads.

of the interior shear walls.

Solution
1) Joist floor and waffle slab system for the column free interior space was
conceived.

145

Figure 25 Structural layout of Brunswick building (Fintel, 1985)

2) Concrete shear wall construction which was economic was adopted.

3) To carry the heavy loads of long floor joist, he placed the concrete columns
in the perimeter much closer than the usual practice. It also eliminated
cladding which in turn reduced cost. The additional cost due to increase in
number of columns when compared to the cost for the curtain wall proved to
be much economical.
4) He perceived the advantage of placing columns nearer in the structural
behaviour of shear wall lateral framing system and did an approximate
analysis of two individual structural systems, one the shear wall at service
core and the other exterior frames with closely spaced columns. The beam
column frame parallel to the wind direction contributed to the lateral
resistance of structure. In the absence of theoretical understanding of the
frames participation in the lateral resistance of building, he took some
calculated risk. He decided to recognize the frames participation. He ensured
that all loading conditions were evaluated and presented in as technical way.
He made great number of charts projecting the buildings behaviour. When
both systems are connected in a building with floors, restrain each other. At
lower levels, shear wall restrains the frame and carries major shear load while
in as the building height increase the relative flexibility of shear wall reduces
and major part of the shear load is taken by frame.

146

Figure 26 Difference in effect of lateral loads when it acts, moment frame and shear
wall individually and combined (Fintel, 1985)

5) The ends of the floor joist from 29th floor were placed on neoprene pads which
acted as a hinge and it allowed slab to rotate. Thus the distortion which
induces bending moment to the joist system which span between internal
shear walls and external columns due to the environmental exposure was
solved.
6) The specific problem of architectural facade was solved by complex transfer
girder at the second floor level.

Figure 27 Transfer girder at second floor level

Evaluation
1) He evaluated his design by collaborating in research with John Sbarounis on
the frame contribution to lateral load resistance of the structure.

147

2) He evaluated his temperature analysis by collaborating in research with Mark

Fintel. There was neither general theory nor a practical method to identify this
temperature effects and also there was no established minimum and maximum
daily temperatures available. He began detailed temperature analysis with his
background of research. He analysed the column elements taking account of
the restraining effects of floor system and heat flow through the exposed
concrete members. They came to the conclusion that the structure could be
designed for full induced movements and stresses by combining the thermal
effects with gravity and wind loads or relieving the stresses by introducing
flexible structural joint or hinge.
3) He evaluated his unusual transfer girder design by collaborating in load test
with Chester Siess.
4) From this building he evaluated the three dimensional behaviour of the
building as a whole and that of individual wall resisting the lateral loads. He
found out the building as a whole is quite stiff compared to the individual
walls and take part more efficiently in resisting lateral loads.

De Witt Chestnut Apartment - Tubular Concept

New Precedents or reference

1) Conventional shear wall system or

New Set of conditions

1) Economy in construction.

bracings were not effective for

2) Functional planning related to

building above 20-30 storeys.

residential building- Service

Building become flexible and

core space available was less

large storey drift were encountered

and

due to lateral loading.

exposures needed for each

2) Shear wall system required large

service

core

architectural

which
and

restricted
functional

planning.
3) Light weight partitions replaced
heavy masonry and this led to the

maximum

apartment.

window

Openings

were

required in shear wall for

corridors.
3) Effective lateral load resisting
system with consideration for
premium for height.

148

reduced stiffness and hence the

lateral load resisting capacity.
4) New

trend

of

5) More

related to the economy of

concrete

architectural

facades.

window

4) More marketable floor area

exposures

functioning of tall buildings.

5) Architects vision of different
structure in concrete

maximise the wind loads which is

to be resisted.
6) With increase of height in building
shear wall become more flexible at
top and cause large overturning
moments.
7) Wind pressure increases with
increase in height of structure.
8) Openings in shear walls decreases
wind load resisting capacity.
9) Providing

full

shear

walls

eliminate window openings at that

end.
10) Tall buildings were considered as
horizontal planes stacked one
above other and structural analysis
was done with a simplification of
multi-level frames into storey high
components.

There

was

no

computer aided analysis at that

time.
11) The elementary beam theory says
that the cross-section farther from
the centroidal axis are more
stressed than those nearer to it and
hence more utilized. The box type
members and circular members
have more efficient in resting in

149

bending and compression when

subject to horizontal loads in more
than one direction.

Solution and adaptation

1) Concrete framed structure with shear wall lateral resisting system selected.
Columns were spaced closer and it eliminated cladding.

Figure 28- Structural layout of De Witt Chestnut Apartment (Fintel, 1985)

2) He placed majority of columns in the exterior creating much space for

functional planning. It made the placing of interior columns for resisting
gravity loads more flexible.
3) He considered the tall buildings resisting wind as a whole rather than
localizing. He analysed lateral stability of the whole building within the
constraints imposed by the architectural requirements and functional planning
rather than locally analysing the storey drift or placement of shear walls. He
stressed on analysing the lateral load resisting and not on the gravity loading
and conceived the building to act as a cantilever beam fixed at the ground.

150

4) He first consider it as a vertically standing hollow shaped building with full

solid walls on the outer periphery as an ideal case and with the architectural
requirements give openings to the solid walls on the periphery.
5) Eliminated inner shear walls.
6) Eliminated traditional curtain wall system and provided new architectural
facade
Evaluation
1) He explained tubular system as an effective system to counter the wind forces
than the framed structure. After evaluation he approximately explained the
concept as that the total drift of framed structure could be due to the
combination of three forces. One is the bending moment of girder which
accounts for 65% of the total sway, another is the bending moment of columns
which accounts for 15% of the total sway and the rest of the sway is in terms
of the axial stress in column due to overturning moment or column shortening
effect. He further says that the frame action (bending moment of girder and
column) which accounts for the 80% of the total sway can be manipulated
by simulating infinitely rigid diaphragm between columns which effectively
could be achieved by structural system that acts as rigid boxes or tubes
compose of exterior columns (tubular structural system concept). The rest due
to the axial stress in column cannot be manipulated and the structure will be
left alone with this 20% of actual sway.
2) He evaluated his new concept and found out that it is not effective as the ideal
case due to shear lag effect and compensated it in the design and analysis.

Figure 29- shear lag effect in tubular structures (Fintel, 1985)

151

3) He ponder with different scheme in increasing the efficiency of the tubular

concept. In the first scheme he put full length inner shear wall along the
shorter direction and connected it with the longer exterior frame. It increased
the stiffness of the long exterior planes and hence more efficient reducing the
shear lag effect. He provided this concept in Sears Tower.

Figure 30- Full length shear wall provided along shorter direction (Khan, 2004)

4) In another scheme which is derived from the structural layout used in

Brunswick building and the tubular concept used in the De Witt Chestnut
Apartment, he considered the shear wall at core as another tube along with
the perimeter tube which increased the efficiency of the tubular system in
lateral load resisting capacity.

Figure 31 Tube in tube concept (Khan, 2004)

152

John Hancock Center- Trussed Tube Concept

New Precedents or reference

1) Reduced

Set of conditions

efficiency

of

tubular

1) Functional planning a

structure due to shear lag effect in

residential

resisting wind load. The frame action

commercial space.

approximately carried 30 % of total

2) Space constraints.

shear force and rest by tube action

3) Effective

lateral

load

but this 30% caused 70% of total

resisting

system

with

deflection.

consideration for premium

2) He had been an advisor to a graduate

space

and

for height.

student at IIT for structural thesis for

4) Economy in construction.

efficient

5) Effect of movement under

solution

of

tall

steel

buildings in which an integrated

wind

system of diagonal bracing with the

occupants at upper level.

framed tube was adopted. Unlike the

6) Apartment buildings need

conventional systems, the bracings

maximum window exposure

were intended to take upon the

while broader space for

gravity loads along with the wind

office.

loads.

loads

to

human

7) Broader window space.

3) Tubular concept imposed narrow

window space.

8) Architects
different
faade

vision

of

architectural
and

structural

expression.

Solution
1) A super tall high rise in which residential space positioned above the office,
commercial and parking areas.

153

Figure 32 Load tranfer in John Hanckock Center

2) New structural system optimumcolumn diagonaltruss tube in which

minimum number of rigid X shaped diagonals integrated with the perimeter
columns which is capable of taking both gravity loads and lateral loads. The
system acts more as a cantilevered tube and it reduces shear lag effect.
3) The system provides relatively little material, relatively high strength and
stiffness. The diagonal distribute vertical forces to the exterior columns
uniformly and hence made of same size reducing the construction fabrication
and erection time.
4) Reduce vibration as each floor is stiffened.
5) The elevation is tapered.
6) Eliminated narrow window space imposed by the tubular structure.
7) New architectural faade which exhibit the structural intent.

154

One Shell Plaza- Tube In Tube Concept

Precedents or references

Set of conditions

1) Revision in ACI 318Building

Code

Requirements

for

Reinforced Concrete. Strength

design incorporated in the code

1) Functional

planning-

office

space.
2) Hurricane wind- better lateral
system.

in which strength of concrete is

3) Relatively weak soil.

to be compared with ultimate

4) Client willing to build as much

strength and not yield strength.

2) In

1955

ACI

introduced

storeys

practically

possible

within the budget.

lightweight aggregate concrete

5) Counter high axial loads and

as structural material and first

moments at the corners at

publication came out in 1967.

location of exterior end of waffle

3) He had developed new concept

of

tube

in

tube

by

the

modification of tubular concept

slab.
6) Structural expression.
7) More rentable space

which he used in his previous

projects.

Solution
1) Columns placed at the perimeter.
2) Strengthened the lateral system by connecting the outer tubular system to the
inner shear wall core.
3) Compensated mat foundation.
4) Concrete selected as material as strength design in the revised code enhanced
economical competitiveness of reinforced construction.
5) Initially the design conceived to be 20 storeys but when it was built with the
new tube in tube concept with light weight aggregate concrete and the
strength design, it rose to 50 storey building.

155

Figure 33- Structural layout of One Shell Plaza

6) Instead of increasing the reinforcement in columns at location of exterior end
of waffle slab the depth of the columns were increased to the outside.

156

FLASH OF INSPIRATION Brunswick building

FIRST PRINCIPLES

TUBULAR CONCEPTDe Witt Chestnut Apartment

ADAPTATION

TRUSSED TUBE CONCEPTJohn Hancock Center

ADAPTATION

TUBE IN TUBE CONCEPTOne Shell Plaza

ADAPTATION

BUNDLED TUBE CONCEPTSears Tower

Figure 34- Evolution of tubular structure

157

Research discussions and conclusions

158

7.

Discussions and conclusions on creative process

Any creative work does not emerge from nothing. It is an evolutionary process
within a project and also within the career of a designer. It requires time to originate
and it takes time to settle down to perfection. The flash of inspiration is the key
element in the process. Now if we analyze this key element in the works cited in the
chapter 6, the flash of inspiration had originated in some designers mind quite earlier
in their career and some later in their career. The important thing is the refinement of
mind in receiving this flash of inspiration.

The experience in the wire rope factory, largely influenced the emergence of concept
of cable ropes in suspension bridges for John Roebling. This idea of higher strength
in wire cables may had occurred to many other people during his time as well as
before him. But the concept did not materialized to other people to work out in
suspension bridges. Roebling was well educated in mathematics, engineering and
architecture. He didnt work in engineering field after the graduation. It took some
years to enter into the engineering field. Before his major suspension bridge with
cable ropes in Niagara suspension bridge, he had worked in design and construction
of suspension aqueducts. During this time he also established the wire rope mills.
This two combined activities led to the concept of using wire cables in suspension
bridges along with his technical proficiency. Technical proficiency is also an
important factor in this process while the key is experience. The experience in
observing the behavior of suspension bridge and wire ropes were the critical aspect
in getting the inspiration to this concept.

The concept of Hollow Box Arch bridge design and Deck Stiffened Arch Bridge
originated to Robert Maillart mainly from the evaluation of his own work combined
with his technical proficiency and better understanding of behavior of structure. He
imagined the structural action of the bridge if he replaced the masonry faade to
structural concrete. This imagination came from the constraints set for his bridge at
Zouz. He observed the weakness of his previous design and associate it with his new
design which gave rise to the Hollow Box Arch design. The flash of inspiration for
deck stiffened arch bridge also came from the evaluation of Aarburg ridge where he
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saw the crack. He evaluated and found out the reason for it and the solution of this
became the new innovative design. Without intuitive ability and imagination this idea
would not have been possible. He also relate it with his knowledge on thin arch
supporting stiff deck taught by his teacher Wilhelm Ritter.

Eugene Freyssinet got the spark of concept of prestressing form his lecturer Charles
Rabut and the constraint related to construction process of decentering the formwork
of arch. Similarly Nervi started working on prefabrication Ferro cement after the
socio-political conditions prevailing at Italy due to the ban of concrete structures
demanded it and his experiences in the early years of his career. While Fazlur Khans
spark of idea of concept of tubular structure came from his involvement in Brunswick
building. This experience along with his technically sound knowledge explored ideas
to overcome the cost increase due to the inefficient lateral system for tall buildings.

It is evident from the above discussion that fundamental components for the spark of
an idea are rich precedents or references, the skill and knowledge to use this set
of precedents and a need to use it or set of conditions. All these components are
important for successful emergence of an innovative concept. The source of
references could come from the knowledge acquired at graduation while the main
usable source come from the practice and experience. The accumulation of references
during the practice need observing and evaluating skill of an event or phenomenon.
This references will be stored in their subconscious mind by the conscious attempt to
store it. Next leap comes when a need arises which is the set of conditions specific to
a project. Here the skill is required to associate the references stored with
constraints imposed. The constraints played an important role in producing
innovative designs as described in chapter 6. Economic constraints is pre requisite
for creative designs while the urge for structural expression also plays its part in
many cases. If any of the component is missing it will not produce the results.

The flash of inspiration alone will not create innovative ideas. Persistent attempt is
necessary to convert the imaginative ideas into reality. As evident from chapter 6, it
required many years of the career of these innovative engineers to refine it and perfect
it. John Roebling took many years to produce his masterpiece with Brooklyn Bridge.
Robert Maillart perfected his vision of economy, efficiency and structural expression
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of his hollow arch design with Tavanasa Bridge while for his Deck Stiffened Arch
bridge design he perfected it with Schwandbach Bridge. Eugene Freyssinet took
almost 25 years from his spark of idea of prestressed concrete to invent it by
designing, constructing and evaluating many record breaking span bridges. Pier Luigi
Nervi almost took 20 years to patent prefabrication technique, Ferro cement and
ribbed floor system and then to perfect all these in Rome Olympics structures. Fazlur
Khan kept on innovating new designs and refining and perfecting his ultimate idea of
efficient lateral systems. After producing a solution they refine it by adaptation of
various components of previous designs or modifying it. Fazlur Kahn continued his
innovative process by adding adjective to the noun tube, like trussed tube, tube in
tube, bundled tube.

In this phase of the creative process the main components are the skill to produce a
solution and then evaluating it. Producing solution is a combination of
subconscious process and conscious analysis of the design. It requires imaginative
skills. To produce a single efficient solution it may require various trial and error.
This process requires converging skills to streamline different solutions. After the
solution is achieved they evaluate the solution of the finished product and the first
phase of creative process for other design start again with new set of precedents and
new set of conditions. It becomes a cyclic process.

It can be concluded that for a creative process, observing skill which is required for
the accumulation of references or precedents, associating skill which is required to
associate available precedents with the set of conditions, imagining skill to produce
many solutions to a single problem and converging skills for evaluating the different
solutions and come to a single most efficient solution are the important skills
required. The attitude of the designer, practice and experience plays the major part in
developing these skills.

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8.

Discussions and conclusions on factors affecting

creative skills

8.1.

Socio-political and Technological background

To understand the effect of Socio-political and Technological background on the

skills of engineers, the engineers studied are categorized on the basis of different era
they belong to. The transformation stages has been selected on the basis of the new
material development, technological development and accumulation of scientific
knowledge. The late 18th century witnessed the Industrial revolution in which new
material iron took the center stage. New production methodology for iron came into
existence. Technological development in invention of steam engine happened. The
late 19th century witnessed the development of concrete which originated in the mid19th century and subsequent technological development. From mid-20th century no
material development had happened but plenty of technological development arose.
The first era has been selected during the period from 1800 to 1900, the second era
form 1900 to 1960 and third era from 1960 onwards.

Table 3- Categorization of engineer to different eras

First era (1800-1900)

Second era (1900-1960)

Third era (1960 onwards)

Thomas Telford

Robert Maillart

Fazlur Khan

Robert Stephenson

Othmar H Ammann

Christian Menn

Isambard Kingdom Brunel

Eugene Freyssinet

Heinz Isler

Gustave Eiffel

Pier Luigi Nervi

Leslie E Robertson

John Roebling

Eduardo Torroja

William F Backer

Gustav Lindenthal

Felix Candela

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The first era engineers were faced with stringent economic constraints but with
freedom of exploring the new arrived materials. The new material in iron and steel
stimulated engineers to create new forms. The science and knowledge accumulation
was in the preliminary stage. They were free to explore with their intuitive abilities
alone. They learnt from their failures most often and the adapted techniques across
many fields. They designed their structure with their imagination and confirmed it
with practical testing. This background gave imaginative forms even though it may
be argued that the safety factor took the backseat as many failure occurred during this
period.

The second era saw the development of new material in reinforced concrete. New
forms in concrete started to emerge while forms in steel had already developed.
Theoretical development in concrete was almost in infancy stage while theoretical
development in steel had taken much advancements. Most of the engineers in
Ammann and Steinman started taking theoretical advancements to conceive form
while new forms in concrete mainly came through understanding in practical testing.
Maillart, Freyssinet, Nervi etc. mainly worked on the basis of their intuitive abilities
coupled with practical testing, more than the theoretical development. This was the
period during which two World Wars occurred and like the first era, the engineers
were faced with the stringent economic constraints. The later years of this era also
saw the new material development in prestressed concrete.

After the second era, no material development has greatly revolutionized the
constructions as in the case with reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete. But
the technological development, theoretical development and development in
analytical capabilities are undergoing rapid pace. Much theoretical development has
occurred for steel, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete. The economy of
nations had recovered from the two world wars and has progressed.

Most of the first era engineers were public figures like politicians. They mainly
worked for the welfare of society and for the personal and intellectual satisfaction.
The economy and the conservation of natural resources were in the hands of these
engineers. It was a matter of pride for these engineers to conceive a design and getting
approval and successfully completing the project. They worked along with the
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workers and supervise the construction process throughout the completion. They
were ready to play with their lives for the successful completion of a project. The
whole Roebling family was involved in the design and construction of iconic
Brooklyn Bridge. John Roebling died during the construction, his son Washington
Roebling got paralyzed and he supervised the construction through his wife and
successfully completed it. Such was the determination of these engineers.

Telford, Brunel and Stephenson belongs to the era where branch of engineering were
simple and small and was possible for one man to compete them in all. After this
period engineers were forced to specialize more and collaborate more with others in
teams. They were the Engineers, Architects and Builders all in one. Those engineers
who came after them had to content with a specialized field of engineering. When it
comes to Eiffel, Roebling and second era engineers they were Engineers and Builders
or can be called as Master Builders. They were forced to collaborate with the
Architects but mostly their Aesthetical ideas superseded the Architects. Eiffel,
Roebling, Maillart, Ammann, Nervi, Torroja, Candela all had their own stand in the
elegance of their structures. The Elegance factor was one of the driving force behind
their innovations. The Builder aspect of their character was an added advantage in
them. They conceive their design based on the economy and ease of construction.
The third era innovative engineers like Fazlur khan, William F Backer and Leslie E
Robertson works alongside Architects. They were specialized as designers only. Even
then they compensated with the Builder Mentality in them but were not Builders as
that of previous era.

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Table 4- Variation in socio-political and technological background in different eras

First era

Second era

Third era

New material development

New material

in iron and steel.

development in RCC and

PSC

Engineers were regarded as

public figures

Professionals working
for clients

Engineers were faced with

Economic constraints due

To the later periods of

stringent economic

to the two World Wars

this era no much

constraints

economic constraints
as nations has
recovered from the
economic problems.

Appearance of form was an

Appearance of form was

Engineers content with

engineering design criteria

an engineering design

design criterion of

criterion

economy and
efficiency

No major roles for

Engineers forced to

Engineers and

Architects for the design of

collaborate with

Architects

engineering structures

Architects

collaboration.
Architect as team
leader.

Expert in all engineering

Designer builder

Designer only-

fields no specialization

Specialization of different

Emphasis on team

fields

work

Development of new forms

Development of new

Development of new

in iron and steel by

forms in RCC and PSC

forms by computer

practical tests.

by practical tests while in

soft wares for form

steel by theoretical basis.

finding

Theoretical development of

Theoretical development

Theoretical

iron and steel at infancy

of concrete at infancy

developments in both
concrete and steel at

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while in steel theoretical

higher levels.

advancements.

Emphasis on
theoretical and
computer analysis.

Development of codes and

Development of codes

Development of codes

regulations at initial stage

and regulations for steel

and regulations at

while for concrete at

much advanced level.

initial stages
Technological

Technological

developments at much

developments are at

slower rate.

faster rate and

designers unable to
keep pace with it.

More time available for

Less time available for

design and construction

design and
construction

Socio political and technological development greatly influences the skills of

engineers. As from chapter 7, it is understood that the economy is a major prerequisite
for the creative works, the variation in economic constraints had affected the creative
skills through the different eras. New material development often took place in the
verge of extreme economic constraints which is evident form non development of
new materials which had revolutionized the construction. The decline of practical
testing for professional purposes also had added to this. Lack of understanding of
clear behavior of structures and intuitive abilities can also be attributed to the decline
of practical tests and observing the behavior directly.

Specialization of fields has restricted engineers in supply of knowledge from other

fields which could be adopted elsewhere. The specialization of engineers from a
Master Builder to a designer also had influenced the skills of engineers in conceiving
form related to construction processes.

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The lack of urge for the appearance of form also had influenced the creative skills of
engineers as it is evident from chapter 7 that appearance of form as a design criteria
had influenced engineers in having innovative ideas. This was one of the major reason
pointed out by the Architects in non-involvement of Structural engineers in the
conceptual phase of the design.

With the developments in analytical capabilities more emphasis is on the analysis and
less emphasis on the conceptual design stage and form finding. With the theoretical
developments there is subsequent development of codes and regulations which took
the freedom of engineers to explore new ideas and hence affected the creative skills.

Another factor is the reduction of time available for both design and construction and
the rapid pace of technological development. This has pressurized engineers to stick
to the standardized solutions rather than innovative solutions.

However, the innovative engineers emerges from the constraints and background
related to their career period. The socio-political background and technological
background of a period is applicable to all engineers of that period but few engineers
only emerge out to be innovative. While the first and second era innovative engineers
had taken advantage of their expertise in many fields and economic constraints to
have innovative ideas, the new era engineers had taken advantages of the
technological developments and analytical capabilities to produce innovative ideas
of new age. So the key is the attitude and personality traits of engineers which make
them innovative.
8.2.

Educational background and formative years of career

All Engineers studied had got exceptional educational background prevailing at their
time. Thomas Telford had no such educational background but he compensated with
self-study and practice. The other engineers on the first era like Robert Stephenson
and Isambard Kingdom Brunel had better primary education of their age but not the
high tech education like that of the contemporary engineers. Their biggest asset was
their tough formative years of career. Both Brunel and Robertson had the advantage

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of feel of the engineering practice right at their younger age as their fathers were
leading engineers of their time. While Telford started as practical worker.
Most of these engineers had influential personalities, whether it be father or the
lecturer who had led them to the innovative career. Most of the institute with their
reputation had paved way tremendously to the career of the creative engineers by
their approach to the engineering studies.

Table 5 - Educational Background of Engineers

Engineers

Educational Details

Influential personality

Thomas Telford

Self-study

Robert Stephenson

Edinburgh University

His established engineer

father George
Stephenson

Isambard Kingdom

Studied

mathematics His established engineer

Brunel

and watchmaking

father Marc Brunel

Gustave Eiffel

Ecole Centrale

Polytechnique

at

France
John Roebling

Polytechnical

Institute -

at Berlin
Gustav Lindenthal

Polytechnical

institute -

at Dresden, Germany
Robert Maillart

Federal Polytechnical Wilhelm Ritter his

Institute at Zurich

Othmar H Ammann

professor at Zurich

Federal Polytechnical Wilhelm Ritter his

Institute at Zurich

professor at Zurich and

Gustav Lindenthal

David B Steinman

Columbia University

Gustav Lindenthal

Eugene Freyssinet

Ecole Centrale

Charles Rabut,

Polytechnique

at his professor

France

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Eduardo Torroja

Madrid School of Civil His father who was both

Engineering in 1923.

an

architect

and

professor of geometry
Pier Luigi Nervi

University of Bologna, Silvio

Italy

Canevazzi

and

Attilio Muggia who were

leading

figures

Reinforced

in

concrete

construction in Italy
Felix Candela

Architecture school of Robert

Escuola

Suoerior

Maillart

and

de Eduardo Torroja

Architectura in Madrid
Fazlur Khan

Masters degree and Myron

Goldsmith

doctorate from

professor at University

University of Illinois

of Illinois and Robert

Maillart

Christian Menn

Federal Polytechnical Pierre

Lardy

his

professor at Zurich and

Institute at Zurich

Robert Maillart
Heinz Isler

Federal Polytechnical Pierre

Lardy

his

professor at Zurich and

Institute at Zurich

Robert Maillart
Leslie E Robertson

University

of

California, Berkeley
William F Backer

Bachelors degree from Fazlur Khan, Hal Iyangar

University of Missouri of SOM and Myron
and

Masters

from

degree Goldsmith

University of

Illinois
Four engineers out of the 18 engineers studied in Robert Maillart, Othmar H
Ammann, Christian Menn and Heinz Isler came from the same institute of Federal
Polytechnical Institute at Zurich. Professor Wilhelm Ritter of the institute had
influenced two of the greatest concrete and steel bridge designer, while Professor

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Pierre Lardy of the same institute had influenced one of the great bridge designer
Christian Menn and shell builder Heinz Isler.

The two innovative engineers in Gustave Eiffel and Eugene Freyssinet came from
Ecole Centrale Polytechnique at France. While two of the great tall building
designers Fazlur Khan and William F Backer came from the same institute of
University of Illinois.

Both Wilhelm Ritter and Pierre Lardy the professors of Federal Polytechnical
Institute at Zurich emphasized the visual understanding of behavior of structure
through their teaching. Ritter was the successor of Carl Culmann who introduced
graphic statics a technique which graphically analyses the structure. Ritter taught
both value of experience and calculations to his students. His lecture had the
visualization of full scale structures and completed designs. He acknowledged the
structure to his student as both an aesthetic and scientific enterprise. He put into the
heads of his students images of structure while he was putting into their hands the
means of computation. He never separated the two aspects and hence his students
went out into practice with visual experience and scientific confidence. Ritter
propagated three principles of design. The first principle relates to the importance of
calculations and he justified it by saying that it would produce more efficient forms
with simplified analysis. In an article in 1883, he showed how a deck stiffened arch
could be analyzed in a simplified manner which did not followed general
mathematical theory and merely by understanding the behavior. His second principle
is that the designer should ensure his design in proper consideration of construction
process and the finished structure. His third principle connects the calculation
accuracy to the construction quality by experiments. His central point was the
importance of the physical insight gained by the engineer from seeing the structure
in its actual setting. (Billington, 1983)

Ritter was also the first to demonstrate how a modern suspension bridge could be
analyzed simply and correctly for static loads. Ritter emphasized on simplicity of
analysis, on the full scale experience and on aesthetic urge for a structure (Billington,
1983) .

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Similarly Pierre Lardy followed the footsteps of his predecessors of the Institute,
Culmann and Wilhelm Ritter. He inspired his students with images of the structural
form along with the mathematical analysis. He also stressed upon the importance of
physical models and precision measurement of structural behavior. He developed a
model making laboratory and emphasized that the projects should begin with a model.
The model making demonstrated the students how an actual form would look and
give a close idea of how it behaves. His major contribution came through his
influence in students. He expressed his ideas to them and encouraged them in their
design work. He always stressed upon the importance of aesthetics with the model
making. He made his students to think the structure as a whole rather than parts and
stressed upon conceiving new forms rather than thinking about its analysis. What his
students got from him was the strong emphasis on models as a means of expanding
design possibilities, on aesthetics as a primary design objective, and an overall form
as having precedence over the analysis of parts. (Billington, 1983)

University of Illinois, in addition to the typical design curriculum encourages students

to examine the philosophy and evolution of building codes. This made the student to
explore new ideas rather than accepting the prescribed code provisions. It gave
combined practical aspects of design and analysis and solving complicated problems
with critical thinking on engineering issues. Students are taught to correlate the
knowledge in the field and design criteria which gives them opportunity to evaluate
already established formulas. (Khan, 2004)

Charles Rabut the professor in Ecole Centrale Polytechnique instilled the inspiration
to invent prestressed concrete in Eugene Freyssinet through his lectures emphasizing
the importance of experimentation and practical experience.

All these engineers had also underwent great initial years of their career. The first era
engineers as described earlier directly after initial education get into the design and
construction with the toughest jobs. Most of engineers started their design- built
companies in the early years of their career. The second era engineers also had similar
situations and worked under great engineers of their time in the formative years of
their career. David B Steinman and Othmar H Ammann started their career under
Gustav Lindenthal and went on to become the two greatest bridge designers. The new
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era innovative engineers had their initial training in great engineering architecture
firms. Fazlur Khan after graduation got initial training in one of the leading firm,
SOM while William F Backer after getting good exposure by working in oil
companies joined SOM in early years of his career.

Thus educational background and formative years of these engineers played an

important role in developing the innovative skills in these engineers. The educational
institutes greatly influences the creative skills of engineers by their approach to the
engineering studies. These institutes emphasized the importance of visual
representation of behavior of structure by practical testing and model making. It also
emphasizes the importance of field observation and the construction process in
design. Aesthetics and appearance of form was also given due importance in their
studies. The formative years of their career gave them much needed exposure to the
constructional and design realities. Educational institutes gave the knowledge and
direction while the formative years of career gave them the self-confidence which are
the essential components in developing creative skills.

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9.

Discussions and conclusions on Approach to

Design and Personality Traits

All these engineers had got their own personal styles. But most of the engineers had
many similarities to their approach to engineering design and personality traits in
varying degrees.

9.1.

Approach to design

The conventional engineering criteria for the design are economy and efficiency. All
these engineers also considered these criterions in their design. But the fundamental
difference of these innovative engineers from the other engineers is the approach to
these criterions. They concentrated more on these criterions at the conception stage
more than in the analytical stage. They conceived the form on the basis of efficiency
in material and economy in construction. They conceive the form considering the
construction process.

They conceived the new forms not on the available theoretical and analytical methods
but on the basis of the set of conditions prevailing to the specific project. They
adopted theory to suit form concept rather than the form to suit theory concept.
They conceived the form based on their intuitive abilities and to convince others,
substantiate it by necessary theory and calculations. Most of the innovative forms
emerged from the empirical focus based on the observation of practical testing
and simplified analytical approaches. The new era engineers had compensated the
decline of practical testing by advanced computer techniques for the form finding
without compromising the intuitive character and engineering judgement.

Another major dimension of their design considerations was the appearance of

form. Most of these engineers were against the extravagance of built form. Rather
they implanted their desire of appearance in design by expressing the function of
the structure which is the load transfer. They advocated simplicity in their designs.
The past era engineers had done this by initiating themselves while new era engineers
had done by fruitfully collaborating with architects.

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All these engineer were advocates of total design. The bridge designers looked upon
the aesthetics and other functions of bridges along with the structure and construction
process. Shell builders Torroja, Nervi, Candela, and Isler all conceived their form in
accordance with the construction process especially the economy in formwork. They
also conceive their form in consideration with expressing structure. The tall building
designers, Fazlur Khan, Leslie E Robertson and William F backer think efficiency
functionality, services and aesthetics before conceiving their structural systems.
9.2.

Personality traits

The engineers had become innovative by their attitude and developed personality
traits. The common character traits of these engineers identified from Chapter 5 are

1) Self confidence

All these engineers were self-confident. Without the self confidence in them they
couldnt have carried out the innovative works without any precedents. They took
calculated risk which can be attributed to their self-confidence.

The self-confidence was not a character inborn in them. It was nurtured by them
through their continuous attempt to achieve it. To acquire this confidence, technical
proficiency is a must. All these engineers had received high class education
prevailing at their time. But educational qualification and background is not only the
factor which determines the proficiency. It has to be developed by using the
knowledge acquired by them and through experience they developed this. The selfconfidence did not emerged suddenly from the start of their career. All engineers took
some time to settle down until they started producing the innovative works and
perfecting them as it is evident from chapter 6.

2) Determination

This is a key personality traits in these engineers. All were determined and had the
desire to attain something better. This determination of the first era engineers was
very intense as evident from their works. Brunel, Roebling and other engineers

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worked from the conception of design the completion of the project. They even
worked with workers to have successful completion of their projects. Roebling died
during the construction process of Brooklyn Bridge. It also depends on socio-political
conditions as the responsibility of these engineers were very huge.

The second era engineers were also determined. The persistent determination of
Eugene Freyssinet led to the invention of prestressed concrete, the determination of
Othmar Ammann to build greater spans led to record breaking bridge designs and
Pier Luigi Nervis persistence for the economy in construction led to the
prefabrication and Ferro cement constructions.

All the third era engineers were also determined according to the socio political
conditions prevailing at their time. Fazlur khans innovative designs came from the
desire to achieve efficient and economical lateral resisting systems.

3) Distinct personal philosophy and focused on particular idea.

The first era and second era engineers had developed their own personal philosophy
based on the socio political and technological background prevailing and their
educational background and formative years of their career. Most engineers stick to
the philosophy on the basis of approach to design described in the chapter 9.1 with
varying degrees. The third era engineers developed their philosophy by the prevailing
background and studying the philosophy of past engineers like Robert Maillart.

They focussed on a single pushing idea. John Roebling focussed on idea of cable
suspension bridge and concentrated on perfecting it. Eugene Freyssinet devoted his
entire career in invention and understanding of prestressed concrete. Fazlur Khan
kept on innovating new structural systems in persistent idea of effective lateral
systems. Pier Luigi Nervi worked on the idea of prefabrication techniques, Ferro
cement and ribbed floor constructions. Most of the engineers focussed on a single
field with the exception of few first era engineers who were expert in all fields. Robert
Maillart concentrated on concrete structures especially bridges. David B Steinman
and Othmar H Ammann concentrated on steel bridge design and construction.
Eduardo Torroja, Felix Candela, and Heinz Isler concentrated on thin shell structures.
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Fazlur Khan, Leslie E Robertson, William F Backer focused on design of tall

buildings. Christian Menn focussed on bridge design.

4) Imaginative
All these engineers had got the visual sense of imagining something which doesnt
has a precedents or does not existed before. This is a trait which is very much
necessary for the creative ideas to emerge. But this trait too is not a fully inborn one.
This they developed by their persistent attempt. They refined their mind in such a
way to imagine a new idea. They constantly thought about their work in the conscious
mind and the imagination was an after effect in the subconscious mind.

The shell designers like Felix Candela and Heinz Isler imagined their new forms by
taking inspiration from natural and physical analogies.

5) Intuitive

All these engineers had the intuitive grasp of the behaviour of structure which is
prominent factor in creating new forms. This engineering character is a must to come
out of the routine design solutions to the creative design solutions. This character was
formed in them by the direct observation of behaviour of structure by the
practical testing of forms of their design and the through evaluating the
behaviour of their finished structures. The socio political and technological
background of the first era and second era engineer favoured it greatly due to lack of
analytical capabilities and the ample time available for them to explore in the design
and construction stage. The third era engineers compensated by complimenting
research and practice. Fazlur Khan, Leslie E Robertson and William F Backer were
not only working as a professional designer but they had done many research and
published many papers. They encouraged the research through their professional
firms and the educational institutions associated to them.

Another aspect related to this trait is that most engineers experimented with
different forms and some with different materials. This gave them more
understanding on the behaviour of material. Thomas Telford experimented with
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wrought iron and cast iron while he experimented with different forms in arch bridge
and suspension bridge. Robert Maillart was expert in all concrete structures and he
experimented with different forms in concrete. Felix Candela did not invent any new
shell structures but experimented with variety of forms. Fazlur Khan innovated new
structural systems and forms for the tall buildings and also in his later years of career
switched to tensile structures. This gave the clear picture on the behaviour of structure
and intuitive grasp.

6) Ingenious
Imagination alone cant produce creative designs. The engineers were all clever to
make their imaginative ideas into reality. They carefully planned their imaginative
designs with the thought of construction process. First era engineers and second era
engineers continuously proved this point as they were builders and had to continue
giving their idea at the construction stages until the completion. New era engineers
has got some lenience on this respect but with their Builder Mentality, they supports
the project managers in the construction process with their ideas.

7) Self-reflective - Constant evaluation of own work

This is one of the important character trait possessed by all the engineers. They
constantly evaluate their work and also upon their contemporaries. The failure and
success will be stored in their mind. They constantly evaluate their failures and come
out of innovative solution to counter the weakness in design. These engineers never
consider this as failures but as opportunity for new and better design. This may be the
main personality trait that perfected their works in the later years of their career. They
evolve step by step through their previous works.

8) Aesthetic sense

All these engineers had this trait in them. Felix Candela had the architectural
education, John Roebling had studied architecture along with the engineering studies
while all the engineers who had studied in Federal Polytechnical Institute in Zurich
had a taste of aesthetics form their mentors. But all these engineers were pure
177

engineers with highly technical engineering background. Eugene Freyssinet denied

when he was called as an artist. But the sense of aesthetics came from their practice
and the constraints related to their projects. It also came from the experience on
collaboration with architects. Most of engineers had an urge to gain architectural
ideas and aesthetic sense. Most of the engineers did not believe in the old
architectural ideas but their sense of beauty was in the expression of the structure
which was conceived on the basis of efficiency of material and economy in
construction.

The first era engineers were not against the architectural ideas and did not object to
the beautification of their supporting towers of their bridges. The second era
engineers with their aesthetic sense superseded the Architects. While the third era
engineers used their aesthetic sense to fruitfully collaborate with architects. As
evident from chapter 7, this is a leading criteria in the production of innovative
designs. The engineers distinct personal styles can be attributed to their variation in
aesthetic sense and urge for expression of their structures.

Most of the third era engineers in acquiring this architectural ideas had taken teaching
in Architectural schools. Both Fazlur Khan and William F Backer had worked at their
early years of their career along with Myron Goldsmith and other architectural
professors to on the structural aspects of their students architectural masters thesis.
These engineers continuously searched to absorb the aesthetic sense.

9) Openness to new technological ideas and theoretical developments

All engineers were open to the new technological ideas and theoretical developments.
This character trait of these engineers had paved way for many of their innovative
ideas. They keep on updating the technological developments and accommodate in
their design.

10) Intellectual satisfaction and working for the welfare of society and structural
engineering profession

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All these engineers worked for the intellectual satisfaction more than the personal
financial motives. They worked for the welfare of society and engineering
profession as a whole. All these engineers actively participated in the progress of the
profession. Telford was the founding president of first civil engineering society.
Steinman was the founding president of National Society of Professional Engineers.
Eduardo Torroja was the co-founder and first President of the International
Association for Shell Structures, IASS. He also actively participated in many
associations. Fazlur Khan actively participated in works of Council on Tall Buildings
and Urban Habitat while Leslie E Robertson and William F Backer are actively
participating in it. Leslie E Robertson was the founder and former chairman of Wind
Engineering Research Council. All these engineers take pride in what they are doing.
These engineers constantly wrote and published their ideas and thoughts as well as
their research findings for the betterment of structural engineering profession.

11) Urge for better interdisciplinary collaboration and Team work

This personality traits is very much evident in the new era innovative engineers which
may be due to the demand from the background they are working on. The first era
and second era engineers too had this traits. Telford was a great motivator of
engineers. He identified talented young engineers and used their creative ideas. Same
is the case with Eiffel who gave the responsibility of design of Eiffel tower to his
deputies, Emile Nouguier and Maurice Koechlin and also gave credit for the design.
Gustav Lindenthal great training in his office to Steinman and Ammann. Fazlur Khan
motivated his junior engineers and created good working environment in SOM
to the young engineers. He had also great research collaboration with Myron
Goldsmith and Mark Fintel. William F Backer too followed his path.

All the engineers had better collaborative relations with architects and other
collaborators. They actively worked for the improvement of collaboration by
acquiring knowledge from different fields. Eiffel collaborated well with architect
Stephen Sauvestre for the design of Eiffel tower. Pier Luigi Nervi in spite of having
his own Architectural and aesthetic aspirations collaborated well with many of the
architects. He collaborated in design with his sons who were architects. Fazlur Khans
one of the main character trait which made him innovative was the collaborative
179

effort with architectural partner of SOM, Bruce Graham. Bruce Graham helped
Fazlur Khan in developing innovative effort. Leslie E Robertson had great
collaboration with I.M Pie, Minoru Yamasaki, Philip Johnson and John Burgee.
These engineers were able to convey their innovative ideas to the design team.

180

10. Final conclusions and reccomendations

Innovation and creativity in structural design is an essential component for the
improvement in design quality of the built environment which in turn influences the
welfare of the society. Structural Engineer has got the opportunity to play a
major role in the design team by their innovative and creative skills.

By comparing the conclusions on approach to design and personality traits of the

innovative engineers in chapter 9 and the lack of weakness pointed out by the
architects as mentioned in chapter 3.3, it could be concluded that for the creative
role to be played by the structural engineers in the conceptual design process,
they should try to enhance their skills to the level of these innovative engineers.

It is also evident from the discussions in chapter 9 that the attitude of structural
engineers influences the development of creative skills in them. The creative skills
is not fully an inbuilt character but the innovative engineers possessed it through
their persistent attempt to develop it.

From the chapter 8 and chapter 9, the factors affecting the creative abilities of
engineers can be divided in to unattained factors and attained factors. The
unattainable factors are those factors like socio-political and technological
background and the basic educational background which is not in the control of
structural engineers and cannot be developed. The attainable factors are those factors
which can be developed on by the attitude of the individual structural engineers as
well as the educational universities and professional firms. The socio-political and
technological background can be considered as a constant factor in which the
structural engineers should strive to attain their creative skills.

181

10.1. Recommendations on creative skills in engineers

The traits or skills on which structural engineers should look forward to develop for
the creative structural design and creative collaboration with architects are

1) Self confidence in their technical ability and taking calculated risks.

2) Desire and determination to achieve something better.
3) Imaginative visual thinking.
4) Intuitive- immediate apprehension of mind.
5) Ingenious clever at devising plan to convert their imagination into reality.
6) Self-Reflective.
7) Open to new technological ideas.
8) Intellectual satisfaction.
9) Aesthetic sense.
10) Open to new technological ideas.

This could be achieved by

1) Trying to understand clear behaviour of structure this could be done by
complimenting theoretical and experimental research with practice and using
the advanced computational tools to understand the behaviour.
2) Take active involvement in construction process.
3) Update and share knowledge by involving with professional associations and
educational institutes.
4) Update new technological and theoretical developments by reviewing
journals and other related matters. It helps in widening the references or
precedents which is an essential component of the creative process.
5) Acquire knowledge about past innovative engineers and their personal
philosophy.
6) Trace the development of theoretical concepts and code provisions.
7) Acquire knowledge from other field outside his expertise like that of
architectural ideas and electrical, mechanical and plumping services.
Teaching in architectural schools

182

10.2. Recommendations on skill development in educational institues and

professional firms
The creative skill development of the engineers are influenced by their educational
background and formative years of their career as evident form the Chapter 8.2.
Educational institutes and professional firms plays an important role in this respect.
1) Along with regular focus on analytical and dimensioning part of structural
design, the educational institutes should concentrate more on developing
conceptual and creative aspects of engineering. Professional firms should also
focus on developing conceptual level thinking of young engineers and
trainees rather than emphasizing on analysis.
2) Along with the design part educational institutes should focus on imparting
knowledge to students on material behaviour and structural behaviour of
different forms and relating design with the construction process. Physical
model making and testing along with experimentation in material should be
given emphasis and encouraged. Exposure to construction practices should be
ensured within the regular curriculum. Professional firms should encourage
young engineers to have exposure on constructional practices and relating it
with their design.
3) Interaction between engineering students with architectural professionals and
students should be ensured. Design studio should focus on conceptual design
and interaction between architects. Emphasis should be given on team work
rather than individual work. Professional firms should give good working
environment in which young engineers are able to communicate freely with
the experienced engineers as well as the architects and giving opportunity to
express their creative ideas. Professional firms could also compliment training
studio with their regular projects.
4) Structural criticism of various structures, analogous to architectural criticism
should be developed to improve the analytical capabilities and better
understanding of structural behavior. Professional firms should continuously
evaluate the young engineers work and give them critical appraisal.
5) History of Art of engineering should be considered in the curriculum by
studying the innovative engineers and by tracing the development of

183

theoretical concepts and code provisions. Professional firms should

encourage the young engineers to appraise the code provisions with design
and construction problems related to the new projects.

184

11. Future Scope

Many possible investigation on the structural engineering profession similar to the
present study could be done.
1) Detailed investigation on professional aspects and technical aspects of
structural failures of different structures of the past can be carried out.
Theoretical and codal developments based on the failures also can be traced
out. The recent advancements in the computer modelling can be made use for
the analysis. This type of study helps to avoid future failures.
2) Detailed investigation on historical structures standing safely for centuries
withstanding the deadliest forces of the nature, can be carried out. The
conceptual design and methods of construction adopted without the use of
advanced engineering science can be traced out. The advanced computer
modelling techniques can be used to analyze these structures. This type of
study can contribute to the theoretical advancements and rehabilitation
techniques of historical structures.
3) Comparison of different forms and structural systems relating with economic,
efficient and symbolic aspects of structural design can be done.
4) Structural design can contribute in many ways to the growing sustainable
concerns of the society. Investigation on this direction using different
structural materials and forms could be done.

185

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187

Appendix
A1.Questionnaire for Structural Engineers on relationships between
Structural Engineers and Architects
As a part of my final semester M.Tech (structural design, CEPT University) thesis, I
would like to have survey on the inter-disciplinary relationships. Please answer the
following questions.

1) How many years have you been practising structural engineering since
graduation?

.. Years

2) Over the last two years, approximately what percentage of your time have been
spent on following construction
Low rise (< 4 storeys):

Medium rise (<= 8 storeys):

High rise (> 8 storeys):

Total

100 %

3) Over the last two years, what type of building have you been involved with?
Housing:

. %

Commercial:

. %

Industrial:

. %

Public:

. %

Educational:

. %

Bridges:

. %

Others:

. %

Total

100 %

4) Over the last two years, approximately what percentage of project have you been
involved with architects?
.

5) Who are the other collaborators you are involved with?

6) Approximately how many architects have you worked with since graduation?
188

Tick any
1-5

6-10

11-20

Over 20 .
7) What percentage of your time spent working with Architects is spent on the
following stages of construction?
Feasibility/ conceptual:

Detailed design:

Supervision or observation:

Total

100 %

Based on the scale, please answer the following questions:

1

2 3 4

Not at all true

5
moderately true

6 7 8 9
definitely true

8) I am more comfortable doing projects without architects

123456789
9) Architects have an adequate understanding of structural behaviour: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
89
10) Architects seek structural advice before they have tried to finalise the structural
configuration:
123456789
11) Architects are generally receptive to structural requirements: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
12) Architects are generally receptive to structural requirements of seismic design:
123456789
13) Architects are aware of architectural implications of seismic design:
123456789

14) What do you perceive to be the weakness in architects structural approaches or

knowledge?
..

189

15) What message, if any, would you as a structural engineer like architects to hear?
.

16) Do you have any comments regarding your own architectural knowledge and
education?

17) Suggestion for improving collaboration of architects and engineers

..

Thank you for your time in completing this questionnaire.

190

A2.Questionnaire for Architects on relationships between Structural Engineers

and Architects
As a part of my final semester M.Tech (structural design, CEPT University) thesis, I
would like to have survey on the inter-disciplinary relationships. Please answer the
following questions.
1) How many years have you been practicing structural Architecture since
graduation?

.. Years

2) Over the last two years, approximately what percentage of your time have been
spent on following construction
Low rise (< 4 storeys):

Medium rise (<= 8 storeys):

High rise (> 8 storeys):

Total

100 %

3) Over the last two years, what type of building have you been involved with?
Housing:

. %

Commercial:

. %

Industrial:

. %

Public:

. %

Educational:

. %

Bridges:

. %

Others:

. %

Total

100 %

4) Over the last two years, approximately what percentage of project have you been
involved with Structural Engineers?
.

5) Approximately how many Structural Enginers have you worked with since
graduation?
Tick any
1-5

6-10

11-20

Over 20 .
6) What percentage of your time spent working with Structural engineer is spent on
the following stages of construction?

191

Feasibility/ conceptual:

Detailed design:

Supervision or observation:

Total

100 %

Based on the scale, please answer the following questions:

1

2 3 4

Not at all true

5
moderately true

6 7 8 9
definitely true

7) I am more comfortable doing projects where structural engineer is not present in

the conceptual design stage
123456789
8) Structural engineers and I collaborate well together : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9) Structural engineers produce structural solutions in keeping with my design ideas
:123456789
10) Structural engineers generally appreciate architectural requirements: 1 2 3 4 5 6
789
11) Structural engineers generally come up with creative solutions to architectural
ideas :
123456789
12) Structural engineers communicate structural requirements clearly :
123456789
13) Most critical phase of structural engineers input into a design is during the
preliminary design phase when structural layout or configuration is finalized:
123456789

14) What do you perceive to be the weakness in structural engineers approaches or

knowledge?
..

192

15) What message, if any, would you as an architect like structural engineers to hear?
.

16) Do you have any comments regarding your own structural engineering
knowledge and education?

17) Suggestion for improving collaboration of architects and engineers

..

Thank you for your time in completing this questionnaire.

193

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