Department of Mechanical, Materials & Manufacturing Engineering

Material Models and Modes of Failure - MM4MMM

Convenor: Dr W Sun (Coates Building B68, w.sun@nottingham.ac.uk)

CREEP DAMAGE MECHNICS & APPLICATIONS

1.

CONCEPT OF CONTINUUM DAMAGE MECHANICS

The definition of a mechanical damage variable itself presents a difficult problem.

There is almost nothing that macroscopically distinguishes a highly damaged volume
element and a virgin one. It is therefore necessary to imagine internal variables which
are representative of the deteriorated state of the material.
A method to consider the degradation of constitutive properties, integrated with a
theory for life prediction is provided by the method of continuum damage mechanics
(CDM). The original ideas of Kachanov [1], is inspired by the observation that, at
temperatures above about Tm/2, grain boundary cavities form with time. The cavities
nucleate, grow and eventually coalesce to form a major crack which leads to final
creep rupture. In order to consider the influence of the grain boundary cavities, a net
stress, ~ , and a damage variable, , are introduced; for a virgin material, = 0 and
for rupture = 1. The net stress, which might be visualized as the load on the
remaining load bearing cross section of the material, is related to the stress by
~

1
Thus, for a virgin material without cavities, the net stress equals the acting stress. At
rupture no load bearing area remains and the net stress tends to infinity when 1.
Kachanov assumes the damage growth law

where C and are material constants. With a known (t), the above equation provides
a separable differential equation for (t). With the initial condition (0) = 0 and the
rupture criteria (t ) = 1, integration yields
t*

C(1 ) ( t ) dt 1
0

This equation provides an implicit expression for the time to rupture t* under varying
stress. If the stress is constant, the remaining integral is readily evaluated and the
time to rupture is given by
1
tR
C( 1)
Thus, the theory predicts an exponential relation between tR and which is indeed
often observed. From this equation, the material constants C and can be determined
from experiments performed with constant stress.
53

2.

CREEP DAMAGE MECHANICS MODELS

2.1

Single Damage Parameter Equations

2.1.1 Kachanov creep-damage model

The multiaxial form of this model, which was first proposed by Kachanov [1] and
Robotnov [2], is as follows:-

3
A eq
2 1
c
ij

where
and

Sij m

t

eq

(1a)

r m
B
t
1

(1b)

r 1 1 eq

(1c)

where 1 and eq are the maximum principal and von Mises equivalent stresses,
respectively, and is a material constant which is related to the tri-axial stress state
of the material.
Equation (1a) describes how the creep strain components are related to the state of
stress and damage, and equation (1b) is the damage evolution law; A , n , m , B ,
and are material constants, t is time, r is the rupture-stress and is the damage
variable ( 0 1 ). The initial value of the damage variable is zero, representing the
case in which no damage is present. As creep occurs, the damage variable increases
until its value reaches unity, at which time the material is fully damaged and has
therefore failed.
The uniaxial form of equation (1a) is:n
m

c
A
(2a)
t
1
If m is zero, i.e., primary creep is considered to be negligible, then equation (2a)
simplifies to:-

c A

For a uniaxial stress situation, the rupture stress, r , in equation (1c) is simply the
applied uniaxial stress, i.e.,

Therefore, for the uniaxial stress case, equation (1b) is:54

(2b)

2.1.2 Liu and Murakami creep-damage model

The multiaxial form of this model, which was proposed by Liu and Murakami [3] is as
follows: ijc =

Sij
2(n 2 + 1)

3
3
C eq n2
exp
. 1 . 2
2
eq
eq
1 + 3n

(2a)

where
and

1 e
q2

q2

p
r

e q 2

r 1 1 eq

(3b)
(3c)

Equation (3a) describes how the creep strain rate components are related to the state
of stress and damage, and equation (3b) is the damage evolution law; C , n 2 , D , p
and q 2 are material constants. The uniaxial form of equation (3a) is:-

2
n

1
2
c C n2 exp
. 2
1 3

n2

(4a)

and the uniaxial form of equation (3b) is:-

2.2

1 e
q2

q2

e q 2

(4b)

Three Damage Parameter Equations

The multiaxial form of the Dyson [4] two damage parameter creep damage model is
as follows:d ijc 3 Sij
B eq 1 H
A sinh

(5a)

dt
2 eq
(1 )(1 2 )

B eq 1 H
dH
h
A
H

sinh
1 *
n
dt
eq 1 2
1 H

(5b)

d K c
1 4

dt
3

(5c)

55

DAK c
d 2

dt
1 2 n

eq

B 1 H
N sinh eq

(5d)

The Dyson model differs from those of Kachanov [1] and Liu and Murakami [3] in a
number of important ways. Firstly, the Dyson model has a sinh relationship between
the creep strain rate and the stress, whereas the Kachanov and the Liu and Murakami
models are power law relationships. Secondly, the Dyson model has three material
variables, i.e., (i) the strain-hardening variable, H, which evolves during the primary
creep period, and has a saturation value of H*, (ii) the ageing damage parameter, ,
which has an initial value of 0 and increases with time to a limiting value of unity, and
(iii) the cavitation damage parameter, 2, where the initial value is 0 and the
maximum value for a uniaxial stress state is 0.33. Also, the Dyson multiaxiality
constant, , is included in the cavitation damage function and is of the form (1/ eq)
whereas the Kachanov and Liu and Murakami multiaxiality constant, , is usually
included in a function of the form (1+(1-)eq). N = 1, 1 > 0 (tensile) and N = 0, 1
< 0 (compressive). A, B, h, H*, Kc, D and are material constants, where is related
to tri-axial stress state sensitivity of the material.
The uniaxial form of equations (5a) to (5d) is: B 1 H
d c
A sinh

dt
1 2 1

dH h d c
H

dt dt H *
d K c
1 4

dt
3
B 1 H
d 2
DA sinh

dt
1 2 1
2.3

(6a)
(6b)
(6c)
(6d)

Determination of Material Properties for Damage Equations

For relatively simple one state variable, Kachanov equations, equations (1), the
material constants A, n, m, B, and can be determined directly by fitting the uniaxial
strain-time equation to a number of uniaxial strain-time curves, obtained from creep
tests at a given temperature, while the tri-axial parameter for parent and weld
materials can be determined from the FE modelling of the respective notched bar
creep rupture tests, using the already determined constants, A, n, m, B, and . The
value can be obtained from notch bar tests from the test life and FE analyses of the
notch bar, using a range of assumed values. The correct value is then obtained by
comparison between the modelling and experimental rupture life results. The detailed
procedure for material property generation, based on creep test results, has been
reported previously [e.g. 5]. In order to improve the efficiency and accuracy,
sometimes an optimization procedure can be used to fit the theoretical creep straintime curves to the experimental uniaxial creep curves with the objective function being
similar to the following:56

2 pre
pre
exp
exp
exp 2
j j
i | t f i t f i | / t f i min

i 1
i
j1

k1

where k1 and k2 are the number of creep test curves and the number of points on each
curve. pre and exp are the predicted and experimental values of creep strain, and tfpre
and tfexp are the predicted and experimental creep rupture times. is a scaling or an
amplification factor. An example of the uniaxial fitting for a P91 steel at 650 oC is
shown in Figure 1.

0.5
70 MPa
82 MPa
87 MPa
93 MPa
100 MPa
Fitted

Strain

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

Time (hrs)
Figure 1 Tested and fitted uniaxial creep strain curves of a P91 steel at
650o C for the Kachanov equation.

3.

APPLICATIONS TO POWER PLANT AND AERO-ENGINE COMPONENTS

(CASE STUDIES)

3.1

A Welded IN718 Component (an aero-engine casing)

A two-material (IN718 weld and parent), three-dimensional quasi-static elastic-plastic

and Kachanov creep damage FE analysis was conducted [5] for a life prediction case
study of a welded feature in a thin-section aero engine spoke structure under a
constant load at 620C, Figure 2.
A large amount of stress relaxation through creep was predicted, Figure 3. The peak
local creep strain was greatest in the weld, but this was not the region of failure, since
higher stresses elsewhere caused the most creep damage. The life of the welded case
increased due to greater stress relaxation in the weld, which caused the failure
location to shift into an area that experienced lower stress than the failure location of
the base case, Figure 4. However, it should be noted that the base case used
properties obtained from wrought material, but this particular geometry cannot be
manufactured without casting or welding, and the heat-affected zone was not included
in the model. Also, the predicted peak creep strain is very high in the weld and this
may cause failure before the creep damage parameter indicates.
57

Constrained in all directions

Loaded
surface

Constrained in T-direction

Weld

Constrained in all directions

Figure 2 FE model of one-spoke section showing the weld and the boundary and
loading conditions.

Stress (MPa)

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 3 Rupture stress: (a) base case immediately after loading,

(b) base case at failure (
), (c) welded case at failure (
).

(a)

(b)

137h

365h

Figure 4 Damage, close-up of failure positions (in red) (a) base case, (b) welded
case.
3.2

P91 Welds

This section presents a Kachanov creep damage analysis of a realistic circumferential

weld in a P91 steel powerplant steam pipe, that included parent (P), heat-affected
zone (HAZ), columnar weld (CW) and weaker equiaxed weld (EW) regions, subjected
to an internal pressure, pi, and an end load, ax at 650C (Figure 5(a)). An optical,
58

macro-section of a main steam pipe weld, showing structural zones within the weld
metal is given in Figure 5(b).
In Figure 6(a) it can be seen that the highest steady-state stresses occurred in the
columnar regions of the weld metal. In this study, significant damage was predicted to
occur within the HAZ and the weld metal adjacent to the columnar boundaries (Figure
6(b)); this is because the equiaxed region in this weld is the weakest material in the
weldment [6,7]. This work clearly illustrates the possible failure modes which can only
be predicted when detailed modelling of weld beads and sub-region properties are
included.
w

CW

HAZ

FGEW

ax

CGEW

h
P

ax

pi

Figure 5(a) Schematic diagram of an

axisymmetric, circumferential pipe weld,
subjected to internal pressure, pi, and end
load, ax (OD = 255mm, WT = 30mm).

Figure 6(a) Examples of rupture stress

contour (MPa) obtained from steadystate analyses for a P91 pipe weld with
inhomogeneous weld metal, variations
in the properties of beads and submaterial regions are included.

3.3

Figure 5(b) Optical, macro-section of a

main steam pipe weld, showing
structural zones within the weld metal.

Figure 6(b) Examples of damage

contours close to failure for a P91
pipe weld with inhomogeneous
weld metal, where variations in the
properties of beads and submaterial regions are included.

Creep Crack Growth

59

Creep CDM can be used to map out damage development over time and to determine
specific failure (i.e. fully damaged) locations and times for identifying crack initiation.
By analyzing the direction and growth rate of damage development, and the spread of
regions of failure, predictions of creep crack growth speed and direction may also be
made. For example, this method has been used as a means for predicting the initiation
and growth of creep cracks in the heat-affected zones of weldments and for estimating
the length of time a weld can safely be left in service, after damage or cracking is
indentified during inspection.
An advantage of using CDM to model creep crack growth is that the FE implementation
is straightforward and a crack face doesn't have to be introduced as required in a
fracture mechanics approach. Instead, a "crack" may open by artificially reducing the
elastic stiffness at failed material points, which can be implemented automatically
during the analysis. There is no need to use special techniques such as remeshing,
meshless or the extended finite element method (XFEM) to model the discontinuity in
the displacement field across the crack face and a crack propagation analysis may be
run without user intervention.
FE Liu and Murakami creep CDM analyses have been performed to model the creep
crack growth in compact tension (CT) specimens under constant load. When the
damage at a material point reached a critical value indicating failure (e.g.
= 0.99),
the element containing that point was assumed to have fractured, the material
modulus of elasticity was set to zero and the crack length was assumed to have
increased by the length of the element.
FE creep crack predictions compared to experiments via photo images, for 316
stainless steel dog bone thumbnail crack specimens, Figure 7(a), tested at 600C, with
different constant loads and for different durations [8] can be seen in Figure 7(b). A
good level of accuracy of the predictions of crack front shape (i.e. = 0.99 zone) and
extent of creep crack growth can be observed.

Figure 7(a) Thumbnail crack specimen (a) geometry, and (b) crack profile.

60

Figure 7(b) FE creep crack growth predictions compared to experimental results.

FE damage mechanics modeling has been used to predict creep crack growth in welds
[9,10]. Such analyses are capable of predicting fracture surfaces, creep fracture
parameter C* (contour integrals) and failure lifetimes. An example of the creep crack
growth modeling carried out for a compact tension (CT) specimen, made from a P91
weldment and tested at 650oC, is given here. The dimensions of the CT specimens are
shown in Figure 8. The CT specimen is subjected to a constant load, P, which is
applied through the two pins in the direction perpendicular to the crack, a. In this
case, the Lui and Murakami damage model, Eqns. (3), was adopted; from which it had
shown that the predictions are relatively mesh insensitive and are therefore capable of
producing realistic results for damage accumulation near the crack front. Figure 9
shows typical fracture surfaces in a parent material CT specimen and a weld CT
specimen removed from the P91 weldment. Figure 10 shows an example of the
predicted fracture surface for the parent material specimen (Figure 9(a), P = 5000 N).
It can be seen that the predicted fracture surface of the compact tension specimen
agrees well with the actual fracture surface obtained from the corresponding
experimental test, indicating the excellent capability of the modeling approach. In
particular, the crack tunneling and maximum crack depth are accurately predicted.
The excellent correlation achieved between experimental data and computed crack
length versus time for a P91 steel CT specimen at 650C can be seen in Figure 11 [9].
40
8

17.6

38.4
a

32

Figure 8 Compact tension (CT) specimen (dimensions in mm).

61

(a)

(b)

Figure 9 Fracture surfaces of P91 CT

specimens: (a) plane parent material
specimen; (b) weld specimen with side
grooves.

Figure 10 FE damage contours

for plane CT specimen made
from P91 parent material.

Figure 11 Creep crack growth tested and predicted for a P91

CT specimen at 650oC.

REFERENCES
[1]

Kachanov, L. M., "Theory of creep (English translation edited by A. J. Kennedy)", National lending library,
Boston Spa., 1960.

[2]

Robotnov, Y. N., "Creep Problems of Structural Members (English translation edited by F. A. Leckie)", North Holland
(Amsterdam), 1969.

[3]

Liu Y. and Murakami S. Damage localization of conventional creep damage models and proposition of a new
model for creep damage analysis JSME International Journal Series A, Solid Mechanics and Material
Engineering 41, 57-65, 1998.

[4]

Dyson B. Use of CDM in Materials Modeling and Component Creep Life Prediction Journal of Pressure Vessel
Technology 122, 281-96, 2000.

[5]

Tanner D.W.J., Becker A.A. and Hyde T.H. High temperature life prediction of a welded IN718 component
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 181 012028, 2009.

62

[6]

Hyde T. H. and Sun W., A study of anisotropic creep behaviour of a 9CrMoNbV weld metal using damage
analyses with a unit cell model, J. of Materials: Design & Applications 219 (4), 193-206, 2006.

[7]

Hyde T. H. and Sun W., Creep failure behaviour of a P91 pipe weldment with an anisotropic weld metal under
internal pressure and end load, J. of Materials: Design & Applications 220 (2), 147-162, 2006.

[8]

Hyde C. J., Hyde T. H., Sun W. and Becker A. A. Damage mechanics based predictions of creep crack growth in a
316 stainless steel. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 77 (12), 2385-2402, 2010.

[9]

Hyde T. H., Saber M. and Sun W. Testing and modelling of creep crack growth in compact tension specimens
from a P91 weld at 650oC. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 77 (15), 2946-2957, 2010.

[10] Hyde T. H. and Sun W. Some issues on creep damage modelling of welds with heterogeneous structures. Int. J.
Mech. Mater. Des. 5 (4), 327-335, 2009.

63