Department of Mechanical, Materials & Manufacturing Engineering

Material Models and Modes of Failure MM4MMM

Convenor: Dr W Sun (Coates Building B68, w.sun@nottingham.ac.uk)

IMPACT
These notes are based upon the recommended textbook, Structural Impact by N Jones
(Cambridge University Press). All figures are reproduced from this text.

Phenomenon
Single pulse load (not repeated loading as per vibrations studies). In this case the
force and reaction are not equal and opposite due to inertia effects (the stress wave
propagates in the structure at a speed of

1
(E g / ) 2

i.e. the speed of stress waves in steel and aluminium are roughly equal at 5100m/s.
Effect of Strain rate on materials properties
Compression
Figure shows Mild Steel under uniaxial compression for a range of strain rates. The
dynamic flow stress is double the static flow stress at 20s-1. Units are imperial so
multiply by 6.9 to get MPa.

(MPa)
20 s 1
400

200

Static

90

Figure shows (a) Titanium and (b) 6061-T6 Aluminium under a range of compressive
strain rates. The strain rate effects on titanium are much less marked than for mild
steel and T6061-T6 Aluminium does not display any strain rate sensitivity for the
range of strain rates considered.

Tension
Figure shows Mild Steel under tension. Strain rate effects are less marked than
compression (units are imperial).
A strain rate =106 s-1
B strain rate =55 s-1
C strain rate =2 s-1
D strain rate =0.22 s-1
E strain rate =0.001 s-1

(MPa)
400

106 s 1

Static
200

91

Yield Criteria
Figure shows effect of combined shear and direct stress. Circles represent static
loading and triangles are dynamic (where the numbers are time to yielding in
seconds) The line represents the von Mises envelope and it will be seen that the von
Mises envelope grows isotropically with strain rate.

Figure shows effect of combined axial and hoop stress. Squares represent static loads
and circles dynamic. The ellipse is a von Mises envelope which grows in a non
isotropic manner with rate.

Material Model
92

The Cowper-Symonds equation is a useful empirical material model.

D o 1
o

o
o

dynamic flow stress at given rate

static flow stress

D, q material constants

log e q log e o 1 log e D

o

1 versus log e
i.e. straight line when log e
o

is plotted. q is slope, loge D is

intercept.

o

1
o
D

1
q

material

D (s-1)

o' / o

Mild Steel

40

Aluminium alloy

6500

- Titanium (Ti50A)

120

Stainless steel 504

100

10

Calculate
using the
above
equation with
known rate
value to
assess
sensitivity

log
q

Log D

'o

log
1
o

93

Buckling
Buckling of shells (thin walled structures) (Euler buckling considered a gross structural
collapse)- Quasi static shell buckling of circular & square section tubes

The nine figures from left to right represent points 1 to 9 on the load vs. deflection
curve.

94

The figure shows different modes of failure.

The left hand tube represents axisymmetric
failure and the two on the right non
axisymmetric

The figure shows the relationship between tube length L and wall thickness H
(normalised wrt R the cylinder radius) and the mode of failure. Clearly the upper part
(overall buckling) of the figure can be determined using Eulers critical load.

95

Effect of material strain rate

sensitivity
The figure shows typical different
modes of failure seen at quasi
static(right) and dynamic rates
(left).
Note that the dynamic
rates are not high enough to
induce
inertia
effects.
The
difference is due to the strain
rate sensitivity of the material.
Effects of inertia
In the left figure the inertia is significant and results in a different mode of failure.

Energy absorption mechanisms/failure of metallic tubes

Energy is absorbed through the work done in plastic deformation of the material progressive plastic folding. Energy absorption tends to increase with impact velocity,
strength, thickness, and lower temperature

96

Progressive plastic folding

Pm

Alexander
published
a
simple
analytical solution which assumed
the tube was made from a rigid,
perfectly plastic material and used
the
simplified
axisymmetric
deformation pattern with plastic
hinges illustrated in the figure (this
collapse pattern is an idealisation of
the actual behaviour - the profile of
the folded parts of the tube is curved
rather than straight).

A
l
Hinges

C
l

Pm

The mean crushing force is approximated by equating the rate of external work to the
rate of internal energy dissipated for a given crush distance
Internal energy dissipation,
DT = D1 + D2 + D3
where
D1
D2
D3

DT

is the energy absorbed in the formation of one wrinkle by plastic energy at the
two hinges A and C;
is the energy absorbed in the formation of the axisymetric plastic hinge at B;
is the energies absorbed in AB and BC as a result of circumferential stretching.

2 o H 2 R l
3

2 o l 2 H

and the external work done is Pm x 2l, and hence equation (1) can be derived,

Pm

3
2

1
2

2(H ) R o
3

1
4

(1)

where, o is the yield stress of the material.

97

In the case of dynamic loading, it is necessary to modify equation (1) to account for
strain rate sensitive materials. This can be achieved by modifying the plastic flow
stress term to cater for the enhancement of the flow stress with strain rate. Replacing
the static flow stress ( o ) in equation (1) by the Cowper-Symonds dynamic flow stress
then we get equation (2),
1

V0 q

2(H ) R o 1

4 RD

Pm
1
3
2

1
2

(2)

34
where D and q are constants for the tube material.
This simple model was later improved upon to give a more accurate representation of
the folding of the tube wall as progressive buckling occurs. Figure below shows the
improved geometric representation of the buckling tube.

H
R

H/2
xm
xm

This new geometry leads to the replacement of equations (1) and (2) with equations
(3) and (4).

Pm

1
2

2H R 0
3
2

2
H

3 0.86 0.37

1
4

(3)

98

V0 q

2H R 0 1

4 RD

Pm
1

1
H 2
4
3 0.86 0.37

3
2

1
2

(4)

The axial collapse of square section tubes is more complex than that of circular section
tubes because the stability of the column can be affected by the wavelength of the
folds produced during the crush. The wavelength is set by the tube geometry so that
the range of tube sizes over which stable crush may be obtained will be affected by
the tube length.
Analytical solutions for square section tubes have been derived to predict the mean
crushing loads both quasi-statically and dynamically (Equations (5) and (6)
respectively) using the same approach as for circular section tubes,
1

Pm
52.22(W / H ) 3
Mo
1

(5)
1

Pm
52.22(W / H ) 3 [1 (0.33Vo / WD) q ]
Mo
where,

Mo

(6)

oH 2
4

99