Your Guide to the Female Reproductive System

What Parts Make up the Female Anatomy?

What Happens During the Menstrual Cycle?

Follicular Phase of the Menstrual Cycle

Ovulatory Phase of the Menstrual Cycle

Luteal Phase of the Menstrual Cycle

How Many Eggs Does a Woman Have?

The female reproductive system is designed to carry out several functions. It produces the
female egg cells necessary for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes. The system is designed to
transport the ova to the site of fertilization. Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm,
normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The next step for the fertilized egg is to implant into the walls of
the uterus, beginning the initial stages of pregnancy. If fertilization and/or implantation does not
take place, the system is designed to menstruate (the monthly shedding of the uterine lining). In
addition, the female reproductive system produces female sex hormones that maintain the
reproductive cycle.
What Parts Make up the Female Anatomy?
The female reproductive anatomy includes parts inside and outside the body.

The function of the external female reproductive structures (the genitals) is twofold: To enable sperm
to enter the body and to protect the internal genital organs from infectious organisms. The main
external structures of the female reproductive system include:

Labia majora: The labia majora enclose and protect the other external
reproductive organs. Literally translated as "large lips," the labia majora
are relatively large and fleshy, and are comparable to the scrotum in
males. The labia majora contain sweat and oil-secreting glands. After
puberty, the labia majora are covered with hair.

Labia minora: Literally translated as "small lips," the labia minora can be
very small or up to 2 inches wide. They lie just inside the labia majora,
and surround the openings to the vagina (the canal that joins the lower
part of the uterus to the outside of the body) and urethra (the tube that
carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body).

Bartholin's glands: These glands are located beside the vaginal

opening and produce a fluid (mucus) secretion.

Clitoris: The two labia minora meet at the clitoris, a small, sensitive
protrusion that is comparable to the penis in males. The clitoris is
covered by a fold of skin, called the prepuce, which is similar to the

foreskin at the end of the penis. Like the penis, the clitoris is very
sensitive to stimulation and can become erect.
The internal reproductive organs in the female include:

Vagina: The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of
uterus) to the outside of the body. It also is known as the birth canal.

Uterus (womb): The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that is the

home to a developing fetus. The uterus is divided into two parts: the
cervix, which is the lower part that opens into the vagina, and the main
body of the uterus, called the corpus. The corpus can easily expand to
hold a developing baby. A channel through the cervix allows sperm to
enter and menstrual blood to exit.

Ovaries: The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on
either side of the uterus. The ovaries produce eggs and hormones.

Fallopian tubes: These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper
part of the uterus and serve as tunnels for the ova (egg cells) to travel
from the ovaries to the uterus. Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a
sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg then
moves to the uterus, where it implants into the lining of the uterine wall.

What Happens During the Menstrual Cycle?

Females of reproductive age experience cycles of hormonal activity that repeat at about one-month
intervals. With every cycle, a woman's body prepares for a potential pregnancy, whether or not that is
the woman's intention. The term menstruation refers to the periodic shedding of the uterine lining.
(Menstru means "monthly.'')
The average menstrual cycle takes about 28 days and occurs in phases: the follicular phase, the
ovulatory phase (ovulation), and the luteal phase.
There are four major hormones (chemicals that stimulate or regulate the activity of cells or organs)
involved in the menstrual cycle: follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, estrogen, and
progesterone
Follicular Phase of the Menstrual Cycle
This phase starts on the first day of your period. During the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, the
following events occur:

Two hormones, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing

hormone (LH), are released from the brain and travel in the blood to the
ovaries.

The hormones stimulate the growth of about 15 to 20 eggs in the ovaries,

each in its own "shell," called a follicle.

These hormones (FSH and LH) also trigger an increase in the production
of the female hormone estrogen.

As estrogen levels rise, like a switch, it turns off the production of folliclestimulating hormone. This careful balance of hormones allows the body
to limit the number of follicles that mature.

As the follicular phase progresses, one follicle in one ovary becomes

dominant and continues to mature. This dominant follicle suppresses all
of the other follicles in the group. As a result, they stop growing and die.
The dominant follicle continues to produce estrogen.

Ovulatory Phase of the Menstrual Cycle

The ovulatory phase, or ovulation, starts about 14 days after the follicular phase started. The
ovulatory phase is the midpoint of the menstrual cycle, with the next menstrual period starting about
two weeks later. During this phase, the following events occur:

The rise in estrogen from the dominant follicle triggers a surge in the
amount of luteinizing hormone that is produced by the brain.

This causes the dominant follicle to release its egg from the ovary.

As the egg is released (a process called ovulation), it is captured by

finger-like projections on the end of the fallopian tubes (fimbriae). The
fimbriae sweep the egg into the tube.

Also during this phase, there is an increase in the amount and thickness
of mucus produced by the cervix (lower part of the uterus). If a woman
were to have intercourse during this time, the thick mucus captures the
man's sperm, nourishes it, and helps it to move towards the egg for
fertilization.

Luteal Phase of the Menstrual Cycle

The luteal phase of the menstrual cycle begins right after ovulation and involves the following
processes:

Once it releases its egg, the empty follicle develops into a new structure
called the corpus luteum.

The corpus luteum secretes the hormone progesterone. Progesterone

prepares the uterus for a fertilized egg to implant.

If intercourse has taken place and a man's sperm has fertilized the egg (a
process called conception), the fertilized egg (embryo) will travel through
the fallopian tube to implant in the uterus. The woman is now considered
pregnant.

If the egg is not fertilized, it passes through the uterus. Not needed to
support a pregnancy, the lining of the uterus breaks down and sheds, and
the next menstrual period begins.

How Many Eggs Does a Woman Have?

The vast majority of the eggs within the ovaries steadily die, until they are depleted at
menopause. At birth, there are approximately 1 million to 2 million eggs; by the time of
puberty, only about 300,000 remain. Of these, only about 500 will be ovulated during a
woman's reproductive lifetime. Any remaining eggs gradually die out at menopause

(http://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/guide/your-guide-female-reproductivesystem?page=4 )

Hukum Pendermaan Rahim

Muzakarah

Perubatan

Add new comment

5499 reads
Tarikh Keputusan:
22 Oct, 2014
Tarikh Mula Muzakarah:
21 Oct, 2014
Tarikh Akhir Muzakarah:

22 Oct, 2014
Oleh:
Muzakarah Kali Ke-106

Keputusan

Keputusan
Muzakarah Jawatankuasa Fatwa Majlis Kebangsaan Bagi Hal Ehwal Ugama Islam Malaysia Kali Ke-106 yang
bersidang pada 21 - 22 Oktober 2014 telah membincangkan Hukum Pendermaan Rahim. Muzakarah telah
membuat keputusan seperti berikut:

1. Setelah mendengar pembentangan dan meneliti laporan penyelidikan yang telah disediakan oleh Kumpulan
Penyelidik daripada Universiti Malaya (UM) dan meneliti fakta-fakta, hujah-hujah dan pandangan yang
dikemukakan, Muzakarah bersetuju menerima dan memperakukan hasil penyelidikan yang telah dikemukakan.

2. Berdasarkan dapatan penyelidikan tersebut, Muzakarah mendapati bahawa:

i. Hukum asal pendermaan dan pemindahan rahim adalah haram dan tujuan untuk mendapatkan zuriat hanyalah
bersifat takmiliyyah iaitu sebagai pelengkap kehidupan berkeluarga.

ii. Keperluan mendapatkan zuriat melalui pendermaan dan pemindahan rahim di Malaysia belum berada pada
tahap darurah.

iii. Keperluan mendapatkan zuriat melalui pembedahan dan pemindahan rahim bagi wanita yang mempunyai
rahim yang bermasalah atau tidak mempunyai rahim hanya sekadar berada pada tahap tahsiniyyat.

3. Sehubungan itu, Muzakarah bersetuju memutuskan bahawa hukum pendermaan dan pemindahan rahim
adalah tidak harus kerana keperluannya belum mencapai tahap dharurah yang boleh membenarkan
sesuatu perkara yang diharamkan.

Keterangan/Hujah:

1. Hukum pendermaan dan pemindahan rahim tidak pernah dibincangkan oleh para ulama klasik secara
langsung. Namun, antara perbincangan yang paling hampir dengan hukum pendermaan dan pemindahan rahim
adalah mengenai hukum mengkasi kerana ia melibatkan organ reproduktif. Hukum ini disebut ketika mereka
membincangkan mengenai tindakan mengubah ciptaan Allah SWT dalam surah al-Nisa, ayat 119 dan hadith
mengenai larangan mengkasi. Ia dibincangkan oleh al-Tabari, Ibn al-Arabi, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, al-Qastalani
dan al-Mubarakfuri .

2. Para ulama kontemporari pula bersepakat bahawa hukum asal pendermaan dan pemindahan organ
reproduktif rahim adalah haram. Hujah yang digunakan adalah dengan mengqiyaskan larangan perbuatan albatk (

: memotong telinga binatang), perbuatan al-wasilah (menyambung rambut), perbuatan al-washirah (

: menjarakkan gigi) dan perbuatan al-washimah ( : membuat tatu) kerana ia boleh menyebabkan
pengubahan ciptaan Allah SWT. Ia juga melibatkan maruah dan mencampakkan diri ke dalam kebinasaan,
selain dari ia termasuk menjual sesuatu yang tidak dimiliki.

3. Walau bagaimanapun, dalam kes pendermaan dan pemindahan rahim bagi tujuan mendapat zuriat, mereka
berbeza pandangan dalam menentukan tahap keperluan mendapatkan zuriat bagi wanita yang mempunyai
rahim yang bemasalah atau tidak mempunyai rahim. Pendapat pertama, jika keperluannya mencapai tahap
dharurah, ia diharuskan berdasarkan kaedah umum bahawa keadaan dharurah boleh menghalalkan sesuatu
perkara yang diharamkan. Pendapat kedua, keperluan mendapatkan zuriat melalui pembedahan dan
pemindahan rahim bagi wanita yang mempunyai rahim yang bermasalah atau tidak mempunyai rahim hanya
sekadar berada pada tahap tahsiniyyat. Hujah mereka, ia boleh diqiyaskan kepada hukum haram
penyewaan rahim yang menyebabkan berlakunya percampuran nasab. Ia juga akan membawa kepada
masalah sosial dan masalah kemandulan kekal kepada penderma di samping ia membawa kehinaan (

) kepada penderma dan penerima.

4. Keperluan mendapatkan zuriat melalui pendermaan dan pemindahan rahim di Malaysia belum berada pada
tahap dharurah. Ini kerana, masih terdapat alternatif lain seperti pengambilan anak angkat dan poligami.
Apa yang pernah dijalankan di Negara-negara luar masih lagi di peringkat eksperimental yang belum
membawa kepada kelahiran hidup. Pada waktu yang sama, Malaysia belum mempunyai pakar dan teknologi
dalam bidang ini.

5. Pendermaan dan pemindahan rahim dengan tujuan untuk mendapatkan zuriat hanyalah pelengkap
kehidupan berkeluarga (takmiliyyah).

(http://www.e-fatwa.gov.my/kategori-fatwa/perubatan?page=1 )

6.Homo-transplantasi dari manusia dengan organ reproduksi

Dalam kasus ini misalnya donor sepasang testis bagi pria atau donor indung telur bagi perempuan.
Mendonorkan sepasang atau hanya satu bagian memang tidak akan menyebabkan kematian,
namun keduanya dilarang oleh Allah SWT.
Donor kedua testis maupun kedua indung telur, akan mengakibatkan kemandulan; tentu hal ini
bertentangan dengan perintah Islam untuk memelihara keturunan.

Donor hanya 1 bagian, akan mengakibatkan terjadinya pencampur-adukan nasab atau keturunan.
Hal ini dikarenakan sel-sel kelamin yang terdapat dalam organ-organ reproduktif seperti testis
merupakan substansi yang dapat menghasilkan anak, sebab kelahiran manusia berasal dari sel-sel
kelamin. Testis merupakan pabrik penghasil sel sperma dan testis akan tetap menjadi tempat
penyimpanan sel sperma tersebut kendatipun testis itu tetap pada pemiliknya atau pada orang
yang menerima transplantasi.
Atas dasar itu, maka kromosom anak-anak dari penerima transplantasi testis, sebenarnya berasal
dari orang penyumbang testis, sebab testis yang telah dia sumbangkan itulah yang telah
menghasilkan sel-sel sperma yang akhirnya menjadi anak. Karena itu, anak-anak yang dilahirkan
akan mewarisi sifat-sifat dari penyumbang testis dan tidak mewarisi sedikitpun sifat-sifat penerima
sumbangan testis. Jadi pihak penyumbang testislah yang secara biologis menjadi bapak mereka.
Rasulullah saw bersabda:
Barang siapa yang menasabkan dirinya pada selain bapaknya, atau mengurus sesuatu
yang bukan urusannya maka atas orang tersebut adalah laknat Allah, Malaikat dan
seluruh manusia.
Begitu pula dinyatakan oleh beliau saw:
Wanita manapun yang telah mamasukkan nasabnya pada suatu kaum padahal bukan
bagian dari kaum tersebut maka dia terputus dari Allah, dia tidak akan masuk surga;
dan laki-laki manapun yang menolak anaknya padahal dia mengetahui (bahwa anak
tersebut anaknya) maka Allah menghijab Diri-Nya dari laki-laki tersebut, dan Allah akan
menelanjangi (aibnya) dihadapan orang-orang yang terdahulu maupun yang kemudian.

(http://geulis-ayiks.blogspot.my/2013/02/hukum-transplantasi-organ-menurutislam.html )
Reference:

Reproductive System: Facts, Functions and Diseases

by Kim Ann Zimmermann, Live Science Contributor | April 30, 2015 10:44pm
ET

Submit
Reddit

An illustration of a sperm cell penetrating an egg.

Credit: Jezper, Shutterstock
View full size image

The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs in both males and
females that work together for the purpose of procreating, according to the Cleveland
Clinic. Due to its vital role in the survival of the species, many scientists argue that the
reproductive system is among the most important systems in the entire body.

The male reproductive system

Credit: National Institute of Health
View full size image

The male reproductive system consists of two major parts: the testes, where sperm are
produced, and the penis, according to Merck Manuals. The penis and urethra belong to both
the urinary and reproductive systems in males. The testes are carried in an external pouch
known as the scrotum, where they normally remain slightly cooler than body temperature to
facilitate sperm production.
The external structures of the female reproductive system include the clitoris, labia minora,
labia majora and Bartholins glands, according to the Cleveland Clinic. The major internal

organs of the female reproductive system include the vagina and uterus which act as the
receptacle for semen and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. The vagina is
attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the fallopian tubes connect the uterus to the
ovaries. In response to hormonal changes, one ovum, or egg or more in the case of
multiple births is released and sent down the fallopian tube during ovulation. If not
fertilized, this egg is eliminated as a result of menstruation.

The female reproductive system.

Credit: National Institute of Health
View full size image

Fertilization occurs if a sperm enters the fallopian tube and burrows into the egg, according
to WebMD. While the fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, it can also happen in the
uterus itself. The egg then becomes implanted in the lining of the uterus, where it begins the
processes of embryogenesis (in which the embryo forms) and morphogenesis (in which the
fetus begins to take shape). When the fetus is mature enough to survive outside of the womb,
the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus propel it through the birth canal.

Diseases of the female reproductive system

Many parts of the male and female reproductive systems can be affected by cancer. In
females, cancer can attack the uterus, ovaries, breast and cervix, among other organs,
according to the American Cancer Society.
Many experts have seen what they refer to as the Angelina Jolie effect, where women are
taking proactive measures by having breasts and internal reproductive organs removed if they
have a family history of cancer before there are signs of the disease. With better genetic
testing and screening, we have seen a number of women who are being more proactive about
their reproductive health, said Dr. Shana Wingo, who specializes on gynecologic oncology
at Arizona Oncology.
Ovarian cancer tends to have a poorer outcome than other gynecological cancers, Ross noted,
because it is not typically diagnosed until it has progressed significantly. There is no
standard screening available for ovarian cancer, so it is very difficult to identify it early.
Tests to detect ovarian cancer, as well as cancer of the fallopian tube, and primary peritoneal
cancer are currently being studied, according to the National Cancer Institute.
There are two tests used to screen for cervical cancer. The Pap test screens for cellular
changes in the cervix called cytology, while the genital human papillomavirus (HPV) test

identifies the presence of infection with high risk HPV, the strains that are linked to cervical
cancer, according to Dr. Charles Dubin, an OB/GYN in Santa Monica, Calif.
A recent study published by Cancer Cytopathology, found that HPV-only screening misses
more cervical cancer in women than Pap-only or co-testing, based on approximately 8.6
million women ages 30 to 65. There is approximately a three-fold improvement in the cancer
detection rate of co-testing compared to HPV only.
Current guidelines recommend that women first start getting the Pap test alone when they
turn 21 and repeat every three years if the test is normal until age 30. A Pap-plus-HPV test, or
co-testing, is recommended for women ages 30 to 65, and if both are negative repeated every
five years, regardless of whether they have received HPV vaccination. However, there is
compelling scientific evidence that co-testing every three years misses less cases of cancer
and pre-cancer than every five year co-testing, Dubin noted.
While genital HPV is typically associated with females, it is the most common sexually
transmitted infection. The majority of sexually active people in the United States male and
female will have HPV at some time in their lives, but most will not experience any
symptoms. In a small portion of women it can result in cervical cancer and genital warts and
in men it can cause penile and anal cancer and genital warts, according to the NIH.
Both genders can develop sexually transmitted diseases, including genital herpes, gonorrhea
and syphilis, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). HIV/AIDS, a disease of the
immune system, is not exclusively transmitted through sexual contact; sexual activity is one
of the ways that the HIV virus is spread.
For females, severe menstrual cramping, or dysmenorrheal, is the most common disease of
the reproductive system occurs with a womans monthly menstrual period, according to Dr.
Sheryl Ross, OB/GYN and Womens Health Specialist at Providence Saint Johns Health
Center. Ross was also a medical consultant on the books Expecting Fitness and Two at a
Time.
Severe pain before or during your period can last anywhere from one to seven days and
disrupt your normal day-to-day routines at school, work and socially, Ross noted. Diagnosis
is made by the patients medical history and a pelvic exam. The best treatment includes
medications that block the effects of prostaglandins and include ibuprofen and naproxen. The
birth control pill also works well in treating dysmenorrhea by decreasing the blood flow, Ross
noted.
Another common disorder of the female reproductive system is a vaginal yeast infection,
which is caused by a yeast fungus in the vagina. Most can be successfully treated with overthe-counter medications, according to WebMD.
Endometriosis is a condition where that normally lines the inside of your uterus the
endometrium ends up outside of uterus, most commonly in the ovaries, bowel or the tissue
lining your pelvis. The endometrial tissue becomes trapped, causing pain, according to
the Mayo Clinic.
Pelvic inflammatory disease can involve an infection of any of the female reproductive
organs, including the uterus and ovaries. Sexually transmitted diseases, such as gonorrhea and
chlamydia, are typical causes of pelvic inflammatory disease, according to the NIH. Any of

these STIs can cause serious and potentially long term reproductive problems that include
chronic pelvic pain and infertility, Ross said.

Diseases of the male reproductive system

Of male-specific diseases of the reproductive system, prostate cancer is the most common,
but men can also suffer from testicular and penile cancer, according to the American Cancer
Society.
Treatment for prostate cancer depends on the age, severity of the disease and other health
conditions of the patient. The usual treatments for prostate cancer are surgery, radiation
therapy, watchful waiting, and hormonal treatment, according to the Cleveland Clinic.
Erectile dysfunction is a common condition that affects about one in 10 males on a long-term
basis, the Cleveland Clinic noted. It can be linked to vascular disease, neurological disorders
such as Multiple Sclerosis, trauma and psychological episodes.
Prostatitis typically involves swelling or inflammation of the prostate gland, according to the
Mayo Clinic, and can cause painful or difficult urination and ejaculation. Nearly half of all
men experience symptoms of prostatitis at some point during their lives.

Defining and treating infertility

Infertility is defined as a couple's inability to conceive after one year of unprotected
intercourse. It can be caused by a condition in one partner or a combination of circumstances,
according to the Mayo Clinic.
In males, infertility is a condition in which they produce no sperm cells (azoospermia) or too
few sperm cells (oligospermia), or their sperm cells are abnormal or die before they can reach
the egg. Causes range from chromosomal defects to hormonal imbalance to tumors. Lifestyle
factors, such as drug and alcohol use, can also play role. In rare cases, infertility in men is
caused by an inherited condition, such as cystic fibrosis, according to the Mayo Clinic.
In women, infertility is defined as a disorder of the reproductive system that hinders the
body's ability to ovulate, conceive, or carry an infant to term.
Reproductive conditions are treated by a variety of specialists. In women, many issues are
treated by obstetricians/gynecologists and for males urologists handle many disorders of their
reproductive systems. There are also infertility experts that treat couples who are unable to
conceive and endocrinologists who treat hormonal disorders.
Reference:

Reproductive System: Facts, Functions and Diseases

by Kim Ann Zimmermann, Live Science Contributor | April 30, 2015 10:44pm
ET

Submit
Reddit

An illustration of a sperm cell penetrating an egg.

Credit: Jezper, Shutterstock
View full size image

The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs in both males and
females that work together for the purpose of procreating, according to the Cleveland
Clinic. Due to its vital role in the survival of the species, many scientists argue that the
reproductive system is among the most important systems in the entire body.

The male reproductive system

Credit: National Institute of Health
View full size image

The male reproductive system consists of two major parts: the testes, where sperm are
produced, and the penis, according to Merck Manuals. The penis and urethra belong to both
the urinary and reproductive systems in males. The testes are carried in an external pouch
known as the scrotum, where they normally remain slightly cooler than body temperature to
facilitate sperm production.
The external structures of the female reproductive system include the clitoris, labia minora,
labia majora and Bartholins glands, according to the Cleveland Clinic. The major internal
organs of the female reproductive system include the vagina and uterus which act as the
receptacle for semen and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. The vagina is
attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the fallopian tubes connect the uterus to the
ovaries. In response to hormonal changes, one ovum, or egg or more in the case of
multiple births is released and sent down the fallopian tube during ovulation. If not
fertilized, this egg is eliminated as a result of menstruation.

The female reproductive system.

Credit: National Institute of Health
View full size image

Fertilization occurs if a sperm enters the fallopian tube and burrows into the egg, according
to WebMD. While the fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, it can also happen in the
uterus itself. The egg then becomes implanted in the lining of the uterus, where it begins the
processes of embryogenesis (in which the embryo forms) and morphogenesis (in which the
fetus begins to take shape). When the fetus is mature enough to survive outside of the womb,
the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus propel it through the birth canal.

Diseases of the female reproductive system

Many parts of the male and female reproductive systems can be affected by cancer. In
females, cancer can attack the uterus, ovaries, breast and cervix, among other organs,
according to the American Cancer Society.
Many experts have seen what they refer to as the Angelina Jolie effect, where women are
taking proactive measures by having breasts and internal reproductive organs removed if they
have a family history of cancer before there are signs of the disease. With better genetic
testing and screening, we have seen a number of women who are being more proactive about

their reproductive health, said Dr. Shana Wingo, who specializes on gynecologic oncology
at Arizona Oncology.
Ovarian cancer tends to have a poorer outcome than other gynecological cancers, Ross noted,
because it is not typically diagnosed until it has progressed significantly. There is no
standard screening available for ovarian cancer, so it is very difficult to identify it early.
Tests to detect ovarian cancer, as well as cancer of the fallopian tube, and primary peritoneal
cancer are currently being studied, according to the National Cancer Institute.
There are two tests used to screen for cervical cancer. The Pap test screens for cellular
changes in the cervix called cytology, while the genital human papillomavirus (HPV) test
identifies the presence of infection with high risk HPV, the strains that are linked to cervical
cancer, according to Dr. Charles Dubin, an OB/GYN in Santa Monica, Calif.
A recent study published by Cancer Cytopathology, found that HPV-only screening misses
more cervical cancer in women than Pap-only or co-testing, based on approximately 8.6
million women ages 30 to 65. There is approximately a three-fold improvement in the cancer
detection rate of co-testing compared to HPV only.
Current guidelines recommend that women first start getting the Pap test alone when they
turn 21 and repeat every three years if the test is normal until age 30. A Pap-plus-HPV test, or
co-testing, is recommended for women ages 30 to 65, and if both are negative repeated every
five years, regardless of whether they have received HPV vaccination. However, there is
compelling scientific evidence that co-testing every three years misses less cases of cancer
and pre-cancer than every five year co-testing, Dubin noted.
While genital HPV is typically associated with females, it is the most common sexually
transmitted infection. The majority of sexually active people in the United States male and
female will have HPV at some time in their lives, but most will not experience any
symptoms. In a small portion of women it can result in cervical cancer and genital warts and
in men it can cause penile and anal cancer and genital warts, according to the NIH.
Both genders can develop sexually transmitted diseases, including genital herpes, gonorrhea
and syphilis, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). HIV/AIDS, a disease of the
immune system, is not exclusively transmitted through sexual contact; sexual activity is one
of the ways that the HIV virus is spread.
For females, severe menstrual cramping, or dysmenorrheal, is the most common disease of
the reproductive system occurs with a womans monthly menstrual period, according to Dr.
Sheryl Ross, OB/GYN and Womens Health Specialist at Providence Saint Johns Health
Center. Ross was also a medical consultant on the books Expecting Fitness and Two at a
Time.
Severe pain before or during your period can last anywhere from one to seven days and
disrupt your normal day-to-day routines at school, work and socially, Ross noted. Diagnosis
is made by the patients medical history and a pelvic exam. The best treatment includes
medications that block the effects of prostaglandins and include ibuprofen and naproxen. The
birth control pill also works well in treating dysmenorrhea by decreasing the blood flow, Ross
noted.

Another common disorder of the female reproductive system is a vaginal yeast infection,
which is caused by a yeast fungus in the vagina. Most can be successfully treated with overthe-counter medications, according to WebMD.
Endometriosis is a condition where that normally lines the inside of your uterus the
endometrium ends up outside of uterus, most commonly in the ovaries, bowel or the tissue
lining your pelvis. The endometrial tissue becomes trapped, causing pain, according to
the Mayo Clinic.
Pelvic inflammatory disease can involve an infection of any of the female reproductive
organs, including the uterus and ovaries. Sexually transmitted diseases, such as gonorrhea and
chlamydia, are typical causes of pelvic inflammatory disease, according to the NIH. Any of
these STIs can cause serious and potentially long term reproductive problems that include
chronic pelvic pain and infertility, Ross said.

Diseases of the male reproductive system

Of male-specific diseases of the reproductive system, prostate cancer is the most common,
but men can also suffer from testicular and penile cancer, according to the American Cancer
Society.
Treatment for prostate cancer depends on the age, severity of the disease and other health
conditions of the patient. The usual treatments for prostate cancer are surgery, radiation
therapy, watchful waiting, and hormonal treatment, according to the Cleveland Clinic.
Erectile dysfunction is a common condition that affects about one in 10 males on a long-term
basis, the Cleveland Clinic noted. It can be linked to vascular disease, neurological disorders
such as Multiple Sclerosis, trauma and psychological episodes.
Prostatitis typically involves swelling or inflammation of the prostate gland, according to the
Mayo Clinic, and can cause painful or difficult urination and ejaculation. Nearly half of all
men experience symptoms of prostatitis at some point during their lives.

Defining and treating infertility

Infertility is defined as a couple's inability to conceive after one year of unprotected
intercourse. It can be caused by a condition in one partner or a combination of circumstances,
according to the Mayo Clinic.
In males, infertility is a condition in which they produce no sperm cells (azoospermia) or too
few sperm cells (oligospermia), or their sperm cells are abnormal or die before they can reach
the egg. Causes range from chromosomal defects to hormonal imbalance to tumors. Lifestyle
factors, such as drug and alcohol use, can also play role. In rare cases, infertility in men is
caused by an inherited condition, such as cystic fibrosis, according to the Mayo Clinic.
In women, infertility is defined as a disorder of the reproductive system that hinders the
body's ability to ovulate, conceive, or carry an infant to term.
Reproductive conditions are treated by a variety of specialists. In women, many issues are
treated by obstetricians/gynecologists and for males urologists handle many disorders of their

reproductive systems. There are also infertility experts that treat couples who are unable to
conceive and endocrinologists who treat hormonal disorders.
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