BLOOD

Definition
Blood is a connective tissue.

Composed of a straw-coloured transparent fluid called plasma, in which

different types of cells are suspended.

Blood constitutes 55% plasma and 45% cells.

The volume of blood in the body is: 4-5 litres in a woman and 5-6 litres in
a man.

Blood makes up about 7% of body weight.

Function of blood
1. Transportation
2. Maintenance
3. Protection
Transportation
1.
Carries oxygen in the form of oxy-haemoglobin from the lungs to the
tissues.
2.
Carries nutrients in the form of amino acids, glucose, fatty acids,
vitamins, minerals and water to the cells.
3.
Carries away waste products from the tissues to be excreted; Example:
carries carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs for excretion.
4.
Internal transport, Example: Vitamin D from the skin is carried by the
blood to the liver and kidney to be changed to active Vitamin D and is
then to the small intestines for absorption of calcium.
5.
Carries hormones and enzymes to their target glands and tissues.
Maintenance
Blood plays a big part in maintaining homeostasis.
1.
Blood consists of hormones and enzymes that control the body
processes. It also contains chemicals that maintain the pH of the blood
between 7.35-7.45.
2.
The osmotic pressure of plasma also maintains the fluid and electrolyte
balance.
3.
Maintains body temperature.
Protection
1.
White blood cells and chemicals like antibodies and anti-toxins are
important immunological substances in the prevention of infection by
microorganisms and toxins.
2.
Via the clotting mechanisms that coagulate blood, loss of blood cells and
body fluids is prevented.

COMPOSITION OF PLASMA
SN
1.

Component
Water

Percentage
90-92%

2.

Plasma Protein

Albumin

Globulins

Fibrinogen

?????

6.8%
55%
38%
4%
1%

3.

Mineral salts

Sodium

Potassium

Calcium

Magnesium

Chlorides

Iron

Phosphates

Hydrogen

Sodium Bicarbonates

4.

Food Nutrients

Glucose

Amino acids

Vitamins

Cholesterol

0.3%

5.

Gas

Carbon dioxide

Oxygen

Nitrogen

0.1%

6.

Waste Products

Urea,

Uric acid

Creatinine

Bilirubin

Lactic acid

0.1%

7.
8.
9.

Hormones
Enzymes
Antibodies and Anti-toxins

1%

TYPES OF BLOOD CELLS

SN
1.

Component
Erythrocytes - RBC

2.

Leucocytes - WBC
1.
Granulocytes

Neutrophils

Eosinophils

Basophils
2.
Agranulocytes

Monocytes

Lymphocytes

3.

Thrombocytes - Platelets

PLASMA PROTEINS
Make up 7% of plasma.
1.
Serum Albumin

Formed in the liver.

Most abundant plasma protein.

Function

Function is to maintain the osmotic pressure.

Responsible for osmotic pressure of blood 25mmHg.

Osmotic pressure keeps fluid in the blood.

If osmotic pressure is low, fluids move into the tissues and cause
oedema and also into body cavities.
2.

Serum Globulin
Most are formed in the liver and the rest in the lymphoid tissue.

Function

Causes immune reactions on foreign materials such as antigens.

Transportation of hormones such as thyroxine and mineral salts such as

iron.

Inhibition of proteolytic enzymes such as trypsin.

3.

Serum Prothrombin
Synthesized in the liver and is essential for coagulation of blood.

4.

Serum Heparin
Produced in the liver.

Prevents coagulation of blood by preventing prothrombin from changing

to thrombin.

MINERAL SALTS
Involved in a wide range of activities such as:
1. Formation of cells such as iron.
2. Muscle contractions.
3. Transmission of nerve impulses.
4. Formations of secretions.
5. Maintenance of balance betweens acids and alkalis.
NUTRIENTS

Food is digested in the alimentary tract.

The nutrients such as monasaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids,

glycerol and vitamins are then absorbed.

The nutrients are then used to provide energy, heat and materials for
repair and replacement.

The nutrients are also used for the synthesis of other blood components
and body secretions.
ORGANIC WASTE PRODUCTS

Urea, creatinine and uric acid are the waste products of protein
metabolism.

They are formed in the liver and excreted by the kidneys.

Carbon dioxide is released by the cells and excreted by the lungs.

HORMONES

Chemical compounds synthesized by the endocrine glands.

Transported by blood to their target organs.

They influence cellular activities.

GASES

Oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are transported in solution in

plasma.

Oxygen is transported as oxyhaemoglobin and carbon dioxide as

bicarbonate ions.
ENZYMES

Chemicals that can stimulate or increase the activity of other chemicals

without causing any changes to its own characteristics.

Can change the chemical structure of food.

ANTIBODIES AND ANTI-TOXINS

Produce in the lymphatic glands and the spleen.

Stimulates the production of antibodies.

BLOOD CELLS
4

There are three types of blood cells:

1. Erythrocytes or red blood cells.
2. Leucocytes or white cells.
3. Thrombocytes or platelets.
ERYTHROCYTES OR RED BLOOD CELLS.

Most abundant red blood cell.

Normal range is about 5 million mm3 of blood.

The erythrocyte count is low in females (4.5-5million mm 3) than males

(5.0-5.5 mm3).

Erythrocytes cannot move by themselves but are pushed along by the

flow of blood.
Structure of Erythrocytes

Red blood cells or erythrocytes are circular biconcave in shape.

Have a diameter of 7 microns.

Non-nucleated.

The circular biconcave shape increases surface area of cell and able
more gas to attach to it.

The shape also decreases the size and helps the cell to move into small
blood vessels.
Composition of erythrocytes

Lipids

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Enzyme Carbonic Anhydrase

Most important component is the protein pigment called haemoglobin.

Haemoglobin covers 1/3 of the volume of the cell.

Haemoglobin.
A complex protein consisting of globin and an iron-containing substance
called haem.
Is synthesised inside developing erythrocytes in red bone marrow.
Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin, giving
arterial blood its red colour.
The normal haemoglobin level in male is in the range of 14-18gm% and
females is 12-16gm%.
Formation of erythrocytes
Formed in red bone marrow: in ends of long bones and in flat and irregular
bones.
Life span is 120 days.
Development of erythrocytes depends upon the presence of:
Vitamin B12
1.
Iron
2.
Protein
3.

4.
5.
6.

Folic acid
Vitamin C
Hormone Erythropoietin

Erythropoiesis.

The process of development of RBC is called erythropoiesis.

It takes about 7 days.

The process of development of RBC start from pluripotent stem cells.
After undergoing stages of mitosis, some of them differentiate into
Proerythroblast and they form erythroblasts.
They begin synthesizing haemoglobin.
After several cell divisions, the erythroblasts loses its nucleus and is now
an immature RBC called reticuloyte.
The reticulocytes leave the bone marrow and enter the blood stream.
After 2 or 3 days, the reticulocytes matures into an erythrocytes.
Maturation of cell depends on the presence of Vitamin B 12 and folic acid.
Pluripotent stem cell

Proerythroblast
Dietary Iron
Folic acid
Diet

Vitamin B12

Erythroblast

Decrease in size,
loss of nucleus

Iron

Synthesis of
haemoglobin

Reticulocyte

Mature Erythrocyte

Iron

Haemolysis

Bilirubin

Control of erythropoiesis
Bone marrow produces erythrocytes at the rate which they are destroyed.
6

Due to negative feedback mechanism.

Hypoxia ( oxygen carrying power of blood is reduced by haemorrhage or
haemolysis) increases erythropoiesis.
This is done by stimulation of the production of the hormone erythropoietin
by the kidneys.
Erthropoietin stimulates increase of proerythroblasts and the release of
erythroblast, which increases oxygen carrying capabilities
oxyhaemoglobin and thus reverses hypoxia.
When erythropoietin levels are low, RBC is not formed and anaemia
develops.

Tissue Hypoxia

Kidneys secrete
erythropoietin into the
blood
Bone marrow increases
erythropoiesis

Red blood cell numbers rise

Increased blood oxygencarrying capacity

reverses tissue
hypoxia
Destruction erythrocytes
Life span of erythrocytes is 120 days.
Breakdown of RBC is called haemolysis.
Haemolysis is carried out by macrophages.
Haemolysis occurs in the spleen, bone marrow and the liver.
Globin is broken down to amino acid and used in the formation of new
RBC.
Haem part releases iron and bilirubin.
Iron is retained in the body and reused to form haemoglobin.
Biliverdin is formed from the protein part of the erythrocytes.
It is reduced to bilirubin, bound to plasma globulin and transported to the
liver.

In the liver it changed from fat-soluble to water-soluble and excreted as

bile.

Haemoglobin from worn

out erythrocytes
Haem

Globin

Bilirubin

Amino acids

Liver
Small amount
is reabsorbed

Intestines

Excreted in faeces
as stercobilinogen

Kidneys

Excreted in urine
as urobilinogen

Measure
Erythrocyte count

Definition
Number of erythrocytes per
litre or cubic millimeter
(mm3)of blood.

Normal values
Male: 4.5 - 6.5million/mm3
Female: 4.5 - 6.5million/mm3

Packed cell volume

(PCV)or haematocrit

Volume of red cells per litre or

1 mm3 of whole blood.

40-50/mm3

Mean cell volume (MCV)

Average volume of cells,

measured in femtolitres

80-96fl

Haemoglobin (Hb)

Weight of haemoglobin in
whole blood, measured in
grams per 100ml

Male: 13 -18g/100ml
Female: 11.5 16.5g/100ml

Mean cell haemoglobin

Average amount of
haemoglobin in each cell,

27 32pg/cell

measured in picograms.
Mean cell haemoglobin
concentration

Amount of haemoglobin in
100ml of red cells.

30 35g/100ml of cells

BLOOD GROUPS
Red blood cells have different antigens on their surface.
Antigens determine blood groups.
Antibodies are made against antigens except their own.
This prevents transfusion reactions caused when donor and recipient
blood types are incompatible..
Main signs of transfusion reactions are clumping of RBC, haemolysis,
shock and kidney failure.
The ABO system
Four main types of blood group:
1. A : Antigen A
2. B : Antigen B
3. AB : Antigen A and B
4. O : Neither A nor B Antigen Universal donor.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Corresponding antibodies are called anti-A and anti- B:

Blood group A : Anti-B
Blood group B : Anti-A
Blood group AB : Neither - Universal recipient
Blood group O : Both Anti-A and Anti-B

Blood
Type
A
B
AB
O

Antigen
on RBC
A
B
AB
None

Antibodies in
plasma
Anti-B
Anti-A
None
Anti-A and Anti-B

Can donate blood

to
A, AB
B, AB
AB
A, B, AB, O

Can receive blood

from
A, O
B, O
A, B, AB, O
O

The Rhesus system

With the Rh factor Rh positive.
Without Rh factor Rh negative.
If blood from Rh positive person is transfused to a Rh negative person, the
Rh negative person will develop antibodies against the Rh positive RBC.
Antibodies will build up in the Rh negative plasma.
If the person receives additional Rh positive blood, the newly formed
antibodies will agglutinate the Rh positive RBC.

LEUKOCYTES (WHITE BLOOD CELLS)

Structure of Leukocytes
Has a nucleus without haemoglobin.
Have granules in their cytoplasm.
White in colour.
Size of 8-9um diameter.
Normal rate is between 5000-10000/ mm3.
Function
Defend against microbes and other foreign materials.
Types of leukocytes
There are two main types:
1. Granulocytes:
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
2. Agranulocytes:
Monocytes
Lymphocytes
Granulocytes
Formation of granulocytes is known as granulopoiesis.
They develop from myeloblast to myelocyte before differentiating to
Neutrophils, Eosonophils and Basophils.
Have multilobed nuclei.
Some have granules in their cytoplasm.
Neutrophils
Most in number.
Make up about 52-75% of total leukocytes.
Main function is to protect against any foreign materials, mainly microbes
and to remove waste materials, Example: cell debris.
Attracted to area of infection by chemical substances, called chemotaxins.
Chemotaxins are released by damaged cells.
Pass through the capillary walls by amoeboid movement called
diapedesis.
They engulf and kill microbes by phagocytosis.
The granules or lysosomes contain enzymes that digest the engulfed
materials.
Pus that form in the affected area consists of dead tissues cells, dead and
live microbes and phagocytes killed by microbes.
Neutrophils are increased in:
1. Strenous exercise
2. Microbial infection
3. Tissue damage - inflammation, myocardial infarction, burns, crush injuries.
4. Metabolic disorders diabetic ketoacidosis, acute gout.
5. Leukaemia
10

6. Heavy smoking
7. Use of oral contraceptives.

Eosinophils

Have B-shaped nuclei.

Less active in phagocytosis.

Eliminate parasites which are too big for phagocytosis by releasing toxic
chemicals.

Count increases in allergy attacks.

Contains the protein plasminogen, which helps dissolve blood clots.

Basophils

Have elongated lobed nuclei.

Least in number.

Granules contain heparin (anti-coagulant), histamine (anti inflammatory

agent which dilates general body blood vessels and constrict blood
vessels in the lungs) and slow-reacting substances-A of allergies.
Agranulocytes
Have a large nucleus.
No granules in their granules.
Make up 25-50% of all leukocytes.
The two types are monocytes and lymphocytes
Monocytes
Have large, folded nucleus.
Has a diameter of 9um.
Originate in the bone marrow.
Actively motile and phagocytic.
Some develop into macrophages.
Found in the liver, spleen, lungs, lymph nodes and thymus glands.
Monocyte-macrophage system
Also called the reticuloendothelial system.
Consists of the bodys complement of monocytes and macrophages
including:
1. Histiocytes in connective tissues.
2. Microglia in the brain.
3. Kupffer cells in the liver
4. Alveolar macrophages in the lungs
5. Sinus-lining macrophages in the spleene, lymph nodes and thymus
glands.
6. Mesangial cells in the glomerulus of nephrons in the kidney
7. Osteoclasts in bones

11

Lymphocytes
Smallest of all leukocytes.
Has a diameter of 9um.
Has a large round nucleus that occupies most of the cell.
They circulate in the blood.
Present in lymph nodes and the spleen.
Develop in red bone marrow and then travel in blood to lymphoid tissues.
Two different types of lymphocytes are:
1. T-lymphocytes
2. B-lymphocytes
T-lymphocytes

Processed by the thymus gland.

Free to circulate in the blood.

Recognise only one kind of antigen, Example: programmed to recognize

chickenpox virus and will not recognize a measles virus.

Provide cell-mediated immunity.

Able to respond to antigens including:
1. Cells invaded by virus, cancer cells, tissue transplant cells
2. Pollen from flowers and plants
3. Fungi
4. Bacteria
5. Drugs such as penicillin and aspirin
Cell-mediated immunity

Sensitive to antigen when encounter for the first time.

Antigen presented on the surface of an antigen-presenting cellmacrophages.
After digesting antigen, they display the antigen on their own surface
membrane.
Come in contact with T-lymphocyte that is processed to target that antigen.
Stimulates division and proliferation of T-lymphocyte and differentiation
into 3 main types:
1. Memory T-cells
Provide immunity to the antigen by responding rapidly to the same type
of
antigen.
2.

Cytotoxic T-cells
Bind to antigen and release toxins and destroy it.

3.

Helper T-cells
Release cytoxines to support cytotoxic T-lymphocytes and cooperate
with
B-lymphocytes to produce antibodies.

B-lymphocytes

Processed in the bone marrow.

12

Fixed in lymphoid tissue such as spleen and lymph nodes.

Role is to produce antibodies (immunoglobulins).
Antibodies (immunoglobulins) are proteins designed to bind to and cause
the destruction of an antigen.
Each B-lymphocytes targets one spesific antigen.
Provide antibody-mediated immunity.

Antibody-mediated immunity

Recognise and bind antigen without being presented by antigenpresenting cell.

Enlarges and divides into two types of cell:

1.
Plasma cell
Produce and release antibodies that bind to the antigen and destroys it.
2.

Memory B-cells
Respond to another encounter by production of antibody-secreting
plasma cells.

THROMBOCYTE (PLATELETS)
Structure

Disk-shaped.

Smaller than RBC.

No nucleus and are incapable of cell division.

Diameter of 2-4um.

Derived from red bone marrow.

Has a life span of 8 -11 days.

Destroyed by macrophages in the spleen.

Normal rate is 250,000-350,000/mm 3.

Contains substances that promote blood clotting haemostasis.

Haemostasis
Healing of blood vessel occurs in 4 processes:
1.
Vasoconstriction

Surface of platelet becomes sticky when in contact with damaged vessel.

They adhere to damage wall.

Release serotonin which constricts the vessel.

This reduces blood flow.

Thromboxane, which causes vasoconstriction is also released by

damaged vessel.
2.

Platelet plug formation

The adhered platelet clump to each other.
Release adenosine diphosphate (ADP), which attracts more platelets.
More platelets adhere and quickly form a temporary sealt platelet plug.
13

3.

a)

b)

Coagulation: blood clotting

This involves a positive feedback system involving clotting factors.
Blood clotting results in formation of an insoluble, thread-like mesh of
fibrin.
Fibrin traps blood cells.
Prothrombin activator acts on the plasma protein prothrombin converting
it to thrombin.
Thrombin acts on plasma protein fibrinogen and converts it to fibrin.
Prothrombin activator can be formed by 2 ways:
Extrinsic pathway
Occurs within seconds when there is tissue damage outside circulation.
Damaged tissue releases a chemical called thromboplastin which
initiates coagulation.
Intrinsic pathway
Occurs slower- 3 to 6 minutes.
Triggered by damage to blood vessel lining and the effects of platelets
adhering to it.
After a time, the clot shrinks, squeezing out a serum, which is plasma
without the clotting factors.
Thromboplastin released by
damaged tissue cells enters the
blood

Platelets adhere to damage

blood vessel lining

Extrinsic pathway

Intrinsic pathway

Prothrombin activator
Prothrombin
Thrombin
Fibronogen
Loose fibrin threads
Stabilised fibrin clot

14

Factor
Number

Plasma
Coagulation Factor

Description and Origin

Fibrinogen

Plasma protein synthesized in

liver

II

Prothrombin

Plasma protein synthesized in

liver. Synthesis requires vitamin
K.

III

Thromboplastin

IV

Calcium ions

Complex lipoprotein formed

from disintegrating platelets or
tissues.
Inorganic ion in plasma,
acquired from bones and diet.

Accelerator
Globulin

VI
VII

VIII

IX

X
XI

Serum
Prothrombin
conversion
accelerator
(SPCA)
Antihemophilic
factor (AHF)

Plasma
Thromboplastin
component
(PTC)
Stuart factor
Plasma
Thromboplastin
Antecendent
(PTA)

Plasma protein synthesized in

liver.
The same as factor V.
Plasma protein synthesized in
liver. Synthesis requires vitamin
K.
Plasma protein (globulin)
synthesized in liver. Synthesis
requires vitamin K.
Plasma protein synthesized in
liver. Synthesis requires vitamin
K.
Plasma protein synthesized in
liver. Synthesis requires vitamin
K.
Plasma protein synthesized in
liver.

15

Function

Precursor of fibrin,
converted to fibrin in final
stage of clotting. Serum
is plasma minus
fibrinogen.
Precursor of thrombin,
the enzyme that
converts fibrinogen into
fibrin.
Combines with calcium
to convert prothrombin
into active thrombin.
Necessary for formation
of thrombin and for all
stages of clotting.
Necessary for extrinsic
and intrinsic pathways.
Necessary for first phase
of extrinsic pathways.

Necessary for first phase

of intrinsic pathways.
Deficiency causes
hemophilia A, a genetic
disorder.
Necessary for first phase
of intrinsic pathways.
Deficiency causes
hemophilia B.
Necessary for early
phases of extrinsic and
intrinsic pathways.
Necessary for first phase
of intrinsic pathways.
Deficiency causes
hemophilia C.

XII

Hageman factor

Plasma protein; source

unknown.

Necessary for first phase

of intrinsic pathways;
activates plasmin;
activated by contact with
glass, probably involved
with clotting outside
body.
Necessary for final
phase of clotting.

XIII
4.

Fibrin-stabilizing Protein present in plasma and

factor (FSF)
platelet; source unknown.
Fibrinolysis
An inactive substance called plasminogen is present in the clot.
Plasminogen is converted to plasmin.
Plasmin breakdowns the fibrin to soluble products.
This is treated as waste materials and removed by phagocytosis.
As clot is removed, healing takes place.

Plasminogen
Healing

Plasmin

Breakdown of Fibrin

Clot removed

Integrity of blood vessel wall restored.

Control of coagulation

Process of clotting needs to be controlled as once started, it would

spread throughout the circulatory system.

The main controls are:

1.
Smooth surface of normal blood vessel platelet do not adhere.
2.
Binding of thrombin to a thrombin receptor thrombin is inactivated.
3.
Presence of natural anticoagulants such as Heparin inactivates clotting
factors.

16

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

The cardiovascular system is divided into two main parts:
1.
The Circulatory system

Consists of the heart and the blood vessels.

2.
The Lymphatic system

Consists of lymph nodes and lymph vessels.

The heart pumps blood into two systems of blood vessels:
1.
The Pulmonary circulation
2.
The systemic circulation
BLOOD VESSELS

The types of blood vessels are:

1.
Arteries
2.
Arterioles
3.
Venules
4.
Veins
5.
Capillaries
ARTERIES AND ARTERIOLES
Function
Transport blood away from the heart.
Structure
Walls of arteries consists of three layers of tissue:
1.
Tunica adventitia

Outer layer of artery.

Consists of collagen fibers and elastic tissues.

Nerves and lymphatic vessels are also found within this layer.

Nourished by small blood vessels called vaso vasorum.

Gives protection to the artery.

Thick elastic walls allows the arteries to withstand the high pressure of
arterial blood.
2.

Tunica media
Thickest layer.

17

3.

Composed mainly of collagen fibres, connective tissue, smooth muscle

cells and elastic fibres.
In the Aorta, the tunica media has more elastic fibres than smooth
muscles.
This helps to contract and relax.
In the arterioles, it has more smooth muscles than elastic fibres because
it only helps to bring blood from the Aorta to the whole body.
Contraction and relaxation of the artery is controlled by the symphathetic
nerve.

Tunica intima
Has an inner lining of simple squamous epithelium called endothelium, a
thin subendothelial layer of fine connective tissue and an external elastic
layer called the internal elastic lamina.
This layer can cause hardening and become thick.
Loss of elasticity can cause arteriosclerosis.
Hardening of the walls by fat deposits can cause artherosclerosis.

Blood (nutrient) supply to the arteries

By small blood vessels called vaso vasorum.

Also by blood that flows through the layers by diffusion.

ANASTOMOSES AND END-ARTERIES

Anastomoses are arteries that form link between main arteries.

If one artery is occluded, anastomotic arteries provide a collateral

circulation.

Example: The heart muscles.

End-arteries are arteries with no anastomoses.

If one is occluded, the tissues it supplies die because there is no

alternative blood supply.

Example: The central artery to the retina of the eye.

VEINS AND VENULES
Function
Blood vessels that return blood at low pressure to the heart.
Structure

Thinner walls than arteries.

Consists of three layers of tissue:

1.
Tunica adventitia

Outer layer.

Fibrous tissue, much thinner than artery.

The veins collapse when cut but arteries remain open.

2.

Tunica media

18

Less elastic fibre and smooth muscles.

Has a steady flow of blood compared to artery, easier to stop bleeding.

3.
Tunica intima

Has an inner lining of simple squamous epithelium called endothelium.

Possess valves.

Formed by a fold of tunica intima.

Layer of connective tissue strengthens it.

Cusps are semilunar in shape with the concavity towards the heart.
Valves

Valves are abundant in the veins of the limbs.

Blood in lower limbs must flow against gravity when the person is
standing.

Valves are absent in very small and very large veins in the thorax and
abdomen.

Pooling of blood in the veins due to prolong standing can cause

congestion in the vein.

This causes varicose veins.

Function of valves
1.
towards the heart.

Prevent backflow of blood ensures blood flows

Difference between arteries and veins

NO
1.

Function

2.
3.

Walls
Tunica media

4.

Shape

5.

Bleeding

6.

Valves

ARTERY
Transport blood away from the
heart.
Thick, strong and elastic
More smooth and elastic muscle
fibres
Maintains walls and remain open
when cut
Blood spurts and difficult to stop
bleeding
No valves

VEIN
Return blood at low
pressure to the heart.
Thin
Less smooth and elastic
muscle fibres
Walls collapse when cut
Slower steady flow of
blood and easy to stop
bleeding
Has valves

Capillaries
Smallest arterioles that break up into minute vessels.
Structure

Diameter of 7um.

Walls consists of single layer of endothelial cells.

Enables water and small molecules to pass through.

Capillaries link the smallest arterioles to the smallest venules.

19

Sinusoids
Found in bone marrow, endocrine glands, spleen and the liver.
Structure

Wider than capillaries.

Thin walls that separates blood from other cells.

Due to large lumen, blood pressure in sinusoids are lower - slow rate of
blood flow.
Control of blood vessel diameter

Smooth muscle fibres in the tunica media are supplied by nerves of the
autonomic nervous system - sympathetic nerves.

Diameter of blood vessels are changed by these nerves which arise

from the vasomotor center in the medulla oblongata.

This is done by controlling the volume of blood they contain.

Vasodilatation

Decrease nerve stimulation causes the smooth vessel to relax, thinning

the vessel wall, enlarging the lumen and causing vasodilation.

This causes increased blood flow under less resistance.

Vasoconstriction

Increase nerve stimulation causes the smooth vessel to contract,

thickening the vessel wall and the lumen and causing vasoconstriction.

This causes decreased blood flow under more resistance.

Sympathetic Nerves

Increase stimulation

Decrease stimulation

Relax

Contract

Thickening of vessel wall

Thinning of vessel wall

Lumen enlarges

Lumen becomes small

Vasodilation

Vasoconstriction

Peripheral resistance

The walls of small arterioles consists mainly of smooth vessel.

Change in their lumen alters blood flow.

Arterioles provide the peripheral resistance to the flow of blood

20

a)
b)
c)

This is called resistance vessels and is important for maintaining

homeostasis.
Resistance to the flow of blood is determined by:
diameter of tube
length of tube
viscosity of blood.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Divided into two parts:
1.
Pulmonary circulation
2.
Systemic circulation
PULMONARY CIRCULATION

Circulation of blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs and
back to the atrium.

Carbon dioxide is excreted in the lungs and oxygen is absorbed.

ARTERY

The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood, leaves the upper part
of the right ventricle.

Divides into left and right pulmonary arteries.

The left pulmonary arteries divides into two, one passing into each lung.

The right pulmonary artery divides into two and supplies the right lobes
of the lungs.

They divide into smaller arteries, arterioles and capillaries.

Exchange of gas takes place between capillary and the alveoli.

VEINS

In each lung the capillaries join up and eventually form two veins.

The pulmonary veins leave each lungs, bringing oxygenated lungs to the
left atrium of the heart.

SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

The blood pumped out from the left ventricle is carried by the branches
of the aorta around the body.

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It is returned to the right atrium of the heart by the superior and inferior
vena cava.

AORTA
The aorta is divided into two:
1. Thoracic aorta
2. Abdominal aorta
THORACIC AORTA
Lies above the diaphragm and is described in three parts:
1. Ascending aorta
2. Arch of aorta
3. Descending aorta in the thorax
1. Ascending aorta

Branches are the right and left coronary arteries.

Supplies blood to the tissues of the heart.

2. Arch of aorta
It is a continuation of the ascending aorta. It branches into three:
1. Brachiocephalic artery
2. Left common carotid artery
3. Left subclavian artery
Circulation of blood to the head and neck
a) Carotid arteries

The arteries supplying the head and neck are the common carotid
arteries.

The right common carotid artery is a branch of the brachiocephalic

artery.

The left common artery arises from the arch of aorta.

They divide into two:

1. External carotid artery
Supplies the head and neck.
2. Internal carotid artery
Supplies the greater part of the brain, eyes, forehead and nose.
b) Circle of Willis

It is an arrangement of arteries which supplies the greater part of the

brain.

Formed by:
2 anterior cerebral arteries
2 internal carotid arteries
1 anterior communicating artery
2 posterior communicating artery
2 posterior cerebral arteries
12 basilar artery

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Function
1. Balance the blood pressure to the brain and to pressure.
2. Ensure adequate blood supply to the brain when a contributing artery is
damaged.
3. Ensure adequate blood supply to the brain during extreme movements of
the head and neck.
Circulation of blood to the upper limb
1. The right subclavian artery from the brachiocephalic artery.
2. The left subclavian artery from the arch of the aorta.
Before entering the axilla, each subclavian artery gives off two
branches:
1.
Vertebral artery supplies the brain
2.
The internal thoracic artery supplies the breast and structures in the
thoracic cavity.

Axillary artery is a continuation of the subclavian artery.

Brachial artery is a continuation of the axillary artery.

Radial artery and the ulnar artery.

3. Descending aorta in the thorax

Continuous with the arch of the aorta.

It gives off many paired branches which supply the walls of the thoracic
cavity and the organs within the cavity including:
1.
Bronchial arteries which supplies the bronchus and their branches,
connective tissue in the lungs and the lymph nodes of the lungs.
2.
Oesophageal arteries that supply the oesophagus.
3.
Intercostal arteries that supply the intercostals muscles, muscles of the
thorax, the ribs, the skin and connective tissues.
ABDOMINAL AORTA

Continuation of the thoracic aorta.

Divides into right and left common iliac arteries.

Many branches arise from the abdominal aorta, some paired and some
unpaired.
Paired branches

Inferior phrenic arteries which supply the diaphragm.

Renal arteries which supply the kidneys and branch into suprarenal
arteries to supply the adrenal gland.

Testicular arteries supply the testes in the male.

Ovarian arteries which supply the ovaries in the female.

Unpaired branches

The coeliac artery which divides into three branches:

1.
Left gastric artery which supply the stomach.
2.
Splenic artery which supply the pancreas and the
spleen.

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3.

Hepatic artery which supplies the liver, gall bladder and

parts of the stomach, duodenum and pancreas.
The superior mesenteric artery which supplies the small intestine and
the proximal half of the large intestine.
The inferior mesenteric artery which supplies the distal half of the large
intestine and part of the rectum.

Circulation of blood to the pelvis and lower limb

The abdominal aorta divides into the right and left common iliac arteries.

The right and left common iliac arteries each divide into the internal and
external iliac arteries.

The internal iliac artery supplies the organs within the pelvic cavity. The
largest branch is the uterine artery which supplies the female
reproductive organs.

The external iliac artery runs into the thigh where it becomes the femoral
artery.

The femoral artery and the popliteal artery supplies to the structures of
the thigh and some superficial pelvic and inguinal structures.

The anterior tibial artery supplies the structures in the front of the leg.

The dorsalis pedis artery is a continuation of the anterior tibial artery and
supplies the dorsum of the foot.

The posterior tibial artery supplies the back of the leg.

The peroneal artery supplies the lateral aspects of the leg. The plantar
artery supplies the structures in the sole of the foot.
VENOUS RETURN
Venous return from the head and neck

The venous blood is returned by the deep and superficial veins.

Superficial veins return venous blood from the face and scalp and unite
to form the external jugular vein.

The venous blood from the deep areas of the brain is collected into
channels called the dural venous sinuses.

The main sinuses are:

1.
1 superior sagittal sinus
2.
1 inferior sagittal sinus
3.
1 straight sinus
4.
2 transverse or lateral sinuses
5.
2 sigmoid sinuses

The internal jugular veins run downwards in the neck and unite with the
subclavian veins, carrying blood from the upper limbs.
They then form the brachiocephalic veins which are situated one on
each side in the root of the neck.
The superior vena cava drains all the venous blood from the head, neck
and upper limbs. It ends in the right atrium of the heart.

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Venous return from the upper limb

The veins of the upper limb are divided into two groups:
1.
Deep veins follows the course of the arteries.

Palmar metacarpal veins

Deep lamar venous arch

Ulnar and radial veins

Brachial vein

Axillary vein

Subclavian
2.

Superficial veins begin in the hand.

Cephalic vein
Basilic vein
Median vein
Median cubital vein

Venous return from the thoracic cavity

Venous blood from the organs in the thoracic cavity is drained into the
azygos vein and the hemiazygos vein.

Some of the veins which join them are the bronchial, oesophageal and
intercostals veins.

The azygos veins the superior vena cava.

The hemiazygos vein joins the left brachiocephalic vein.

Venous return from the abdominal organs

The right and left common iliac veins join at the level of the 5 th lumbar
vertebra to form the inferior vena cava.

Inferior vena cava is the largest vein of the body.

It brings blood from all parts of the body below the diaphragm to the right
atrium of the heart.

Blood from the remaining organs in the abdominal cavity passes through
the liver via the portal circulation.

From the portal circulation, the blood enters the inferior vena cava.
Portal circulation

Venous blood passes from the capillary beds of the abdominal part of
the digestive system, the spleen and pancreas to the liver.

It passes through a second capillary bed in the liver before entering the
inferior vena cava.

In this way, the nutrients absorbed from the stomach and intestines,
goes to the liver first.

Modifications takes place before they are supplied to other parts of the
body.
Portal vein

Formed by the union of the following veins:

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1.

Splenic vein drains blood from the spleen, pancreas and part of
the stomach.
2.
Inferior mesenteric vein returns blood from the rectum, pelvic
and descending colon.
3.
Superior mesenteric vein drains blood from the small intestine
and parts of the large intestine.
4.
Gastric veins drain blood from the stomach and the distal end of
the oesophagus.
5.
Cystic vein drains blood from the gall bladder.
Venous return from the pelvis and lower limb

There are both deep and superficial veins in the lower limb.

Movement of blood towards the heart is depended on contraction of

skeletal muscles.

Backward flow is prevented by valves.

Deep veins
They are:
1. Digital veins
2. Plantar venous arch
3. posterior tibial vein
4. Anterior tibial vein
5. Popliteal vein
6. Femoral vein
7. External iliac vein
8. Internal iliac vein
9. Common iliac vein
Superficial veins
The two main superficial veins draining blood from the lower limbs are:
1.
Small saphenous vein begins behind the ankle joint.
2.
Great saphenous vein is the longest vein in the body.

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The Aorta and main arteries of the body

LEGEND
P = Paired
U = Unpaired

HEART

AORTA

Brachiocephalic artery

Right
Common
Carotid
Artery
(Head &
Neck)

Right
Subclavian
Artery
(Right Arm)

THORACIC
AORTA

ABDOMINAL
AORTA

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Coronary Arteries (Heart, P)

Left Subclavian Artery (Left Arm)
Left Common Carotid Artery (Head
& Neck)
Bronchial Arteries (Lungs, P)
Oesophageal Artery (Oesophagus, P)
Intercostal Artery (Ribs & Tissues of
Thorax, P)
Phrenic Arteries (Diaphragm, P)
Coeliac Artery (Stomach, Liver,
Spleen & Pancreas, U)
Superior Mesenteric Artery
(Intestines, U)
Renal Arteries (Kidneys, P)
Testicular/Ovarian Arteries
(Gonads, P)

Inferior Mesenteric Artery (Large

Intestines, Rectum, U)

Right Common Iliac Artery

Right Internal
Iliac Artery
(Pelvis and
Pelvic Organs)

Left Common Iliac Artery

Right External
Iliac Artery
(Leg)

Left Internal
Iliac Artery
(Pelvis and
Pelvic Organs)

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Left External
Iliac Artery
(Leg)