MODULE-1

Casting is the replica of the final product. So related to castings there are
various stages before obtaining the final product and also various developments in casting
methods depending on the final product complexity. The fundamentals of castings are
described in this module. And also the importance of foundry to modern industries,
advantages, applications of castings are given in detail.

1.1DEVELOPMENT OF METAL CASTINGS

Many methods like machining casting, forging, rolling, extrusion are used for
making and giving finishing to components by engineers. Casting is probably the oldest
manufacturing process of producing an engineering article. It is estimated that the art of
metal castings has been existence for more than 5000 years. The castings can be traced
both in ancient and medieval history.
Metallic components like knives, coins, arrows and other household articles were
observed from the excavations of mohenjodaro and harappa. One of mans first operations
with metal was melting the ore and pouring it into suitable moulds. The casting process is
said to have been practiced in early historic times by the crafts men of greek and roman
civilizations. Since then the role of metals has acquired unique significance. Copper and
bronze were common in ancient times but evidence indicates that iron also had been
discovered and developed in the period around 2000 B.C, though its use is greatly
restricted.
Around 500 B.C started the era of religious upheavals, and metals began to be used
for statues of gods and goddesses. Bronze was still the most popular metal it was at this
time that lost wax process made its impact. Subsequently a still greater applications of
metals figured in armoury, guns and war material. Even in those days the superior quality
of metals and the absence of any impurities in them emphasize the ability and precise
quality control of the refining process.
Today we have a variety of moulding processes and melting equipment and a host
of metals and their alloys. And through the techniques and methods of production have
changed considerably, the basic principles still remain almost the same. Castings have
several characteristics that clearly define their role in modern equipment used for
transportation, communication, power, agriculture, construction and in industry. Cast
metals are required in various shapes and sizes and in large quantities for making machies
and tools, which in turn work to provide all the necessities and comforts of life.
In recent years, key developments have taken place in castings by the inclusion of
CAD/CAM, simulation packages, rapid tooling systems, intelligent advisory systems and
internet based engineering. The important advancements in CAD include parametric and
feature based modeling, parametric modeling enables linking the part shape to its
dimensions, so that the shape can be automatically updated by specifying new dimensions.
Since casting design involves a series of geometric transformations of the part model, the
3D-CAD systems are used.
The simulation techniques can be used to model the underlying physics so that
important process variables can be identified and controlled. For simulation software
packages like Magmasoft, CastCAE, AFS Solid 2000, NovaFlow and NovaSolid ,
MeshCAST, AutoCAST etc are used

Fig.1 Casting Technique

CASTING: Casting

is the process of manufacturing an engineering component by filling up

a cavity with molten metal and allowing it to solidify (as shown in fig.1). Casting is the
fastest and most economical process of producing components .It is due to fact that there is
no limit to the size and shape of the article to be produced by casting. It also offers one of
the easiest and most economical methods of producing intricate parts.
Importance of Foundry to modern Industries:
For the modern industries, foundry is the most important technology, to produce the
components because of the following advantages and the applications.
Advantages of casting:1.) It is one of the most versatile manufacturing process
2.) Casting provide uniform directional properties and better damping capacity to cast
parts.
3.) Intricate shaped components that are difficult to produce by other methods can be
produce by casting.
4.) Very complicated parts can be cast in one piece. It eliminates many joining
processes.
5.) Metals like cast iron that are difficult to shape by other processes can be cast .
6.) The casting process can be modernized by suitable mechanism for mass production
of components.
3

7.) Very heavy and the bulky parts that are difficult to form by other processes can be
cast.
8.) Casting provides the greatest freedom of producing components in terms of design,
shape, size and quality.
9.) The overall cost of components is low.
Applications of Metal Castings:Due to lower cost and the above mentioned advantages, great advances have taken place
in Foundry Engineering. There is hardly any product in Engineering, which doesnt have
one or more cast components. Castings have the following applications in Engineering.
1.) Road transportation and vehicles----More than 90% automobile engine
components, more than 35% of car, truck, bus components and more than 50%
tractor components by weight made by casting
2.) Aeroplanes ---- More than 30% components used by weight in aeroplanes are cast
components.
3.) Machine tool structures ---- Beds of machines like planer, shaper, milling, lathes
etc. are cast in cast iron .
4.) Paper mill stock breaker parts are castings of steel.
5.) Defense ---- More than 50% components used in defense are cast.
6.) Cast components are used in communication, construction and atomic energy.
7.) Aircraft jet engine blades.
8.) Agricultural parts.
9.) Turbine vanes.
10.) Sanitary fittings.
11.) Fish plates used in railways.
12.) Super charger castings.
13.) Mill housings.

MODULE-2
For moulding different types of sand are needed. In this module the ingredients of
green sand are discussed along with their advantages and limitations in sand control. The
concept of sand control which includes- moulding sand types, sand composition, moulding
sand properties are also included.

1.2 MATERIALS FOR MOULDING-FOUNDRY SAND CONTROL

Types of Moulding Sands

Moulding sands may be classified according to their use, into no.of varieties. These
are described bellow.
1. Green Sand: By green sand we denote sand in its natural, more or less moist
state .It is a mixture of silica sand with 18% to 30% of clay ,having a total water of
from 6 to 8 %.The clay and water furnish the bond and it is fine ,soft ,light and
porous .It can retain its shape when squeezed.
2. Dry sand:Green sand that has been dried or baked after the mould is made is
called dry sand. This is suitable for the large castings.
3. Loam sand: It is high in clay up to 50% and dries hard .This is employed for the
large castings.
4. Facing sand: Facing sand forms the face of the mould .It is used directly next to
the surface of the pattern and it comes into contact with the molten meal when the
mould is poured .It should contain high strength and refractoriness. It is made of
silica sand and clay .
From 10 to 15% of whole amount of moulding sand used in the foundry is
facing sand. A facing sand mixture for green sand moulding of cast iron may consist
of 25% fresh and specially prepared sand , 70% old sand ,and 5% sea coal.
5. Backing sand: Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and
to fill the whole volume of the flask. It is some times called as black sand because of
the fact that hold repeatedly used moulding sand is black in colour due to the addition
of coal dust and burning on coming in contact with molten metal.
6. System Sand: It is used in mechanical foundries where the machine moulding is
employed. The used - sand is cleaned and reactivated by the addition of water
binders and special additives. This is known as system sand and it has strength,
permeability and refractoriness higher than backing sand.
7. Parting sand: Parting sand is used to keep the green sand from sticking to the
pattern and also to allow the sand on the parting surface of the cope and drag to
separate without clinging. This is clean clay -free silica sand which serves the same
purpose as parting dust.
8. Core sand: Sand used for making cores is called core sand or oil sand .This is
silica sand mixed with core oil .Pitch or flours and water may be used in large cores
for the economical sake.
1.2.5 Constituents of moulding sand:
The various ingredients of moulding sands are
1. Silica sand grains
6

2. Clay
3. Moisture
4. Miscellaneous materials.
1. Silica: silica in the form of granual quartz, itself a sand, is the chief constituent of the
moulding sand. Silica sand contains from 80 to 90 % silicon di-oxide and characterized
by softening temperature and thermal stability. Silica sand grains impart refractoriness,
chemical resistivity, and permeability to the sand.
2. Clay: it is defined as those particles of sand(under 20 in diameter )that fail to settle at a
rate of 25 mm per min, when suspended in water . clay consists of two ingredients: fine
silt and true clay. Fine slit is a sort of foreign material or mineral deposit and has no
bonding power. It is the true clay which imparts the necessary bonding strength to the
moulding sand. Most moulding sands for different grades of work contain 5 to 20%
clay.
3. Moisture: moisture, in requisite amount, furnishes the bonding action of clay. When
water is added to clay it forms a micro film which codes the surface of flask shaped
clay particles. The bonding quality of clay depends on the maximum thickness of water
film it can maintain. The bonding action is considered best if exact amount of water
added otherwise the bonding action is reduced and mould gets weakened if water is
excess. The water should be between 2 and 8%.
4. Miscellaneous materials: in addition to above in moulding sand, oxide of iron, lime
stone, magnesia, soda and potash are present below 2%.
1.2.6 Properties of moulding sand
Moulding sand should have the following properties to produce sound castings
free from defects.
1. Flowability: It is the ability of moulding sand to get compacted to uniform density in
required shape. It assists moulding sand to flow and pack all around the pattern .It
increases with increase of clay and water content.
2. Permeability or Porosity: When molten metal is poured into mould cavity, it comes in
contact with sand and cores (clay, water and other additives), it produces steam and other
gases .The sand must be sufficiently porous to allow the gases or moisture present or the
generated within the moulds to be removed freely when the moulds are poured. This
property of the sand is called porosity or permeability.
3. Refractoriness: The sand must be the capable of withstanding the high temperature of
the molten metal without fusing .Moulding sands with a poor refractoriness may burnt
on to the casting. Refractoriness is measured by the sinter point of the sand rather than its
melting point.

4. Green strength: It is strength of moulding sand in green or moist state. It helps in the
making and handling of the mould. A mould having adequate green strength will retain its
shape and will not distort or collapse even after the pattern is removed.
5. Dry strength: The strength of a sand that has been dried or baked is called dry strength.
It must have the strength to withstand erosive forces due to molten metal, and retain its
shape.
6. Adhesiveness: It is the property to stick to the walls of a moulding box. It makes
possible to mould the sand in cope and drag parts of moulding box.
7. Cohesiveness: It is the property of sand owing to which it enables the sand particles to
stick amongst itself. Cores grained sand gives better cohesiveness.
8. Collapsibility: After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified, the sand mould must
be collapsible so that free contraction of the metal occurs. This would naturally avoid the
tearing or cracking of the contracting metal.

MODULE-3
In this module the importance of core making along with their use, core sand
constituents, core applications, core binders, color coding of cores different types of cores
are discussed in detail.The different cores and their orientations in the mould and the
significance are also discussed.

1.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CORES CORE MAKING PROCESS- MATERIALS FOR CORE
MAKING:

Core is an obstruction which when positioned in the mould naturally does not
permit the poured molten metal to fill up the space occupied by the core. A core may be
defined as a sand shape or form which makes the contour of casting for which no provision
has been made in the pattern for moulding.
CORE:

The cores used in foundries are typed according to their shape and
their position in the mould. The common types are:
1.3.1 TYPES OF CORES:

Horizontal core: The core is usually cylindrical in form and is laid horizontally at parting
line of the mould. The ends of the core rest in the seats provided by the core prints on the
pattern (fig.10) .

Fig.10.Horizontal Core
Vertical core : This is placed in a vertical position both in cope and drag halves of the
mould . Usually top and bottom of the core are provided with a taper, but the amount of the
taper on the top is greater than that at the bottom (fig.11).

Fig.11.Vertical Core
Balanced core: When the casting is to have an opening only one side and only one core
print is available on the pattern a balanced core is suitable. The core print in such cases
should be dense enough to give proper bearing to the core (Fig12).

Fig12. Balanced Core

10

Hanging and cover core: If the core hangs from the cope and does not have any support at
the bottom of the drag, it is referred to as a hanging core. In this case, it may be necessary
to fasten the core with a wire or rod that may extend through the cope. On the other hand,
if it has its support on the drag it is called cover core. In this case, the core serves as a
cover for the mould, and also as a support for hanging the main body of the core.
Wing core: A wing core is used when a hole recesses is to be obtained in the casting either
above or below the parting line. In this, the side of core print is given sufficient amount of
taper, so that the core can be placed readily in the mould. This is also called as drop core,
tail core, chair core and saddle core according to its shape and position in the mould
(fig.13).

Fig13.Wing Core (or) Drop Core

Ram-up core: It is necessary to set a core with the pattern before the mould is rammed up.
Such a core is called ram-up core. This is used when the core - detail is located in an
inaccessible position in both interior and exterior positions of a casting.
Kiss core: When the pattern has no provision for core, core is held in position between the
cope and drag simply by the pressure of the core. They are suitable when a number of
holes of less dimensional accuracy with regard to the relative position of the holes are
required.
1.3.2 CORE MAKING:

Cores are made up of sand, metal, plaster, ceramics etc.

Functions: Cores provide the means for producing hollow castings and internal cavities, to
provide external undercut features, to improve the mould surface, to achieve deep recesses
in castings, to form the gating system of large size moulds and to strengthen the mould.
Characteristics of (dry sand) core: Cores must posses sufficient strength so that it does
not break during handling. It must have a smooth surface finish, good permeability, high
refractoriness and high collapsibility. While preparing cores only those ingredients should
be added that they do not generate gases during solidification.
COLOUR CODING FOR CORES : A widely

accepted color code for core box is given below :

1. surfaces to be left unfinished are to be painted black. 2. surfaces to be machined are to
be painted red. 3. seats of loose pieces are to be marked by red stripes on a yellow
background. 4. core prints are to be painted yellow. 5. stop-offs are to be marked by
diagonal black stripes on yellow base.
Core sand has natural bond, is almost pure sand is used for preparing
cores. So some other materials are added 1..to hold the sand grains together. 2. to give
CORE BINDERS:

11

strength to cores 3. to make the cores to resist erosion and breaking. 4. to impart adequate
collapsibility to cores.
Core binders for following types : (a) organic binders (b) inorganic binders (c) other
binders.
ORGANIC BINDERS:1.

Core oils are more popular as they are very economical and produce
better cores. The chief ingredients of these core oils are vegetable oil, linseed oil and corn
oil. They are mainly used in making oil sands for cores.
2. Water soluble binders (dextrin, molasses etc.) air hardens rapidly and resist core sagging
during handling. Increased moisture content develops high tensile strength, backed scratch
and edge hardness.
3. Wood product binders like natural resins, sulphite binders, wood flour, protein binders
like casein, glue, synthetic resins etc. are organic binders.
They are fine clay, bentonite,.silica flour, iron oxide. These binders
develop green strength, baked strength, hot strength and impart smooth surface finish.
INORGANIC BINDERS:

OTHER BINDERS:

Portland cement, rubber cements, sodium silicate, water are some

binders. Binders and additives work only in the presence of moisture.

MODULE-4

12

The different types of moulding sand, core sand need various ingredients mixed in
different proportions to achieve required sand properties. In this module the basic
operations of moulding machines prior to moulding i.e mixing of sand, sand tempering and
conditioning of sand are discussed.

13

14

1.4 MOULDING AND CORE MAKING MACHINES:

1.4.1 Preparation of sand for moulding and core making includes

1. Mixing of sand.
2. Tempering of sand
3. Sand conditioning
Mixing of sand: Generally sand is mixed with clay, lime, magnesia, potash, soda, horse
manure, sawdust, cow dung, coal dust etc. in small quantities. As silica is a high basing
metal, it has capability of withstanding high temperatures but it has no bond, so clay is
necessary. The addition of lime, magnesia, iron oxide, soda etc. reduces the melting point
of silica, so these metals are added in small quantities to make the casting soft. Coal dust is
added to make the sand more open and helps to control the mould after it has been poured.
Mixing of moulding materials should ensure uniform distribution of clay, moisture and
other constituents between the sand grains.
Sand tempering: The process by which sufficient moisture is added to the moulding sand
is known as sand tempering. This sand tempering is essential process to make it better
workable.
Sand conditioning: Sand conditioning accomplishes uniform distribution of the binder
around the sand grains, controls the moisture content, eliminates foreign materials and
aerates the sand so that it flows readily around and takes up the detail of the pattern. In
general, sand conditioning consists of preparing the moulding sand to render it suitable for
ramming in flasks.
Sand conditioning and preparation has the following advantages:
1. The binder is uniformly distributed the sand grains.
2. The moisture is evenly dispersed in the sand mixture and the moisture content
properly controlled.
3. The sand gets aerated, causing the sand grains to separate and increasing the
flowability of sand.
4. The sand is delivered at proper temperature.
5. The foreign particles are separated and removed from the sand mass.
Core sand has natural bond, is almost pure sand is used for preparing cores. Some
other materials are added to hold the sand grains together, to give strength to cores, to
make the cores, to resist erosion and breaking to impart adequate collapsibility to cores.
Core binders are the following types: (a) organic binders (b) inorganic binders (c) other
binders.
Core oils are more popular as they are very economical and produce better cores.
The chief ingredients of these core oils are vegetable oil, linseed oil and corn oil. They are
mainly used in making oil sands for cores. The binders can harden rapidly and resist core
sagging during handling. Increased moisture content develops high tensile strength, backed
scratch and edge hardness. Wood product binders like natural resins, sulphite binders,
wood flour, protein binders like casein, glue, synthetic resins etc. are organic binders.
Inorganic binders like fine clay, bentonite, silica flour, iron oxide. These binders develop
green strength, baked strength, hot strength and impart smooth surface finish.
15

Other binders like Portland cement, rubber cements, sodium silicate, water are
some binders. Binders and additives work only in the presence of moisture.
1.4.2 MOULDING MACHINES

Squeeze Machines: In this moulding sand is squeezed between the machine table and the
overhead squeeze board pneumatically or hydraulically until the mould attains the desired
density. The principle of operation of the top squeeze machine is that the pattern is placed
on a mould board which is clamped on the table. The flask is then placed on a mould board
and the sand frame on the flask. The flask and frame are filled with moulding sand and
leveled off. Then the table is raised by the table lift mechanism against the platen on the
stationary squeezer head. The platen enters the sand frame upto the dotted line and
compacts the moulding sand. After the squeeze the table returns to its initial position. The
main limitation of this method is that by squeezing the sand is packed more densely at the
top where the squeeze board presses against the sand and the density decreases uniformly
with the depth. The squeeze method is therefore restricted to moulds not more than 150
mm depth. The squeeze pressures vary from 3000 to 20,000 kg according to the size of the
machine. Where the moulds contain green sand cores this method is not at all satisfactory
as the sand flow into the core cavities of the pattern and may remain loose near these
cavities.

Fig.14. squeezing machine

16

Jolt Machine: in this the flask is first filled with the moulding sand and then the table
supporting the flask is mechanically raised and dropped in succession. Due to sudden
change in inertia at the end of each fall, the sand is packed and rammed. The action of
raising and sudden dropping is called jolting. In a jolting machine working on compressed
air, the table supporting the flask is mounted on a cylinder called the jolt cylinder which is
raised and dropped in succession by the entry and exit of compressed air underneath its
base. When the cylinder is dropped, it presses against a valve which causes to open and
allow the air to enter the space beneath the base of the cylinder. The high pressure air
induces the cylinder to raise till it uncovers an exhaust port when the air rushes out and
pressure falls down. Due to the fall in pressure, a cylinder drops down and it again presses
against the valve and opens the air entry. The jolt cylinder together with the table are thus
raised and lowered in quick succession in producing the desired jolting action. The jolting
load exerted during moulding varies from 200 to 1000kg according to the size of the
machine

Fig.15. jolting machine

Core Making Machies:
17

Core blowing machine: the core blowing machine is indispensable for core making
in production foundry. The core sand is forced into the core box from a sand reservoir with
a stream of high velocity air at a pressure of about 6-8 kg/cm 2 . the core box has a number
of vent holes suitably located so that the as the sand is introduced, the air is ejected through
these holes. Due to the high velocity air the sand is passed instantly in the core box.
Core Drawing Machine:
The core drawing machine facilitates in drawing off the cores from the boxes
especially for core boxes having deep draw. The core box with core sand duly rammed in is
placed on a core plate, which is supported on the machine bed. From one side the core box
is placed in contact with another vertical plate and this vertical plate is raised leaving the
core on the core plate. the ramming of the sand in this case is done by hand either with a
hand rammer or a pneumatic rammer.
Continuous Core Making Machies:
This is used for making cylindrical cores of uniform cross section in various sizes
which are called stock cores. Cylindrical cores which are most commonly used are
prepared in long length on these machines and are kept in stock. When a core of certain
diameter and length is required , it is taken out of the stock, cut to the desired length and
used after tapering down the ends. For preparing stock cores the core sand is filled in the
hopper of the core making machine from where it comes into a cylinder.

MODULE-5

18

The ultimate requirement of moulding and its application is obtaining a final

product in the form of casting. In the present module various types of castings like shell
moulding, die casting, investment casting along with neat sketches are discussed in detail.

1.5 MOULDING PROCESS :

19

1.5.1 SHELL MOULDING:

In this method, proportionate quantities of sand and resin are

mixed and sprayed over the surface of the heated metallic pattern. Heating is done by
suitable means. This method gives a thin, rigid and hard layer of uniform thickness
forming one part of the shell after removal from the pattern. Other part of the shell is also
formed by the same method and two parts are joined together to form a shell mould. This
process is also known as the 'croning mouldng' process or c-process, named after its
inventor is as shown in fig14.
Shell moulding process involves the following steps
1. Preparation of metal match plate cope and drag type patterns: the patterns are
machines from copper alloys, C.I, Al or steel depending upon the life of the pattern.
They are given the usual shrinkage and draft allowances, are polished and then
attached to the matal match plate.
2. Mix the material: this consists of dry, fine and thoroughly washed silica and 5 to
10 percent of thermosetting phenolic resin which acts as a binder. The two are
thoroughly mixed together.
3. Heat the pattern: the pattern plate is heated to about 200 to 300 degrees for
investing it. To prevent the mould adhesion of the above material and to make the
removel of shell convenient , a release agent containing a silicone is next sprayed
over the hot pattern plate surface.
4. Invest the pattern: the investing material is placed in a dump box and the heated
pattern plate is clamped to it. The dump box is quickly inverted on its trunnions the
investing material falls over the surface of the the heated pattern. The heat
penetrated the material, softens. This will result in the formation of shell around the
pattern surface after the binder thermosets. The shell thickness depends upon the
time of contact of the mixture with the heated pattern. In about 30 to 45 sec a
normal thickness of 5 to 8 mm can be obtained.
5. the above process will be followed by curing of the shell, removal of the shell, shell
assembly, pour the mould and removal of casting.

Fig.16. Four Stages of Shell Moulding

This process of making casting is known as lost wax process
and precision casting process. It consists of two stages, first, a master pattern is made of
wood or metal around which mould is formed. This master mould consists of usual two
sections and thus can be opened. It is used for making the lost pattern.
The master mould is then filled with liquid wax, with a thermo plastic material
liquefied by heating or with mercury. The second pattern produced in this way is used for
preparing the casting mould properly. The expandable wax pattern is coated with slurry
1.5.2 INVESTMENT CASTING:

20

consisting of silica flour and kaolin and graphite mixed with water. This process is referred
to as the investment of the pattern. Casting can be made to close tolerances (+ or - 0.1mm)
in this process and do not require subsequent machining.

Fig.17. Investment Casting Technique

1.5.3 DIE CASTING TYPES:
a) PERMANENT MOULD CASTING:

In this process moulds are reused repeatedly. This

require a mould material that has a sufficiently high melting point to withstand erosion by
the liquid metal at pouring temperature, a high enough strength not to deform in repeated
use, and high thermal fatigue resistance to resist premature crazing and low adhesion.
Permanent metal moulds can be advantageously used for small and medium sized (upto
10Kg) non-ferrous castings, but would be impractical for large castings and metals and
alloys of very high melting temperature.
It is a process of producing accurately dimensioned parts by
forcing molten metal under pressure into split metal dies. Within a fraction of a second, the
fluid alloy fills the entire die. Because of the low temperature of the die (water cooled), the
casting solidifies quickly, permitting the die halves to be separated and the casting ejected.
It is suitable for lead, magnesium, tin, zinc alloys.
Two main types of machines used to produce die castings
1. The hot chamber (plunger type machine) die casting as shown in fig.16
In the submerged plunger type hot chamber machine, the ram is submerged below
the surface of the molten metal and operates within a cylinder. The working medium can
be pneumatic or hydraulic. The dies are locked together, when the ram is raised it uncovers
a part in the chamber wall, through which the molten metal enters and fills the chamber. In
operation the plunger is forced downward closing the port and then forcing the confined
metal up through an inlet channel and nozzle into the die cavity. After a preset time the ram
is again raised allowing the molten metal in the channel to drop pack into the metal pot.
Then the die can be opened and the casting is ejected by ejector pins.
b) PRESSURE DIE CASTING:

21

Fig.18. Hot Chamber Die Casting

2. The cold chamber machine as shown in fig17 .
The injector plunger or shot sleeve is in a horizontal position and the injection
plunger movement is in a horizontal direction. When the working cycle begins the two die
halves are closed with the core being in the working position. The injection plunger is in
the extreme right position. The plunger moves to the left and forces the molten metal into
the cavity of the die. After a sufficient time of solidification the die automatically opens
and the movable die half with it. The movable core id then removed from the casting by a
special device. The movable die stops the ejector pin extends from it to eject the casting.

Fig.19. Cold Chamber Die Casting

22

MODULE-6
In the present module various types of castings like centrifugal casting, vaccum
moulding, shell moulding and Ethyl silicate slurry molding (known as the Shaw process)
along with neat sketches are discussed in detail.

23

1.6 VACCUM MOULDING, MOULDING FOR MASS PRODUCTION:

1.6.1 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING:

These castings are produced by pouring molten metal into moulds by using
centrifugal force. It is suitable for production of hollow castings (as shown in fig.18) like
cast iron pipes. Solid parts can also be cast by this process by placing the entire mould
cavity on one side of the axis of rotation. The castings produced by this method are
obviously very dense. The centrifugal casting machine used to spin the mould may have
either a horizontal or vertical axis of rotation. For short castings that is when diameter to
length ratio is large, the rotational axis is vertical. Long parts i.e castings with relatively
long length in relation to their diameters are made in horizontal axis machines.
There are two types of horizontal axis centrifugal casting machines which differ in
the way the matal is distributed along the length of the mould during pouring. In one
pouring through ladles is traels horizontally, while the spinning mould is stationary. In the
other type the ladle is stationary and the mould travels. The mould flask is made of steel or
graphite. The metal mould can be used as it is or its inner surface lined with green sand or
dry sand. The choice depends upon the geometry of the casting, its material and production
volume

Fig.20. Centrifugal Casting

1.6.2 VACCUM MOULDING:-

Sand can be lodged in place if air is removed from the sand mass. The principle is
employed in vaccum moulding process in which no binder and moisture is used. In this

24

method a plastic sheet is draped over the pattern positioned over the mould board. Vaccum
is drawn on the pattern. This makes the plastic sheet to be tightly drawn over the pattern
surface. A double walled vaccum flask is placed over the pattern and is filled with clean
unbonded sand. Pouring basin and sprue are formed and another plastic sheet is placed
over the sand. Vaccum is drawn on the sand, this makes the sand very hard. Vaccum is now
released on the pattern and the mould stripped. Similarly the the other half of the mould
can be made. The two mould halves can be assembled and molten metal can be poured.
Vaccum in the flasks is maintained during pouring and later till the casting solidifies. The
plastic sheet will burn up. When the casting is solidified, vaccum on the flasks is released.
The sand collapses and clean casting can be found.

Fig.21. vaccum moulding

1.6.3 SHAW PROCESS IN MOULDING: Ethyl silicate slurry molding (also known as
the Shaw process, Avnet-Shaw, Osborn-Shaw and the Dean process ).
Ceramics are materials which are made from a clay base and contain various oxides
and ingredients other than sand. The raw clays are calcined or fired at high temperatures
and are then blended, mixed with water, formed into mold components, and then fired.In
true ceramic molding, the refractory grain can be bonded with calcium or ammonium
phosphates. The preferred methods for producing ceramic molds is the dry pressing
method in which molds are made by pressing the clay mixture containing 4-9% moisture in
dies under a pressure of 1-10 ton/sq in. After pressing, molds are stripped from the dies and
then fired at temperatures between 1650-2400F (899C and 1316C). The ethyl silicate
variation is accomplished in the following manner: a mixture of a graded refractory filler,
hydrolyzed ethyl silicate, and a liquid catalyst are blended together to form a slurry
consistency. The slurry is then poured over a pattern and allowed to jell. After gelation, the
mold is stripped and torched with a high pressure gas torch. The mold can then be cooled,
assembled and fired prior to pouring.

25

The best known of these process variations is a development from the United
Kingdom called the Shaw process. The chief difference between the Shaw and other
investment molding processes is that a jelling agent is added to the refractory slurry-like
mixture before it is poured over the pattern. When this mixture forms a somewhat flexible
gel, the mold can be stripped off the pattern. Patterns can be made of various materials
such as plaster, wood or metal and can be reused. In this manner, this process differs from
the expendable (wax or plastic) process. Molds are torched, then brought to a red heat in a
furnace. The molds are allowed to cool prior to assembly for pouring. Occasionally the
Shaw process and the lost wax process are combined to gain the advantages of each. The
complex pattern configurations which are difficult or impossible to remove from the mold
can be made of wax and placed into the regular pattern. This provides for the regular
pattern to be stripped off and the wax to be melted and burned out later.

26