Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Curtis Finch, Martin Mulder, Graham Attwell, Felix Rauner, & Jan Streumer
OVERVIEW
Training (VET) make the assumption that VET contributes to the economic
transition. This is the process of preparing students for working life before
economy after graduation. Thus, the better this transition is, the greater the
on one hand, and the labor market on the other hand can be less than
optimal. There are various reasons for this suboptimal STW transition.
Examples include:
______________
Curtis Finch is Professor, Human Resources and Education, at Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, U.S.A. Martin Mulder and Jan
Streumer are faculty members at the University of Twente, Enschede, The
Netherlands. Graham Attwell and Felix Rauner are faculty members at the
Institut Technick und Bildung, University of Bremen, Germany.
Behind these reasons are other factors that contribute to suboptimal STW
have been introduced. The content of general subjects has been shifted in
have been updated, and various applied experiences have been introduced
with business and industry so that they can learn about the latest
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developments. Business and industry leaders are being asked to participate
state level, more and more elements of the VET infrastructure are regulated
and formalised.
At the curriculum level, policy makers can opt for a national curriculum
can also be nationalized, or institutions may have the right to perform their
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complexity of VET configurations in general, and the STW transition in
particular. What activities have certain countries taken during the last
decades to improve the STW transition for their students? What are the
benefits of these activities? What problems have arisen and what solutions
were found for these problems? In our view, it is worthwhile to take notice of
STW practice are generally and directly applicable from one country to
nations have and the approaches they have taken to providing STW
transition systems.
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based system for VET. We then turn to the United Kingdom with specific
STW transition policies and practices within the national VET configurations
policies and practices, and in solving some of the common problems nations
(significantly more than 50%) decide to enroll in the dual vocational training
10% of the young people in a given year. Most of the occupations involved
are in the fields of health, social care, and education as well as assistant
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companies, assistant occupations are allocated to management or academic
in the overall vocational training system results from a specific demand for
not compete with dual vocational training. It is worthy of note that the
health and social care occupations are becoming more important as the age
Young people with learning difficulties who have not completed 9-year
1993 this group accounted for 6.2% of all newly concluded training
contracts. For the most part these young people are trained in craft trades
learning difficulties reveals that over a longer period of time the proportion
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of shortage of traineeships. This can be seen in the proportion of school-
of young people with learning problems always drops when there is a lack of
basis.
required for university entrance and the majority of those decide to pursue
university students have also completed vocational training through the dual
very high regard by students (see BMBW, 1994, p. 2; 1993, p. 3). This
figure has risen rapidly from 1985 when only 21% of graduates entered
training, the Vocational Academy, has come into being with approximately
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15,000 students currently enrolled. The student receives equal portions of
training enterprise. Despite not being a formal part of the university system,
this dual university training model at the polytechnic level now has a firm
(Wissenschaftsrat, 1994).
The second threshold in the transition from school to the working world does
not exist in this university segment since students have permanent jobs at
training system between general education schools and the working world
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management and labor participate. Programs that are
limited in time and react to specific situations play a marginal role in this
system. Even during the baby boom period between 1975 and 1990 the dual
example, 705,600 training contracts were signed. Today the figure is less
than 500,000.
two factors. There has been a demographic downturn with three generations
1960s), all recording low birth rates. At the beginning of the 1990s, this
downturn, this was contrasted with considerable demand for skilled labor.
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site, in addition to the training enterprise and the vocational school.
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During periods of high demand for traineeships or traineeship
problem connected with the transition from school to the working world
year ) (BVJ) and the basic school-based vocational training year (BGJ). The
theory and practice into the vocational school. It comprises the first year of
regions the basic vocational training year has thus regained its original
When the training market was tight, the basic vocational training year
became a reservoir for young people without any training. The basic
vocational school year has not been able to compete with the dual vocational
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The vocational preparation year is useful to pupils who have not
threshold). Both forms of school have lost a great deal of their importance
by virtue of the traineeship market easing up since the end of the 1980s.
educational policy point of view since, in the opinion of critics, its existence
essentially results more from the lack of suitable traineeships than from
since separate programs do not exist as such, at least not in the formal
sector of the education system. However, for a number of years the Dutch
relationship has evolved over the last 20 years to the point where both
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coherent whole that serve a common purpose. Until the early 1980s,
opinions were heavily influenced by the ideal of equal opportunities with the
while more emphasis has been placed on the specific character of vocational
education.
further study and careers. The range of later occupational practice is much
social debate beginning in the early 1980s. Business and industry gained a
decisive role in this field as a result of several stimuli. The first was the
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agreement between employers’ and workers’ organizations and the
enterprises which are the most important means of gearing education to the
labor process (Dercksen & Van Lieshout, 1993), and (d) the integral
Van Lieshout (1993) noted that currently selective dualisation exists, that
further dualisation possibilities are being examined, and that the principle of
Another stimulus for business and industry to play a major role was the
Manpower Service Act which was introduced in January 1991. A key section
statutory framework within which central government and the social partners
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groups. It is based on a single planning structure for the formulation of
interpreted and implemented at regional levels. One of the main tasks of the
training programs and gear them more toward actual labor market needs
VET courses and programs are presently offered at schools for pre-
below.
education, which replaced the first two years of all types of secondary
subjects, whereas the last two years are vocationally oriented, with students
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education). Apart from attempting to increase program efficiency, reduce
drop-out rates, and improve student progress; SVM operation fosters the
schools have been merged, along with the apprenticeship system and
several types of adult education, into regional training centers (ROCs). The
last few years have seen an increased demand for senior secondary
350,000 having nearly doubled since 1980. Since 1991 the number of MBO
lasts approximately 200 days and is usually scheduled during the student’s
involves students spending one or two days a week at school and receiving
practical in-company training for the rest of the week. The primary training
program (initial course) within the apprenticeship system lasts two years,
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consultative bodies to form national bodies for vocational education. The
attainment targets and for setting and monitoring the examinations. Trends
economy: the higher the level of industrial activity, the more apprenticeship
autonomy afforded HBO colleges has also changed relationships with the
business community: the HBO college itself is now responsible for setting
work. HBO courses can last up to four years and offer a so called first-phase
1991, HBO colleges enrolled 250,000 students, and recently, the number and
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The current HBO curriculum normally includes internships where
actual working practice. The practical training ranges from 15 to 25% of the
total program. Students receive an expense allowance during the time they
HBO courses, where the practical training acounts to 50% of the content.
When students are working for at least 20 hours a week in a job relevant to
cooperative learning (CO-OP) where each four and six month period of
of theory. Students prepare for their working period (and consequently the
education nor adult general secondary education directly prepare people for
the labor market, they can be prerequisites for admission to any of the
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includes the apprenticeship system, part-time secondary vocational
education, and specific training, e.g. courses via the National Employment
path with social background and parental occupation being the most
and social change of the last twenty five years have seen the rise of
uncertainty and risk for young people and has placed a new focus on this
transition as not only the period in young peoples’ lives between the
At the same time, the social process of individualisation and the resultant
action” for young people and at the same time have created significantly
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qualifications of younger generations and the employment opportunities
open to them leading to social conflict and to the growth of a youth culture
for the underdog, and interest in change” (Adamski, Grootings, & Mahler,
1989, p. 4).
education and training, and thus the transition from school-to-work has been
policy.
appears that the least support is available to those who most are in need
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special learning needs. Careers advice and guidance is provided through
two different structures, through school based careers teachers and the
although young people may frequently move in and out of different routes
(Green, 1992).
school or tertiary institutions. ‘A’ levels are traditionally targeted at the top
However, over the last ten years there has been a rapid growth in the
although last year there was for the first time as slight decline, possibly due
to an upturn in the labor market. One of the major transition trends in the
now over 150 universities in the UK with 1.5 million students representing a
growth of 250% over the last 25 years (Institute for Employment Studies,
1996). Over 700, 000 of these are full-time first degree students with
500,000 studying part time. Part of the increase has been due to increased
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numbers of mature students returning to university, the proportion of young
Industry Lead Bodies for different occupational sectors with the remit of
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introduction of NVQs remains highly controversial with widespread criticisms
following their training and are heavily dependent on local labor market
provided through a mixed mode which includes project work and written,
and ‘A’ levels, referring to the new qualifications as vocational ‘A’ levels.
GNVQs also incorporate core skills in numeracy, communication, and the use
intended that GNVQs present young people with a transition path either to
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more specific job related vocational training and thus to employment or as
work. With low wage differentials for skills in manual labor, early leaving is
seen as a rational choice. Despite the government’s goal that all young
people participate in some form of education until age 18, there is little
evidence that employers are providing such training. Since 1984, when the
under 10% of the United Kingdom’s workforce, that figure had only increased
to 15% in 1994 (Unwin & Wellington, 1995). Reliable information has been
more difficult to locate for 16-18 year olds. For those not wishing to continue
in full time education and training and unable to obtain employment, there is
different forms of Youth Training, one being industry-based and the other
Funding for both forms is administered through the Training and Enterprise
training and whilst the firm-based provision has a slightly better reputation,
Youth Training has always suffered from an extremely poor image by young
people and parents. There has been sustained criticism of the low level of
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training and qualifications actually provided and only 34% of participants
actually complete a full NVQ with most of these at the lowest levels (1 and 2)
nothing else is available, with young people continuing to aspire to a paid job
danger of long term unemployment and social exclusion from the labor
market.
the 1960s apprenticeship had been the main route for transition to skilled
The new model differs from traditional apprenticeship in that formal training
apprenticeships was 150,000 across all industrial sectors but in 1994 there
(1995) found that the vast majority of the apprentices were white and 88.7%
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Construction, and the Steel Industry were entirely male. One sector, Retail,
had equal numbers of males and females. The majority (72%) had been in
pay with the highest paid occupational sectors in Marine and Engineering,
person was attached to (if any). Despite this, nearly all the apprentices felt
their work based route was ‘a cut above’ Youth Training. Many felt
consists of over 50 systems or one for each state, territory, and island.
However, many of the administrators and governing boards for the 14,000
plus school districts (A Quarter Century, 1996) across the United States
appear to hold a different view. Since these school districts have by most
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community and technical colleges likewise may or may not be sensitive to
directives emanating from state and national levels. This situation can be
district may be more reactive by choosing to lag behind everyone else in the
educational reform across the United States can thus present tremendous
change at the local level. Money is typically available for short time periods
(e.g., one to five years) and requires states and localities to make significant
implementing change can actually work very well but may cause change to
occur more slowly, thus resulting in some poorer school districts and
change many years after it has been fully implemented by the wealthy ones.
United States. One of the factors that appears to have stimulated the
position of the United States in the world economy (Finch, 1993). Over the
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past ten plus years, numerous reports have been published stating that the
United States has been falling behind other countries in areas such as
targeted at schooling and/or the workplace and called for major structural
changes and improvements. Concern about the need for these changes and
improvements has resulted in (1) major shifts in the ways businesses and
students’ future work needs. As Gray (1996, April, p. 530) notes, in the
United States during the next ten years “at least one-third of all graduates of
education. The outlook is even worse for those with graduate degrees.” This
situation, coupled with the dismal employment opportunities for high school
dropouts and high school graduates who have not developed highly
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educators and employers have begun to recognize that in terms of the sub-
university degree labor market, education has neither met business and
industry needs nor the needs of students who want to obtain good jobs when
they graduate from high schools and community and technical colleges. This
acceptance by those who are in the best position to implement this reform
transition system. And, until quite recently, most national level policy
makers have chosen to consider school and work as separate entities. The
transition between education and work has thus tended to occur more
funding for vocational education has existed in the United States since 1917,
work transition originated with the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied
grounded in the notion that the United States is falling behind other nations
federal support for vocational education. Among its various provisions, the
operate education programs that have as their goal producing workers who
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function more effectively and thus increase United States competitiveness in
workplace. For example, this law shifted emphasis from reactive and rigid
and vocational studies. Also included in the Act were provisions for using
Tech Prep to formally link high school and post-high school technical studies
learning, and connecting activities that link the school- and work-based
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and business, industry, public service, and community representatives in
been in effect for only a few years, several states passed similar legislation
that predates the national act. These states have had more time to begin
has existed in the past. This means school-to-work transition in the United
States includes some states and localities that have had over five years
experience with the reform. These early adopter states and schools have
for many years, programs have tended to rely on the expertise and creativity
Perkins II legislation and the School-to-Work Opportunities Act have, for the
and provided money so state and local educators can link with business,
more of an incubation stage than being fully grown and healthy. For some of
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meaningful school-to-work systems established. Other states may not be as
reform may slow down and eventually stop altogether. This would be
A CROSS-NATIONAL COMPARISON
Many differences exist between the four countries in terms of STW policies
and practices. The most evident differences between the countries are
highlighted.
United States
The STW transition issue has only recently been formalized, and at
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oriented.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom has internal differences (like the USA) but in
STW transition has become an issue since the onset of mass youth
unemployment.
of adolescents.
program longer.
Germany
Traditionally, skilled labor, the occupation, and the Dual System are
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held in high esteem, not only at the bottom end of the job hierarchy
but at the top end as well (for example, one third of all university
The Netherlands
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students focus on pre-employment graduation.
STW transition, than the comparisons become less complicated. Why did
countries choose certain solutions? Why did they not select others? Can
the reader.
disconnection between the VET market on the one hand, and the labor
configuration. The way in which the VET system does this depends on three
the STW transition configuration, and the level of national regulation. These
the general education level of students in VET programs, work ethics and/or
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level in which they are oriented toward the educational supply side, the
industrial demand side, or the Dual system. They also vary according to the
regulations, there are quite different general education laws, labor laws,
social security laws, and regulation policies. As can be seen in the country
Despite the variation in all these factors and the wide differences in
national systems must face the tensions that exist between the VET market
and the labor market. This is not only caused by imperfections at the
qualification supply side of the market. The qualification demand side also
labor market may differ considerably. Besides this, wide variations can be
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and the supra-organizational contextual configuration.
policies and practices, and support systems vary. And regarding the context
and the STW transition as a specific field within this system contributes to
There are several reasons for this. First, the VET system is more cost-
the fact that employee costs are the most important factor in the total costs
are quite high, the costs per day per student are far less. This is also due to
the long periods of VET instruction students receive when they are enrolled
do not often exceed five percent of the working time, which is in most cases
less than ten days per annum. This excludes intensive career oriented VET
turn assists them in climbing the career ladder. In most cases employees
themselves carry the main burden of costs associated with these programs.
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across countries. This belief is related to the strength and perceived added
value of the VET system as a whole. And it leads to the paradoxal situation
that when the VET system is weak, organizations choose a micro economic
way, organizations are brought into a prisoner's dilemma: on one hand they
want to reduce their labor costs, which means that they should rely on the
competitor who may invest less in training and development, and therefore
have a better margin to pay higher salaries. So, investing in the VET
CONCLUSION
described in this article, formalization of VET can be fruitful, but it does not
regulate STW transition nor does it solve its own problems. On the contrary,
independently from the formalization of VET. They result from tensions that
exist between the VET market and the labor market. It is especially the case
when the labor market is not regulated by formalization structures that exist
for the VET system. This is a characteristic that emerged in all four of the
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countries that were examined. Countries that want to solve their STW
transition problems may choose to start with this conclusion: more effective
regulation than in the VET system. In any case, overcoming STW problems
must take the interaction of the VET system and the labor market system
into account. Various stakeholders from both sides should communicate and
END NOTES
The term ‘social qualifications’ (social competence) is used in curricula for vocational training adopted by the
German Ministries of Education to designate the ability to perceive and comprehend social relations, situations,
spheres of interest and conflicts as well as to deal with social situations and come to an understanding in such
situations in a rational and responsible manner. This includes, in particular, the willingness to take on social
responsibility and show solidarity.
2Although the systems for school-to-work transition in Scotland and the North of Ireland are
broadly similar, there are significant differences in institutional and educational structures
and systems.
REFERENCES
Adamski, W., Grootings, P., & Mahler, F. (1989). Transition from school-to-
Berryman, S. E., & Bailey, T. R. (1992). The double helix of education and
the economy. New York, NY: Institute on Education and the Economy,
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Society for Training and Development.
Becker, W., & Meifort, B. (1994). Pflegen als Beruf - ein Berufsfeld in der
Berichte zur beruflichen Bildung, 169. Berlin: BIBB [Federal Institute for
Vocational Training].
Reports from 1993], Chapter 6.15 and 6.16, Bad Honnef: Author.
and Science.
Dercksen, W.J., & Van Lieshout, H., assisted by Kamps, H. & Wijnands, Y.
in the link between education and work). The Hague: SDU Uitgeverij.
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nature of vocational education research. Journal of Vocational Education
Gray, K. (1996, April). The baccalaureate game: Is it right for teens? Phi
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Author.
Paris: OECD.
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Lessons from the modern apprenticeship. The Vocational Aspect of
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1