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Note
This description of the Phononics end Morphology of the Afar (Dankali)
between the cla.ss II causitives that take the regular cla-ss II indicators
and those which take class I indicators or a com.bina.tion of both, A
;7;
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TABLE OE CONTENTS
0
Introduction
0.1
0.2
1
1
0*3
0.4
Dialects
Relation to Saho
Inf ormants
Phonemic s
1.1
1.1*1
1.1.2
No.nvocoids
Phonemes used only in foreign
loan words
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.2
1.3
Suprasegmental phonemes
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3. 2.1
may oc cur
1.3. 2. 2
1
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
Morphophonemic changes
5
5
5
6
Morphologically defined
Morphology
2.1
The Verb.
2,1.0
1.4
1.4.1
1.4.2
2.1.1
2.1.1.1
2.1.1.1.1
Inflection
Regular verbs
Pormation of the four stems of
the verb
2.1.1.1.1.1
2.1.1.1.1. 2
2.1.1.1,1. 3
2.1,1.1.1. 4
2.1,1.1. 2
2.1.1.1.3
2.1.1.1.4.
2.1.1.1.5 .
2.1.1.1.6
2.1.1.1.7
2.1.1.1.8
7
7
7
7
7
8
9
10
Intensive s
Causative
11
12
Benef active
Passive
15
18
Inf initive
Personal Pronominal Subject
Indicator
Pluralizer of personal Pro
nominal subject
20
21
22
2.1.1.1.9
2.1.1.1.10
Gerund or Substantive
23
Negativizer
2.1.1.1.11
Participle
24
25
''t
2.1.1.1.12
2.1.1..1.13
2.1.1.1.14
2.1.1.1.15
2,1,1,1.16
2.1.1.1.17
2.1.2
2.1. 2.1
27
Conditional Indicator
28
Pronominal Object
29
Positional Prefix
Adverbial suffixes /-ka/and /ksa/
Object suffix /-im/
Derivation
Infinative indicator of Glass I
29
29
30
30
verb imperfeat
2.1.2.2
2.1. 2. 3
2,1. 2. 4
2.1.2. 5
2.1. 2. 6
2.1. 2.7
2.1.1. 2
2.1.1. 2.1
/-ak/
and
/-uk/
33
/li'o/
and /-yo/
Nouns
Native Texts
30
31
31
Negativizer
Future action
2.2
2.2.1
2. 2.1.0
2. 2.1. 5
30
32
32
33
Conjugation of
2. 2.1.3
2. 2.1.4
/a'ne/
2.1.1. 2. 2
2.1.1, 2*3
2.1.1. 2,4
2.1.1. 2. 5
2. 2.1.1
2. 2.1. 2
plus
/kinni 'yo/
'I am'
Conjugation of /-inni'yo/
33
34
34
34
35
35
35
Introduction,
Uses of Singular,
Plural and Unit
Distinction of sex
35
36
Subject-object Relation
Formation of Singular From Unit
Form
39
39
39
i
1.
0.
Introduction
0.1
about 27,000 in Eritrea. Much of the Afar country with few exceptions
consists of vast deserts. Through much of this desert land the nomadic
Afar tribesmen wander with their herds of camel and goats in search of the
meager pasture. Along dry river beds that. occasionally flood with water
from the mountains further inland, and in other places scattered through
the deserts, grass- and bushes may be found that afford pasture for their
them, usually the women, make the trip every third day to water their
beasts and to bring back heavy goat skins of water for their small palm
mat huts. In many places the Dankali natives camp under a thorn tree or'
under the shade of a large rock without even a simple palm mat hut for
shelter. The diet of the nomads consists basically, of milk and butter
with very occasional meat, and grain purchased with the money obtained
from the sale of hides,
There are some loan Arabic words and other evidence of Arabic influence,
though this, influence is not as pronounced as in the related Saho lan
guage. Apparently the Afar has certain kinships with the Galla and Som
ali languages though perhaps only through loan influence.
0.2
Dialects
There are a number of distinct dialects in the Afar. These can pro
bably be divided into three main dialects with gradations between. I have
classed them' as the Aussa dialect (of which I know very little personally
and am classing it as a separate dialect on the basis of information se
cured from hatives), the Southern Afar, and the Northern Afar. The
Southern dialect extends from Erench Somaliland northward as far as Eddwhich is about one hundred and twenty miles north along the coast from
Assab. The Northern dialect begins with Thio and extends north through
the Buri Penninsula and on to the Dahlac islands off from the main port
of Massawa. West from the coast near the Ethiopian border at Baada the
Erench Somaliland.
0.3
Relation to Saho
The Saho and Afar can probably be classed as one language although
!
-2The Saho is divided into three main dialects ; The Assaorta, Miniferi', and Hadu (often
called Hazu by other tribes). The Iroh and Debrimela like the above three
the extreme dialects are not mutually understandable.
the Miniferi dialect. The Debrimela is very close to the Miniferi. The
differences in the Irob are probably more in intonational patterns than
1
in vocabulary or grammar.
The widest dialectical divergences exist between the Assaorta and
the Southern Afar. (I am leaving the Aussa dialect out of this classi
fication because I am not personally well enough acquainted with it. )
The Miniferi approaches the Northern Afar and is understood to quite some
extent by the people of northern Dankalia, The Hadu is far closer to the
Northern Afar and probably partakes as much of Dankali characteristics
as it does of the Saho though it has generally been classed as a dialect
of Saho. I have sometimes observed members, of the Miniferi tribe re
ferring to the Hadu as distinct from the Saho as well as from the Afar.
The Hadu
Assaorta, Mini-
feri, Irob, Hadu, Northern Afar, Southern Afar. It is my guess that the
Aussa dialect should be listed at the bottom of the list.
Inf ormants
0.4
Much of my earlier material on the Afar was obtained in Assab from
Hamed Ederis, a young man from the village of Beilul about forty miles
north of Assab. Erom him I obtained quite a collection of native folk
stories and other valuable text material. The two texts included at the
end of the morphollgy were given by Hamed Ederis although I have revised
the phonemic writing in them with the help of other informants. Although
Hamed Ederis was my chief informant in Assab, I worked at various times
with a number of other Dankali men. That work was considerably slowed by
the necessity then of working largely with monolingual informants. The
difficulty of keeping one informant in our employ for an extended period
also added to the difficulty. In my first year in Assab we worked with
fourteen different Afar informants. Their disinclination to work of any
kind along with their love of their own simple village life and especially
of the intoxicating sap of the dum palm tree, along with other factors
makes them unsteady workers at any job. Often after their first months
pay, they go back to their native villages and are never again seen by
their employers. In recent months as I have been working on the morphology, I have worked largely with Abdu Rohoman, a native from the area above
Baada
His dialect is the Northern Afar, although it has far closer affin
ities to the Southern dialect than the dialect of Thio, which can probably
3be considered the extreme Northern dialect. The native texts are written
in the Southern dialect. There seems to he. very little differences in the
morphology between the Southern and Northern dialects but the main differ
ences are in certain items of vocabulary.
1.
Phonemic s
1.1
1.1.1
a
t
t
d
/d/.
When the
/d/
follows a
/r/
vowel?
there is
preceeding it very
'
S
k
1.
?
h
f
S
y
h
m
n
1
/l/
/ha'de/
'I, he poured r
Voiceless labiodental central flat fricative, /fa 'he/ 'it
boiled'
Voiceless alveolar grooved fricative, /fas/
'axe t
Voiced alveolar grooved fricative, /'zambi/
'sin'
Voiceless alveopalatal grooved fricative. //ira'?a/
'sail t
Voiced palatal central, flat fricative, /yeme 'te/
'he came I
Voiceless glottal central flat fricative, /bah/
'bring i
Voiced bilabial rounded fricative, /alu'wa/
'animal i
Voiced bilabial frictionless nasal, /da; 'me/ 'I bought i
Voiced alveolar frictionless nasal, /'danan/
'donkey'
Voiced alveolar lateral. Tongue touches slightly further, back
Voiceless tense pharyngeal spirant,
/l/.
/ 'hayla/
/di'gib/ 'wedding i
in (little).
'powers strength i
Voiced alveolar tap. The tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge
once between vowels. Word initially and finally and before
consonants it becomes an alveolar trill, /ra'kub/ 'adult malecamel '
/ro'zan/
'storied house l
1.1.3
i
e
a
u
1.1.4
Suprasegmental phonemes:
Stress,
/'bada/
son
1.2
will go'.
Word initial vowels are preceeded regularly by a glottal stop.
/ 'ay/o/
'hay' (J'ay/o)
A glottal stop occurs regularly after the imperative form of the verb
when it ends in a vowel, stop, or spirant or /y/. /fu:?/
'suck out'
1
i
(fu:?.')\ /gar'?a/ I steal (gar ?a .' )
Word final stress is accompanied by a high tone,
(giti ' te )
The free alterants of the conditional morpheme
/-ki/, /-hi/,
and
/n/
/k/
/giti'te/
/-k/,
paths
which are
/-ka/,
1.3
1.3.1
'
come together, the second and third consonant are separated by a vowel.
b. There are vowel clusters of two vowels only /mahi a/ 'wages
'
When in affixation three vowels come together, one of- the vowels, usually
the third, is often dropped.
c.
/da'gayg/
e.
'minutes',
/is'kir/
'get drunk'.
/dadday'te/
t
i
1.
is used to indicate a non-phonemic glottal stop,
writing is enclosed in ( )
'
'.
'I
Phonetic
:s
1.3. 2.1
b.
bt
bd
/hab 'habte/
/istib'de/
'I began I
b?
/qab'?ita/
'leopard I
tb
tk
/'?otbi/ 'south'
/itki'bir/ 'be proud r
dg
/idgi'fis/
kt
k?
?t
c
bb
tt
dd
gg
kk
BB
//
yy
mm
nn
11
rr
1.3. 2. 2
.ie
'watermelon I
'cause to kill'
/ekke'le/
/haffu'e/
/ 'ussuk/
/i/'/e/
/ 'f ayya/
/'ramma/
/kin 'ne/
/mosl'le/
'I think i
'it bloated up !
'he
i
'
'up !
'down i
'he is
'
'I shaved !
/ waharri'e/
oe-
oa
/roa; '/ini/
ue
io
ui
ia
1.4
will froth up i
'storied house i
i
his fist
Morphophonemic changes
/sis/
becomes
...J
-6-
/dak' sis/
'cause to dig'
/te/
becomes
/buruk'te/
/t/
/s/, /d/,
or
/d/,
the
/t/
Thus ;
Morphologically defined;
a. In the verbs when a word final stressed syllable ends in /a/, /e/,
or /y/, an /-h/ is. added. This /-h/ is invariable when the verb preceeds
a form of the verb /a'ne/. It is usual elsewhere but may be omitted.
an/ I
' went ' .
/-h/
b. When in the perfect stem of the verb an /// occurs as the final
stem consonant, this /// is usually reduced to /s/ in the imperative form.
This reduction is usual in the Northern dialect but not absolute.
Perfect
Imperative
/aq'meh
fell'
-7e,
/s/
is replaced by the
///
phoneme.
Morphology
2.10
Glass I
/ali'fe/
'he closed1
Class II
Inflection
first stem consonant but which follow the initial stem vowel have been
classed as prefixed rather than infixes. Morphemes which are suffixed
to the last consonant of the stem but which are followed by the final
stem vowel have been classed as suffixed rather than infixes.
2.1.1.1.1.1
/ge 'deh
ka;
/alif'te/
'she shut'
The final perfect stem vowel of class II verbs like those of class
/e/.
I is always
verb), may
/a/.
forms of the perfect stem with the pronominal subject prefix is on the
final syllable.
the stem.
vowel
/i/
That is, for example, a class II verb which begins with the
usually retains the /i/ for all its vowels except for the final
/e/
stem indicator. The same is usually true of the other vowels. However, this . is only a tendency and there seems to be no possible formation
of rule S' that will describe the many cases in which the initial' vowel is
not carried throughout the stem.
ClassII
Perfect
/ o sgo 're/
/iniki se/
/ub 'le/
/ed 'he/
/ o $ga '.?e/
I hit'
I fell'
I looked
I said'
I buried
Imperative stem
2.1.1.1.1. 2
The imperative stem is used in forms which express a command.
/ge d/
/o ' qom/
'go
'
'eat
vowel of the perfect stem. A long vowel of the perfect is usually reduced
to a short vowel. A final double consonant or consonant cluster immedi--ately proceeding the final
/e/
Perfect
Imperative
/kal/
/mol/
'cut off'
'shave '
/kay/ 'call by name i
/he/
I put
'
The imperative of class II verbs may form the stem by simply dropping
the final /e/ of the perfect stem. This., subject to the modifications
listed belovf, is the most common method of forming the imperative stem
of these verbs-.
Class II
Perfect
/uhuru 'se/
Imperative
I cut down
I killed by blow
I plowed '
-9form the imperative is the most common change, many of the verbs also
change one or more of the vowels in the imperative form. These changes
do not seem to follow any regular pattern and so the imperative form must
always he listed*
/eme'te/
'I came', /am/ 'come' is very irregular. Apart from a few irregular verbs
such as this the chief unpredictable feature of these imperative stems is
the vowel changes.
In the imperative stem long vowels, of the perfect stem are usually
shortened. Double consonants or consonant clusters immediately preceeding
the final /e/ of the perfect stem are reduced to single consonants as for
With the exception of the final /h/ which may freely be
suffixed to, or not suffixed to the vowel or /y/ final imperative forms,
there cannot be a final cluster of consonants in the imperative form.
(see 1.4.2 on page 6). The consonant cluster of the perfect stem is
class I verbs.
If the consonant cluster is /y// the /y/ is dropped and the ///
is reduced to /s/. In a few forms the /e/ is not dropped but is replaced
vowel.
/y/.
verbs.
Class II
Perfect
/e 'he/
/ o ' de/
/er 'de/
/or 'be/
2.1.1.1.1. 3
Imperative
I gave
'I tied
I
' ran '
'I went at night
/u 'huy/
'give
/u'diy/
/e 'rid/
/o 'rob/
go at night '
Imperfect stem
The imperfect stem is used as the basis for forms that express in:ompleted action. The stem itself does not convey a definite temporal
Idea and forms based on this stem may be used to express action in the
'
'
/e/, in
/e/
is re-
Class I
Perfect
Imperfect
/ka 'la/
/mo ; 'la/
/ge 'da/
/hay 'a/ .
I go, will go 1
'I put, will put'
-10The imperfect stem of class II verbs is formed Toy changing, the first
and sometimes other vowels of the perfect stem.
The initial vowel is
xegularly changed to /a/. The final /e/ of the perfect stem is retained.
This final /e/ may in some .dialects freely fluctuate with /a/ in the
first person singular and third person masculine singular forms of the
verb when -conjugated with the forms of /a'ne/. (See page 6,- paragraph c).
The other vowels of the imperfect stem are usually the same as those of
the perfect stem. However, in a small number of class II verbs the mid
vowels may also change. This change from the vowels of the perfect stem
is usually to
/a/
/i/.
/ibbi'de/
/idigi'le/
/osb'be/
'I heard1
/oqo'?e/ 'I carried on shoulder'
/ ohku 'me/ I settled, judged
/ulus 'se/
I kneaded (bread)
/abbi'de/
/asbbe/
'I hear1
/ahku 'me/
/alu; *se/
I settle,
judge
I knead (bread)
Perfect
/erne 'ne/
Imperfect
believed'
/esle'me/
/erne 'te/
'I remembered'
/ami 'ne/
/asli'me/.
/ama'te/
/ashas'se/
/yoy/os'me/
/yay/as
'It spoiled
'me/
'It spoils, is
spoiling, will spoil
2.1.1.1.1. 4
/'bahu/
'shall I bring?'
Perfect
/ka'le/
/mos'le/
/ali'fe/
Jussive
'I shut'
The -jussive stem of class II verbs is regularly formed by changing
all the vowels of the perfect stem iio /a/ with the exception of the final
/e/ which is changed to /u/. (In Saho the final vpwel of the jussive
stem is /of ) The stress is placed on next to the final syllable.
I-
-11-
/irge'?e/
Jussive
/ar'ga?u/ 'shall I cut down? or
'let me cut down
/usgu.'de/
I slaughtered
/as'gadu/
/ibbi'de/
/imli'ke/
/uJauru'se/
/undu ' ?e/
Perfect
'I plowed'
I swallowed
'
'shall I slaughter?'
Intensive s
2.1.1,1. 2
a. The intensive of class I verbs is formed by reduplicating the
second stem consonant and its following vowel. However, when the second
stem consonant is preceeded by a vowel cluster, the initial consonant and
its following vowel are reduplicated.
The intensive form of the verb adds a superlative, intense aspect to
the original meaning of the verb. The intensive indicator may bo added
to all four stems, of the verb of both class I and- class II.
Class I Intensive s
Perfect
/wirigi'te/
/baq_ari'te/
/undugu'le/
/digas
'le/
'I punished'
Intensive
/wiririgi ' te/ 'I was intensely
startled '
/baqaqari 'te/ 'I was intensely
thirsty i
/undudugu 'le/
/digasgas
'le/
'
(benef active )
'I punished
severely'
/diga;gas 'la/
verely'
/digas 'gaslu/
'I punish se
(Imperfect)
'shall I punish
/digas'gasl/
(jussive)
'punish severely1
/bibiaki'te/.
severely?'
/biaki'te/
(Imperative )
(benef active )
b.
/d/
or /h/,
following vowel.
is
Glass II Intensives
Verb stem
/angal le/
/asgal 'le/
1
'I join'
'I mix 1
/osmo'se/
/asmo'se/
'I crushed'
/ussu'le/
I laughed'
'I crush'
Intensive
/angagal'le/ 'I join thoroughly
/osmomo'se/
/asmomo'se/
/uisusu'le/
*1 crushed to pieces i
-12-
/in?e 'be/
/ulus 'se/
'I hated'.
/in?e?e 'be/
'I knoadcd'
/uluslus'se/
/undu ?e/
/igi ' f e/
/eme 'ge/
/eke 'lc/
I
' swall owe d
/undudu ' ?e
/igigi'fe/
/ememe'ge/'I filled
'I killed'
I filled'
with,
vigor'
'
I
' thought
'
/uhuru 'se/
(passive )
'
I pi owe d '
2.1.1.1.3 Causative
a. The causative of class I verbs is formed by suffixing
/is/
to
/sis/
/sis/
/is/
/sama 'lis/
/damba'?is/
/bak'?is/
'crush
',
c onsume
/s/.
/t/
is not suffixed to
/s/
/is/
or
but the
With the causative form of the verb we have the following inflec-'
tion ;
Causative class I
/dam/
/dami 'se/
/ damis ' se/
/dami ' se/
/damis 'ne/
/damis *sen/
/dami 'sen/
Root;
dissolve
'
dissolve '
'
/da;m/
'buy'
Causative Imperative
/ dam 'sis/
/dam'sisa/
'cause to buy'
'cause to buy' (plural and polite form)
Causative imperfect
/ da ;msi 'sa/
/ da ;msis 'sa/
/ da :msi 'sa/
/da ;msis 'na/
/d. ;msis 'san(a)/
/ da ;msi 'san/
-13Causative perfect
/dasmsi 'se/
I caused to "buy'
/dasmsis 'se/
/dasmsi 'se/
/ da smsis 'ne/
/ da smsis 'sen/
/da smsi 'sen/
Causative jussive
'let me cause to buy, (or) shall I cause to buy?
/da ;m 'sisu
'let you, her cause to buy'
/ da sm'sissu/
/da ;m 'sisu/
/dasm'sisnu/'"
/ da ;m 'sissun/
/da sm 'sisun/
/is/
Root
/hawe sn/
causative suffix
Causative
'
/do?/
perspire
/do'?is/
/f ah/
'boil
/fahi'sa/
/ayyen/
/has aw/
'talk together
wedding)
'
'cause to perspire'
( imperative )
(imperfect)
we dding )
/hasa 'wisnu/
/sis/
'
'
causative suffix
/do sr/
/dasm/
'buy'
Causative
/dosrsi'se/ 'I caused to choose'
/da ;m 'sisu/ 'shall I cause to buy?'
/kur/
/kursi'sa/
/rnak/
'bend '
/mak'sis/
'choose
(jussive)
form but the class I suffix for the imperative form. Abdu,
however, in his speech uses far more class I causative suffixes with class
II verbs than other informants .with V'/hom I have worked. Sometimes also
a combination of characteristic class I and class II infixes are used by
some natives in their speech. This sort of combination seems to be more
j
'
-14-
/s/, /y/>
aiI(3-
Since there
vowel of the stem which immediately follows the first stem consonant.
/s/ is prefixed to verbs of class- II whose initial stem consonant
is
or
/rr/.
of
/rr/
has been
found. )
/y/ is prefixed to verbs whose initial stem consonant is any conson/y/ is prefixed to /r/ but
ant o ther than the ab ove 1
is t e d c ons onant s
not to /rr/. YYhen the /y/ is prefixed to a /w/, the /yw/ becomes /yy/.
/ys/ alternating freely with /y// is prefixed to verbs whose initial
/er're/
Causative perfect
'I .loaded'*
/irhi'de/
/ifri'de/
/iski're/
/ele 'ye/
'I slaughtered
'I judged'
'I got drunk'
I was lost'
/eshe'te/
/eyye '?e/
I caused to go out
Causative perfect
Perfect
I profited
/iksi 'be/
'I gossiped t
/ik/i 'f e/
/ittiki ; 'ye/ 'I dressed
I
/ef e ' ?e/
' gave drink '
'I believed'
/erne Jne/
/en>ge/
/ihbi 'de/
'I filled'
'I held'
-152.1.1.1,4
Benefactive
The henef active indicator for Tooth class I and classll verbs is
expressed by a suffix
/it/.
the final stem consonant, or to the stem plus the other affixes that
proceed- it in order of affixation. It is followed by the personal pro
nominal subject indicator and the stem vowel,
This suffix usually indicates that the action expressed in the verb
is for the benefit of the person or thing indicated in the pronominal
subject indicator,
/da ; 'me/
'I go in a circle
am confused' (Imperfect)
looked-
(Perfect)
!
/dasm/
/dasmsisi ' te/ 'I
Roots
'buy'
(Imperfect)
'sell for yourself ' (Imperative )
/eslem/
/ibbid/
'sell' (Assab)
/ele 'mit/
'take, hold'
/abbidi'te lio/
/usfur/
/asfa'ritu/
/ususl/
'laugh
/ususli'te/
/oy/ogori ' te/
/osgor/ 'hit'
'
Varies
to a consider
16
accepted 'but not preferred . alternant usage among other Afar peopLe,
/-it/
/tt-/, /ss-/,
prefix
/n/.
/?/ /g/
/q/
/r/
Sometimes
3).
When the verb has an initial double consonant of /gg/ and sometimes
the /tt-/ benefactive indicator is replaced by /dd/ and the follow
/bb/,
/ o :go 're/
/ oqo 'me/
/yaqulu 'xe/
/o : ?o 're/
/ ob 'be/
/e :me 'ne/
/ e : 'de/
/ede 'ge/
is
/tCV/.
/uhuru 'se/
/ttVO/
Benefactive
I plowed
/uttuhuru 'se/
1 hit
'
/esttes'de/
/e ttede 'ge/
'I sold' (Assab)
/e :le 'me/
/e stte sle 'me/
'I transplanted
/itki'le/
/ittaki 'le/
/ittigiyi 're/
/igiyi 're/
'I changed'
/itgiyi 're/ (clitic form)
I swallowed
/undu ' ?e/
/ottodode ' ?e/ (vowel change)
/iggi 'f e/
/eddegegi 'f e/ (vowel change)
'I killed'
/iggi 'le/
/eddegege 'le/
'I broke '
"
"
'I held*
/ibbi 'de/
/iddibbi 'de/
The benefactive indicator consists of the prefix /ss-/ under the
following circumstances:
1).
When the verb begins with a consonant cluster of which the initial
consonant is /s/. This /s/ is then dropped out before the consonant
that it preceeded in the stem.
2). When the verb contains an initial consonant cluster of ys/ or
/yd/.
I.
/s/
/usgu 'de/
/iski 're/
/eshes 'se/
/esket 'te/
/ussugu 'de/
I got drunk1
/oy/o s
'it spoiled'
/issiki 're/
/essehis 'se/
/esseket ' te/
/ossos'me/ 'I became
/essedeb 'be/
/usssusu 'le/
/esseyme ?e/
/essene 'be/
'me/
/eydeb 'he/
/u:su 'le/
/ eyme ' ?e/
/ene 'he/
/uq. '?e/
/ emeg 'ge/
'
'I laughed'
'I repaired'
and some
impover
ished '
/essemeg 'ge/
when the verb has an initial consonant cluster the initial consonant of
which is
/k/, /f/,
or
/d/
/bl/, /dh/
and
Perfect
'I profited'
'I slaughtered
'I said'
I
' milke d
'
'I tied'
'I saw'
'I cut down'
/ikkisisi 'be/
/eff e ' ?e/
/iff iriri 'de/
/iff ititi 'ne/
/infiti'ne/ (alternant form)
/irrihi ' de/
/edde 'he/
/iddigi 'le/
/uddi ' e/
/ubbu 'le/
/iggireri ' ?e/
regularly take the /-it/ benef ac-
consonants and vowels determining this indicator which have been observed
/ff/, /gr/,
and
Benef active
/iksi 'be/
/ef '?e/
/if ri ' de/
/if ti 'ne
AV
/n?/.
/y3/ ?
The cluster
/mb/
r:
-18-
alternate
/tt-/
prefix.
and
/lVl/
may also
Perfect
/en?ehi te/
/innikisi 'te/
/ittikiyi ' te/
/iydibbisi ' te/
/ululu 'se/
/ o smo 'se/
/ulus 'se/
join i
/ekkeli'te/
/eymezeni ' te/
/ululusi ' te/
/ o smosi 'te/
/ulus si 'te/
'I winnowed'
I crushed*
'I kneaded*
Three verbs that take irregular benef active indicators have been
discovered. Two of these take a /-sit/ suffix indicator instead of the
indicator. The other one takes both the '/ss-/ prefix .indicator in combination with the /-it/ suffix indicator, The /-sit/ suffix
appears as though it might be a causative -benef active form but in these
instances there seems to be no separate form without the /-s/. These
two forms can probably be c-onsidered causative -benef actives that take no
simple benef active form.
Perfect
Benef active
/erne 'te/ 'I came '
/emetisi ' te/ 'I came for my own
benefit'*
*
(note doubling of
/ or 'be/ 'I came at nigbt
/orobbesi ' te/
/b/) - -'I came at night for my
own benefit-'
regular
/-it/
/usui'le/
/ussusli' te/
I laughed
i;
I laughe d f or my - own
benefit
'
2.1.1.1.5
Passive
a. The passive of class I verbs is formed by suffixing the passive
indicator /im/ to the final stem consonant or to the stem plus other
affixes which proceed it in order of affixation,. The stem vowel follows
the passive suffix. In the passive form the subject of the verb is the
recipient of the action rather than the actor.
Class I Passives
Passive form
Ac tive f orm
/fi'ye/ 'he swept t
/f iyi 'me/ It is swept i
/alifi'me/'-, 'it
/kayyi 'me/
/dori'me lio/
'he- called*
is closed
I will be chosen',
yan/ 'it is cursed
/abari'mah
/kayyi 'me/
of /kayyi- 'me/
'he is called'
i
'I am called*
/kayyim'te/
-19To.
indicator is /m/ plus that vowel shortened, prefixed to the initial consonant of the stem. The original long vowel as well as the vowel fol
lowing the /m/ prefix are short in the passive form. The long vowel in
this case acts like a double vowel with the passive indicator /m/ pre
fixed to the second vowel. This original long vowel, however,, has been
classed phonemically as /V;/ rather than /YV/ because of other consider
ations.
/mV/
This
initial vowel of the stem is long regardless of what the first consonant
may be
indicator of class II
verbs is
/m-/
sonants it is
An
/nn/
before
or
/n-/.
/en 'ge/
/yernbe 'ge/
I filled'
/yin?e 'be/
/nn/
with
/mb/
is not regulars
the
./m/
before an
/n/
'he is hated'
/?/.
/yombo?o're/
/nd/,
'it is filled
/yinne?e 'be/
'he hates
An
is replaced by
/mb/ s
/nd/<
'he is hidden'
Before
/bb/
the
prefix is replaced by a
/mb/
/d/
Thus s
/yiggi'fe/
/yibbi'de/
/yidgi'le/
/yindigi'fe/
/yindibi'de/
/yiddigi 'le/
'he is struck'
'he is caught'
'he broke'
it is broken
Clusters of three consonants are regularly divided by a vowel between the second and third consonants of the cluster. In the following
:
two verbs, however the cluster of three consonants that would occur with.
the passive prefix is divided in a different manner. This irregularity
/yirge '?e/
' he
'
swall owe d '
A few irregular formations have been noted that do not seem to fit
the pattern of the other passives and so must be listed as irregular
f ormations ;
/ummo'se/
'I crushed'
/tungu'le/ 'she copied
/tunnoso 'me/
/tumugu'le/
are as follows?
Active form
'he created'
'he transplanted
'he hated'
Passive form
/erne de 'we/
.u
-20-
/esde'we/
1.1.1.6
Infinitive
a. The infinitive of class I verbs is uninflected and will be
treated under derivational forms.
b. The infinitive of class II verbs- is expressed by an /o/ suffix,
This infinitive indicator is suffixed to the final consonant of the roo*t
(replaces the final stem vowel. ) In Afar the infinitive seems to occur
only wit?n the imperfect stem of the verb.
Both may
/'baho
arge'?o ge '&e/
'Wood to-cut-I I-went
./'baho
'
/'baho
'
'
With the verb "want" or similar verbs the gerund would normally be
used especially if a more definite time element is involved.
The above
listed iirustrations of the infinitive are not meant to imply that the
same sentences could not use a gerund form. These sentences would use
Saho.
In many cases where the Saho uses the infinitive, the Afar uses a
gerund form.
Conjugation of the imperfect infinitive
/arge '?e/
I cut down i
to cut down'
/arge ' ? o/ 'I
/targe '?o/ 'you, she to cut down'
/yarge '?o/ 'he
to cut down '
/narge ' ?o/
we
to cut down '
/targe '?ona/ 'you (pi) to cut down'
/yarge ' ? ona/ 'they to cut down'
I
/yangu'lo/
'he
/nangu Mo/
/ tangu Mona/
/yangu Mona/
2.1.1,1.7
to copy
to copy !
'you (pi)
to copy I
I they
to copy I
we
a.
-2l~
I is suffixed to the final consonant of the stem or to the stem plus any
other- affixes which preceed it in order of affixation. The stem vowel
follows the subject indicator. The personal pronominal subject is indi
cated by a zero morpheme for the first person singular and for the third
person singular masculine and for the third person plural, . Gender is
distinguished only in the third person singular forms. The second person
pronominal subject is indicated by a
/t/
feminine pro
stem consonant
is replaced by the
later.
/-n/
In the first person plural form of the verb when the final stem
/d/,
consonant is
/gen 'da/
Roots /dag/
touch '
/da'ge/ 'I touched
Perfect stem
/dag'ne/ 'we touched'
/dak'te/
'
/fak/
Roots
/fa'ka/
/fak ' ta/
/fa'ka/
open
'I open t
'you, she opens '
'he opens
'
/ka?al/
Roots
/fca?a Mi'su/
/ka?a'lissu/
/ka?a'lisu/
'shall I wash?'
Roots /ged/
go i
/ge 'da/ I
/ged 'da/
'wash'
'go
'he goes
/da 'gen(e)/
'they . touched
'
Imperfect stem
/ebbia/
Root;
/ebbi'de/
/ebbid'de/
/ehbi'de/
/ebbid 'ne/
/ebbid 'den/
/ebbi 'den/
'I perspired'
'you, she perspired'he perspired'
we perspired
'you (pi./perspired
they perspired
The final vowel in the second and third person plural forms of the
perfect and imperfect is an optional one which freely fluctuates with
The
indicator of the second person singular and plural and of the third
person feminine singular is /t-/. The indicator of the third person
masculine singular and of the third person plural is /y-/.
The only
The indica
tor for the first person plural is /n-/. As in class I verbs a pluralizing /-n/ suffix distinguishes the second and third person plural forms
from the singular.
Class II verbs with personal pronominal subject indicator
Root;
I cut down
/a?ab/
/a ' ?abu/
/ ta ' ?abu/
/ya ' ?abu/
' we
'drink'
' they
'let me drink'
"
'let us drink'1
/uikurus/
Jussive
cut down'.
'plow'
'we came
'
'
'
they came I
Perfect
../ukuru'se/
/tuhuru 'se/
/nuhuru.'se/ .
/tuhuru 'sen/
/yuhuru 'sen/
'I plowed1
'you, she plowed f
/yuhuru.'se/ 'he plowed r
'we plowed'
.
2 .1,1.1. 8
/-n/
the stress
Pluralizing
/gad da/
/ge da/
1
Imperfect
.'you go'
'he goes i
/ged'dan(a)/
/ge. 'dan (a)/
go'
-23Perf ec t
/tirge'?e/
/yirge1?e/
imperfect
you cut down
/ targe 1 ?an ( e )/
he cuts down
' they
In compound verbs in which the second verb acts very much like a
suf f ix
/wayta/
'
/targe ?u way tan (a)/ 'you (pi.) are about to cut down
/yarge ?u 'wa/
/a'ne/,
the
/a'ne/
2.1.1.1.9
'
Gerund or Substantive
verbs by a
/m/
suffix.
stem vowel and follows the plural subject indicator in order of affixa
tion. This gerund indicator may be suffixed to the perfect and imperfect
jussive stem.
be used as an adjective.
/ge 'dam
/ge 'dem
'mara
/ge 'dem
'mara
'
'
fa
' da/
Stem /ge
I want to go
'
'da/
I go-'
-24*
/ged'dam fad' da/
/gen
fa
' da/
dam f an 1 da/
we wanted to go'
'
Stem
f ad dan ( a )/
'
' they
/irge'?em fa'de/
/tirge'?em fad'de/
2.1.1.1.10
Negativizer
/ma/
II verbs.
to the initial vowel plus any other prefixes which proceed it in order of
aff ixation.
When the
/ma/
/ma-/.
/-e/
imperfect. )
Imperfect negative of class I verb,
/fa'ka/. 'I
open i
Imperfect negative
Imperfect positive
/ami 'ne/
/a sli 'me/
/ama ' te/
/ashas 'se/
/abbi 'de/
/aqo ' ?e/
/a 'he/
/ ta 'he/
/ya 'he/
/na 'he/
'
'we give
'
'
'
Participle
with a main verb. .The action expressed in the perfect participle is for
the purpose or end of the action expressed by the main verb. Thus :
/go 'deh
kay 'eyo/
ka t
'I-having-gone him I-will-call.
or 'I will go and call him.
The going here is for the specific purpose of calling him. If the actor
went for some other purpose than for calling him, and the calling him
were incidental to his going, the imperfect participle /ge
have been used.
/ge 'deh
akaka; 'ye/
he
-having-g
one
him-he -called.
'
/ged 'deneh
'dah/
would
-2 6go to the post office," and if the going to the post office had no rela
/afne/, /su'ge/
verb.
Thus customary action in present time or action in present process
is expressed by the use of the imperfect participle followed by the con
/a'ne/.
Class II verb.
1. arge
/
' ?ah an/
'you
(pi.)
ore
going, usually go
e tc
.'
To express action in past time that has just recently been completed, the perfect participle is used followed by the conjugation of the
imperfect stem of
/a'ne/.
/god'deh tan/
/ge 'deh yan/
/gen 'deh nan/
/gedde'neh ta 'non/
/gede 'neh ya 'nen/
'
we went
'
they went
Class II verb
an/
/ tirge ' ?eh tan/
'
he cut down
'
we cut down
'
ta 'nen/
/e/
to
/a/.
..
the perfect participle is used followed Toy the form of the perfect stem
of /e 'no/.
Class I verb
I went
Class II verb
/irge'?eh en/ 'I cut down' (referring to action completed in the
more distant past)
/ tirge ' ?eh ten/ 'you, she cut down'
verb.
/baho
'Wood
/a 'tu
'you
targe '?eh
you-cutting
jo 'ab
letter
ufdur/
'
'gidi
(when)
return.
wood, return.
ged/
soq
(when ) market go.
'When you
have read the letter, go to the market
takri 'eh
'gidi
'
jou-r ending
noun.
'hada-
'hada
'
He -having-cut
'
You-having-cut stick
stick
bah/
bring.
bah/
bring.
'
'
or
'
There are other uses of the Imperfect participle apart from its use
with /'gidi/.
There are also other uses of both the perfect and imperfect
participles with other verbs such as /su'ge/ etc
the details of which
have not yet been worked out.
2.1.1.1,12
Immediate future
.,
"About to"
The imperfect root of Class I and dares II verbs plus the suffix
/u/,
-28when followed immediately "by the conjugation of the verb /wa/, is used to
express action in the immediate future. This form of the verb might well
be translated "about to ", It indicates action that one is on the verge
(The verb /wa/ alone means "lack, want". /wa/j especially in
of doing.
/we/
ya 'beyo/
ka ;lih
wak
or freely, When
I-Will-talk.
him-with
when
I-am-about-to-see
'
(The thought is that I am expecting to see
I see him, I will tell him.
him shortly. )
/ablu 'wa
Class I verb
2.1.1.1.13
Conditional indicator
/ki;/, /hi;/,
/k/
or
/ki/,
or is some instances,
/ka;/,
perfect, or jussive stem, or to the stem plus other affixes which preceed
it in order of affixation. This suffix usually may be translated "if"
though sometimes it conveys more of the temporal idee, of "when." The
/k/
and
/ki/
the
/ki;/
/ki/
and
/k/
The
/ki ;/
/hi;/
and
with rising
However,
/yi;/ with
rising pitch are more common in certain dialects of Afar than in others.
The
/ki.;/ with
It
is, however, used by many speakers of northern Afar though not as common
ly as in the southern Afar. The /hi;/ and /yi;/ with rising pitch occur
in the speech of the southern Afar and appears to be more common in the
speech of the back-country nomads than in the coastal villages. (A rising
/yo/ with
Danakil and is especially common among the nomadic and older people.)
do 'nik
yeme tek
a 'nu
edage 'deyo/
/ 'bera
Tomorrow sail-boob he -came -if I on-in-I-will-go.
do 'nik
yeme'teki; a 'nu
edage 'deyo/
/ 'bera
(Rising pitch on /ki;/) More common in southern Afar
tirge '?ek
/ha 'ho
bah/
'Wood
you-cut-if
bring.
or 'If you cut wood, bring it,
'
'
-2gka: 'heyo/
'If -he -wants him-I-will-give
/fa'dek
'
Pronominal object
The pronominal object indicator /aka/ is prefixed to the four stems
of the verb or to the stem plus any other affixes which preceed' it in
order of affixation. This prefix indicates a third person pronominal ob
ject of the verb, or it may indicate an impersonal object. The object
indicator may be used even though the object of the verb is expressed
separately. The final /a/ of the pronominal object indicator is dropped
when the object indicator is prefixed to a vowel.
/akawori 'se/ I told him'
/akayuktu 'be/ 'he wrote it '
/aked 'he/ I told him, said to him'
2.1.1.1.14
2.1,1,1.15
Positional prefix
/eda/
stems of the verb, or to the stem plus other affixes which preceed it in
order of affixation. The final /a/ of the positional indicator prefix
is dropped when the positional indicator is prefixed to a vowel.
/ge 'deyo/ 'I will go T
/edage 'dejro/ 'I will go on it i
/ama'teyo/ 'I will come'
/edama'teyo/ 'I will come on it'
/hay/ 'put '
/eda 'hay/ 'Put it in'
/he/ I
/eda 'he/ 'I put it in i
' put '
2,1,1.1,16
Adverbial suffixes /-ka/ and /ksa/
The adverbial suffixes /-ka/ 'before' and /ksa/ 'after' 'besides'
are suffixed to the imperfect, perfect, and jussive stems of the verb of
class I and class II, or to the stem plus any other affixes which preceed
it in order of affixation.
The /ksa/ suffix probably consists of the two morphemes, /-k/ and
/sa/ which in this instance occur always bound together. This suffix
occurs with nouns as well as with verbs. However, when it occurs with
nouns, the verb is usually omitted and understood by the context. In
Saho the /-k/ morpheme is suffixed to the verb and it is followed by the
temporal particle /ser'rah/ which is a free morpheme. The bound morpheme
/-sa/ in Afar is used with the same meaning and in the place of the free
morpheme /ser'rah/ in Saho.
/-ka/
'before i
/gede ka
ma'?o
fa 'da/
food
I-want. or 'I want food before I go, i
soq
ged 'dam
fad 'da/
/a'tu yi 'are tamate 'ka
my
'You
house you-come-bef ore market you-going you-want. i
'You want to go to the market before coming to my house. i
/-ksa/ 'after, besides i
gendek 'sa
ma 'ha ilia/
/kok
'You-from we-went-af ter what-spirit-have-you, i
'Since we left you, how have you been? i
n a 'ha;11a/
/nik'sa
'Prom-us-af ter what-spirit-have-you. i*
'Since we (left) how have
you been?' (This sentence means the same as the above but here the
verb is left unexpressed and the /-ksa/ is suffixed to the noun
instead. )
'I-go-before
'
'
-30-
/a'tu
temetek'sa
'You you-came -after
snake kit you. '
a 'ke-sa
snake
ko
you
toqo'me/
she-ate. '
2.1.1.1.17
/f adde 'nanim
'
'
ma 'le/
'He-has-thing he-has-not.
/lem
kah/
/ge 'tern
yoho
'You-get- thing me -to
2.1.2
2.1. 2.1
'
kring,
Derivation
The /o/ class I verk infinitive indicator is suffixed to the imperfect root. This form does not take any personal pronominal subject
indicator.
/a 'nu
ge 'do
ada 'ge/
'I to-go
I-know.
I know how to go. r (with the sense of
)
well,
knowing how to go
'
/ku'lum
'Dish
/ma'?o
'Pood
/ma'?o
/ma'?o
/ma'?o
/ma'?o
/ma'?o
goru'so
to-seek
ge 'da/
I-go,''I;go to seek fish.' 'I go fishing,
erne 'te/
I-came. ' 'I came to kuy food.
da 'mo teme 'te/
'You came to kuy food.'
da 'mo yeme 'te/
'He came to kuy food, i
da 'mo
to-kuy
'
'te/
teme 'ten/
yeme 'ten/
da 'mo neme
da 'mo
da 'mo
/ge 'do
'nama
'The-going two
hours to go,
sa
?at/
hour.
It takes two
'
2,1. 2. 2
form.
Class I Infinitive
/ge 'do
'nama
sa r ?at/
/mada'ra/
'nama
sa'?at/
2.1, 2. 3
Verbal adjectives
/ali'fit
yen bab/
'closed it-was door,
/ali'fut
bab/
yen
'
/ru'bimit
yen num/
'was-sent he-was man 1
le ;/
'boiled she-was water'
le ;/
'boiled sheis water' 'the water that is coming to a boil'
/fa'kimit
yen sun'duk/
'was-opened it-was box' 'the box that has been opened ' (passive )
/fa'kut
yen sun'duk/
'opened 'It-was box' the opened box' or 'the open box'
2.1. 2. 4
/-ak/
and
/-uk/
plus
/a'ne/
The imperfect stem of the verb uninflec ted followed by the suffix
/ak/
/ge 'dak
/go 'dak
/ge 'dak
/ge 'dak
/ge 'dak
/ge 'dak
en/
te 'ne/
ye 'ne/
ne 'ne/
te 'nen/
ye 'non/
'we used to go
'
'
Class II verb
1, See page
6c.
_2~
/h/.
end of the action expressed by the main verb, the perfect participle is
used.
/'bera
ge 'dah
kai
kay/
2.1. 2. 6
Future action
/li'o/
and
/-yo/
bound defective form /-yo/ to express action in future time. The differ
ence between the /li'o/ and /-yo/ is not always distinct. Often the two
seem to freely replace each other in common use. However, the /li'o/
form seems to express a more definite future idea. When the /-yo/ form
is used, there is probably a little loss definiteness and certainty
about the action contemplated in the future. (The Saho may use the
imperfect stem plus /li'o/ but this form does not seem to be as common
in Saho as in Afar. In Saho future artion is more regularly expressed
/ge 'de
/go 'de
/ge 'do
/ge de lino/
/ge 'de lit on/
/ge 'de Ion/
'
we will go
'
/go 'doyo/
/go 1 detto/
/ge 'dele/
'
I will go
you will go '
Class II
/arge'?e liyo/
/arge'?e lito/
/arge'?c le/
/arge'?e lino/
/argo'?e lit on/
/arge'?e Ion/
/li'o/
/ge 'deno/
/ge 'detton/
/ge 'doIon/
(li'yo)
' we , will
go
' they
will go '
I
' will cut down '
'you will cut down'
'he
'
'
'
-33Class II
/-jo/
/arge '?cno/
we will cut down wn
/a.rge ' ?eyo/ 'I will cut down1
'
/arge ' ?otton/ 'you(pl. ) will cut do/arge'?etto/ 'you will cut down
/argc'?elc/ 'he J she will cut down' /arge'?elon/ 'they will cut down'
Ncgativizer
2.1. 2.7
a. In class I and class II verbs action in past time is negated by
use of tho negative indicator /ma-/ prefixed to the perfect root along
with the- bound form of the defective verb /-innio/ suffixed to the root.
b. To negate a present imperative of a class I or class Il'verb,
the negative indicator /ma-/ is prefixed to the verb root and the imper
/mage
/mage
'din/
'dina/
'
Negative imperative
/marge '?in/
/marge '?ina/
do not cut
'
dovm ' (plural
& polite)'
2.1.1. 2
Outline conjugation of defective verbs
2,1.1. 2.1 Conjugation of /a'ne/ 'to live, be present
'
The verb
/a'ne
and perfect stems of the positive and negative. The /ane/ of Afar
apparently has a wider use than the same verb in Saho and includes some
of the uses of /ki'o/ in the Saho.
/a'ne/
/ta'no/
live, am present i
'we are, live'
'you (pi.) are, live i
/ya'non/ 'they
are, live'
/ma; 'na/
/ma'tana/
'I am not present,s etc. ' /ma'nana/ 'we are not present i
'you, she is not present '/ma ' tanan/ 'you(pl )are not present
/e 'no/
/te'ne/
/ye 'ne/
'
/ne no/
/tc- 'hen/
/ye 'nen/
-*34
/manan 'niyo/
/manan 'nino/
/manan nito/
/ma 'na/
/manan 'niton/
/manan 'non/
/ki'o/
This
verb is used to express the thought 'I am' in a sentence such a.s, 'I am
a man. ' In the third person singular it is frequently used to express
agreement with what the other party has said,
/kin'ne/
that is, 'I agree that what you have said .is so.
'it is correct',
'
/kinni 'yo/
'we are t
/kinni 'no/
/kinni 'ton ( o )/ 'you (pi.)
they are i
/kin 'non ( o )/
/kinni 'yo/
/kinni 'to/
/kin 'no/
I am
/kinni 'yo/
/maki ' o/ )
not '
Negative of
Saho
/ 'hinniyo/
/ 'hinnito/
/ 'hinna/
I
' am
/-inni 'yo/
are
'
/ 'hinnino/
/'hinniton/
/ 'hinnon/
'
__
__
Conjugation of /-inni'yo/
The hound, form /-inni'yo/ suffixed to the perfect stem of the verb
The
plus the negative prefix is 'used to .negate action in past time.
distinctive meaning of this hound form is difficult to determine.
i
f
we
/-inni 'no
/-inni 'yo/ 'I
2.1.1. 2. 3
/-inni 'to/
/-in'na/
2.1.1. 2.4
'he, it
---
'you, she
'
---
'you (pi.)
/-inni 'ton/
/-in 'non/
they
/li 'yo/
'
'I have
The verb /li 'yo/ 'moans I have.' when used alone. It is also used in
conjunction with other verbs, especially with a derived form based on the
imperfect stem of both classes of verbs to express action in future time.
(The Saho uses this same form buf apparently much more rarely. The
Conjugation of
Positive form of
/li 'yo/ 'I have '
/li'to/
Ac/
/li 'yo/
/ii'no/
/li 'ton/
/Ion/
you have
/luk 'on/
/luk 'ten/
/li 'yo/
'
'you(pi. ) have
'
they have
'we have
/e 'ne/
'I have r
'I had'
/luk 'non/
/luk te *nen/
'wc had
/luk/
-35
/lulc 'yon/
/luk
'ho had'
Negative form of
/li'yo
/man'tu/
I
' have
ye
'non/
/man 'nu/
/man' ton/
'
they had
'
'
/ma'lon/
/ma'le/
/-yo/
The bound form /-yo/ like /li'yo/ and its negative is also used with
2.1.1. 2. 5
,
Conjugation of
a derived form of the verb based on the imp erf oat stem to express action
in future time. (See page 31) When this form is used, the action contem
plated is less definiteand certa.in than when the /li'yo/ form is used.
The distinctive meaning of this form is difficult to determine. This
form apparently includes the personal subject indicator and the plural-
izer for the second and third persons plural and an additional morpheme
whose distinct meaning is difficult to determine. It does not follow
---
/-yo/
/-tto/
/-le/
'you
/-no/
/-tton/
/-Ion/
'
'he, she
2.2 Nouns
Inflection
2.2.1
2. 2.1.0 Introduction.
we
--- _
---
'you (pi.)
they
noun.
More often than not it refers to a single item in the class but it
viewed as a unit.
/waka 'liyta/,
'a companion'.
If he wore referring
'
unit form almost always refers to more than one individual item of the
,
group. * A different singular form would be used to refer to one single
strand of hair or to a single goat. The plural forms would refer to
The singular form which usually designates and emphasises the indi
vidual unit of the class is usually expressed by a final /-tu/ or /-to./
when it governs a masculine subject indicator in the verb and by /-'to/
when it governs a feminine subject indicator in the verb.
Unit
Singular
/da'gurt gf (n)
a strand of hair
/do'royta/ (m) 'a grain of dura
2*2.1.1.
/da'gur/
'hair'
' dura
grain
Distinction of sex
Separate forms are sometimes used in the unit and in the singular to
either the third person masculine or the third person feminine subject
indicator in the verb. The form of the verb used is determined by the
form of the noun.
/i ' daltu/
/idal'to/
/'ruga/
/ru'ga/
(n )
'old woman' (f)
'male calf' (n)
'female calf' (f)
/'kuta/
/ku'ta/
2. 2.1. 2
of the noun.
The singular and unit forms of the noun take a verb with the third
person singular masculine subject indicator or the third person feminine
subject indicator depending on the form of the noun. The plural of nouns
also takes a verb with a masculine or feminine subject indicator de
pending on the form of the noun. The plural form of most nouns takes a
verb with the third person singular subject indicator. A few, Hargely
personal, nouns in the plural take the third person plural form of the
-37Those nouns nay sometimes take the third person singular' feminine
subject indicator in the verb. When the third person singular is used
vo r'b
times used even though the form of the noun is such that a masculine
form would normally be expected.
/rugagi yanc 'ne/ 'there are calves' (3rd p, pi. vb. )
/ru 'gagi ta'ne/ (alternate form) (3rd p. fern. sing. vb. )
/s.i'nain yane 'no/ 'there are men' (3rd, p. pi. vb.)
(alternate form) (3rd p. fern. sing. vb. )
/si 'nan ta'ne/
In the singular and unit forms of the noun, the gender of the third
person singular subject indicator of the verb is determined as follows;
MASCULINE
The noun governs a verb taking the third person singular masculine
subject indicator when the noun contains a final vowel with the stress
on a non-f inal syllable
..
/ta'yirti ye 'ne/
there was a rich;man (3rd p. masc, sg. vb.)
/rupiah ' toli ya 'ne/ 'he is (there iff) an enemy ' (3rd p. m. sg. vb. )
/da;
ya 'no/
there is a stone
/;The noun in the unit and singular forms governs the third person
masculine subject indicator in the verb when tlio noun ends in a consonant
final, ..stressed syllable
/ra 'mad/
(m. )
'vein '
/sul'tan/ (m. ) 'sultan
FEMININE
The nOun in the unit end singular forms governs, the third person
feminine subject indicator in the.1 verb when the noun ends in a vowel
/s.ira'ia/
/laka'?o/
(f )
(f... )
'sail of a boat
'money
'
The noun in the unit and singular forms may al$o govern the third'
person feminine singular subject indicator in the verb when the noun ends
in a /-t/ final stressed syllabi f , Most consonant final nouns including
those "ending in /-t/ taka the ms meuline indicator. However, there are a
number of nouns ending in /'-t/ that take the feminine indicator. Two
nouns have been observed ending In other consonants that govern the
f eminine: verb
/wa'dar/
/dow'nik/
(f ) 'goats*1
(f.) 'sail boat'
The nouns with a final /'-1/ which govern a feminine subject indica
tor in the verb all begin the f : .nal syllable with one of the hack con
/h/,
02
of
take
/?/.
/'-t/
/-t/.
final
-3&
/ar ?ot/
(f.) 'yoke
/mahi 'yat/
(f.) 'wage'
(f.) 'patch
/foga'?at/
-/
ar ' ?a :it/
/maheyt 'wa/
(m. ) 'yokes
(f.) 'wages
of
/mattu 'hat/
In the plural of nouns the gender of the sub ject indicator in the
verb is determined as follows:
MASCULINE (with Plural Nouns)
The plural noun governs the singular third person masculine indica
tor in the verb when the noun contains a final consonant. The syllable
containing this final consonant may or may not be the stressed syllable.
Plural
(m. ) 'enemies'
(m. ) 'islands1
A few plural nouns take the singular masculine indicator in the verb
when the noun ends in a vowel. This may occur when the noun contains a
/ko 'babi/
(m. )
cups
FEMININE (with Plural Nouns)
Plural vovel final nouns take the third person singular feminine
subject indicator in the verb. The fijaa,l syllable containing this vowel
is usually stressed though in a small proportion of cases the stress is
elsewhere
Plural
/nabsi'te/
/ali:'ba/
/dari'a/
(f.)
(f.)
(f )
'faces'
'wrist muscles*
'maggots'
Nouns that govern the .masculine singular indicators in the verb may
end in any consonant or in any vowel except /e/. Nouns that govern femin
ine indicators in the verb may end in any -vowel or in
/-t/
in the circum
/mal 'hena
qab'?ita ub 'le/
'Seven leopard- (ob j. ) I- say/' ('I
noun /qab'?ita/ is used.
saw/
cator in the verb are divided into two classes. Those that end in a
final consonant or in /-i/ retain the same form as subject and as object.
Those nouns that end in /-u/, /-a/, or /-o/ substitute a fine-1 /-i/ for
the final /-u/, /-a/, or /-o/ when the noun is used as the subject of the
When the noun is used alone it is used in the object form. Thus
D-ll masculine nouns when used as the subject of the verb have a final /-i/
verb
or
0-
final consonant.
is listed.
hyena 1
verb
The object form is the basic form and the form that
/'dalhu/
/mas 'kinti
/f o ' rayni
arit
ken
he/
A- strong-young-man- (sub ) house-into thorn ho-put
"
man put thorn into tho house. ' )
'
'
arik ga'sot
tub 'le/
/f o 'rayno
)
(
Astrong-young-man
ob
j
house
.
-from side-to
'
( 'She
a
she-saw'
strong young man by the side of tho house. ')
saw
'
2. 2.1.4
suffixes /-tu/,
/-ta/
or
/u/
animals and men, no criteria have been discovered, .for determining whether
the singular form will end in /-tu/, /-ta/, ..or " A-* to/.
Unit
/wa 'kali/ ( m )
/ma'sakin/
Singul fir
/'?or?a/
/dum'nm/
(m. ) 'thread'
(f.) 'cat ' (sex- not spe
cified )
/dora 'hi/ (f ) 'chicken1 (sex
unde s igna te d )
/waka 'liyt<
/mask-in 'to /
/mas 'kintu/
(f ) 'a hen'
2. 2.1. 5
-40Diff erent
Ox' ton more than one plural form may 'be used for the same noun.
theoretically possible to make a singular form from most unit forms but
listed here are only those singular forms that seem to be quite commonly
used. A considerable number of examples of the typos of changes in
forming the plural have boon listed to illustrate more fully the great
irregularity in their formation, from the practical standpoint of learn
ing the language the plural form must be learned along with the unit.
One of the most common methods of forming the plural is by suffixing
/-'we,/
/-'wa/.
/-'wa/
Unit
/bo'ray/(m. ) 'blossom
/a'bch/(m) 'odor'
old man'*'
Singula:.?
Plural
/boray 'wa/ (f , )
/abch 'wa/ (f
/idol 'wa/ (f )
/ido 'la/(f . )cor
.
.
In some
worker'
/a't.irtu/
(m)
(m) 'porcupine'
/'hayla/ (m) 'power'
/guru'muda/ (m) 'log'
/gur umu ' d;lytu/ (n)
/fo'rayno/ (m) 'strong young man
/hanga'la/ (f ) 'brain'
/dag'ge/ (f ) 'compound' or piece of land'
/manfi'o/ (f ) 'sieve1
/lei/ (f ) ''water'
/roga''?at/ (f ) 'patch'
/rnahi 'et/ (f ) 'wage '
/bos 'do/ (f ) 'hole1
/walkali/ (m) 'companion
/wak a 'liytg/ (m )
pi.
/manfi'wa/ (f )
/lei 'wa/ (f )
/roga?at'wa/ (f )
/mahest'wa/ (f )
/bod'wa/ (f )
/wakal 'wa/ (pl.vb )
/waka 'lentit/ (pi. vb)
-43--
/-i'te/
These plurals are all feminine, A final vowel in the unit form is
usually replaced hy the /i/ of the suffix, The unit forms of these nouns
are largely masculine.
Plural
Singular
Unit
/ayyami'te/ (f )
/ay 'yam/ (m ) 'week '
/he srani te/ (f )
/he s 'ran/ (m) 'trouble
'
'
'
'
/filli'te/ (f)
/kadi ' te/ (f ) 'old
people '
is big
/ladi'ta/
/la.'dita/
(f)
(m)
/ladi'te/
(f) 'Imre
people
/soqi'te/ (f )
(f)
/nabsi 'te/ (f )
/?asbi'te/ (f )
/al?i'te/ (f)
/qay/i'te/ (f )
/sani'te/
Unit
Si] Lgular
/ 'iba/
/iba 'bo/ (f )
/inti'ta/ (f )
/ga 'bob/ (m)
'
/mago'ga/ (f.)
/gira'ri/ (f )
/'sunkuk/ (m)
/ma 'xaddid/ (m)
/du'qaqin/
/ma?an'da/ (f ) 'sister1
/Pa'le/ (f ) 'mountain '
/la 'fa/ (f) 'bone
/ dum 'mu/ (f ) 'cat ' (jsex
/bu'da/ (f) 'house'
/af/ (m) 'mouth'
/an'gu/ (f )
/a 'mo/
'brea,st
(f) 'head'
Plural
not designated)
(m)
/dalesla/ (m)
/ ' day tit/ (m)
/'gaddit/ (m)
/bar ' ra,rid/ (m)
/ma'?andid/ (m)
/?a'lesla/ (m)
/'lafof/ (m)
/dum 'mum/ (m)
'male cat'
'female cat'
/buda'di/ (f )
/afo'fa/ (f )
/angu'ga/ (f )
/amo 'ma/ (f )
,, -4s - A
/a/.
Plural
Singular
//irawil/ (m)
/bi samir/ (m)
/to'rabu// (m)
/fo'anis/ (m)
/za'nabil/ (m)
/to'rahil/ (m)
/xa'nazir/ (m).
leaves
/ta'sawir/
//a1ramit/
(m)
(m)
Other nouns form the plural "by a vowel change from the unit form.
Often this change is from /a/ to /o/. There is also frequently a drop
ping of the final vowel of the unit form or the addition of a vowel from
a consonant final unit form.
Unit
Plural
Singular
/ * ramli/ (m ) divination
/"baka'lo/ (f ) 'female kid
/"ba 'kal/ (m) 'male kid'
/sa?a'la/ (f ) 'sister' (N.
1
'
dialect)
/rom'li/
/'bakol/
(f)
(m)
/'sa?ol/
(m) or
. v"b.
pi
/'?andow/ (m)
/?anda'wa/ (f ) 'rat, mouse
/as 'hod/ (m)
/as'hada/ (m) bollards'
/re'ta/ (f ) ' female goat
/wa'dar/ (f ) 'goats '
'herd of goods' /da'hella/ (m) 'billy goat
/wa'dor/ (f ) ) or
/wado 'ra/ (f
/maf'tah/ (m) 'key, lock
/mafto'ha/ (f ) or
/ma'fatih/ (m)
/kito 'ba/ (f )
/ki'tab/ (n) 'book'
/ako ' ta/ (f )
/a'kat/ (n) 'rope
/safo'ra/ (f )
/sa 'fur/ (m) 'trip'
/dano'na/ (f )
/ da 'nan/ (m ) ' donke y *
/'heiy/ (m)
/he 'ya/ (f ) 'millstone '
/'baq_ali/ (m) 'male mule '
/ 'basq.il/ (m)
1
'
'mule
/ba
gilt a/
/baqil 'to/
'
/du'sust/
(m)
stress
-43A few others form the plural by a change in the length of the
/ku'ta/
(f ) 'female dog'
/ 1 ayro/ (r.)
/alfen' ti/ (f )
/amid' da/ (f )
/tis'ka/ (f )
/kus ' ta/ (f )
In the sane class with the nouns that form plurals hy a stress change
arc a. few that change the stress and also add a vowel,
Often this added
,/a'rus/ (m. )
/a 'dim/
ox
'claws, fingernails
knee
'
'bridegroom'
/a?u'ra/ (f )
/lifi'?a/ (f)
/gulu'ba/ (f )
/aru'so/
/adis'ma/
/qibri 'a/
(fo)
(f )
(f )
IRREGULAR PLURALS
/aw 'ke,/
/ 'bada/
/ba'ra/
/i'da/
/ jar/
/nun/
(f ) 'girl '
(n. ) 'son'
(f. ) 'daughter
/ day '1o/
(f.) 'sheep'
(n. ) 'neighbor
(m. ) 'man '
/'illi/ (in.)
/ jc s 'ran/ (m. )
/si'nam/ (f.)
(f.)
_i
Native Texts
The Dankali people have many stories (/mis sila/) which have "been
handed down to them from the past. These stories va.ry a great deal from
individual to individual and from one part of the country to another.
The first two of the following stories (titles mine) are taken from a
c onsidernhlc number of stories which I received from Earned Edoris in
As sab
They are in the southern dialect. The third story was told to me
by Mohammed Mohammodo, a Dankali boy from Thio and is in the northern
dialect.
/am
gede.
Shorn he -went..
i'ye.
he -said.
kak i'ye.
him- to ho-said.
hole i' y c
him-1o ho - s aid
ge ' dene
They-wcnt
o 'be
Sham
/am
"/a 'rnal
tu mo, 1 tan"
:
Sham-in a- thing ther c -is ~n o t
1
nc 'be "
bo. ' ro
aki
another country we-will-go" s
/am'
nun
Sham man
'
'
'
. .
"
-ii-
/dal'hu
r
'
ko wok'ri ten.
Hyena and jackal she -was.
tene to
kak i'ye
"ko 'ran ara 'hak enc
you-cane?, him- to hc-sa,id. "Koran reading-fron
"ko 1 ran ara ban ( ara 'hal ) me. 'ha ta'no", kak i'ye.
"Koran reading-in what shc-is? hin- to ho-said.
kak i'ye.
"u'ri to, 'no
kak
i'yo.
him- to hc-se.id.
"Yet she-is?", him- to ho-said.
'
' .
it-remainod-behind.
. later,
te " ,
'I-cane"
i'ye.
kak
hin- to he-said.
ya 'be
he -talked ?
dch
a,
'
"yoh su'gus"
ko.k
i'y e
"Me -for wa.tch" 9 hin- to hc-sa.id.
dur.
"
'nc?e
""Good,
koh sugu'seyo,
you-for I-will-watch,
..
'hada yibbido.
tree he -sic zed.
yibbi 'do
he-sie zed.
ser 'ra,
ha. 'be
He -left.
'
kay iba.
His foot
hinna,"
ka.k
an yi'iba.
i'ye.
"This
to
himmy-xoot it-is-not",
he-said.
ThereuiJon,
ha, 'be
'ho.da yibbi'do. us 'suk wo'?c. to 'wa?ndi da.l 'hi ta.?a. 'be.
Ho-dropped. Tree iic-siezed. He lio-oricd. Tha.t tine hyena lie -was- tired.
f
wo 'wa,?a.di
kak 'daba?e
du'neti ycmc'te. 'boa 'emit hu'lc.
kak
Tha.t time ant he -came. Hole-in /ie-cr.tcrrod. Him-ftom arm-pit him-from
yoqp'nc. wo 'wa,?adi yowa'?c.
to wa?adi dal'hu kayibbi'de.
ka ;
The/; time hyena him-hc-siezed.
hc-a.te
Tha.t time he -cane -out.
Him
ka, ; yu de
be 'ye
to 'wa.?adi anbu'li kr,l
"a. 'kiltone ' te
'
ho -took. Him he -tied. That tine large-bird him- to she -came.
"Hero
II I
riv-
then, tic nc
."
Jackal ;
..
'
gari
Corta-in
..
yo 'he
He -gave
. La-tcr
'
he
on he -put.
'bada-1 go 'do.
Sco-on ho -went.
. .
ijasnal
yowe ?o
Jan- on ( Yemen ? ) he -c cue - out
1
'
ti
One
us* suk,
La-tcr sa-ilhoa-ts
us 'suk in'ki
toh a/bak ka. ; ba-hi'seno.
He one
This-to doing-fron him thcy-causcd-to-bc-poor
yc
we -have he-said.
ago 'boyto le
woman ho -had.
ye 'he
Ho -gave
..
yo u'duy" in to
sor 'ra is s " a, 'nu f a ' dada :
Thereupon she, "I I-want-sincc no give", shc-said.
'
yo yu'-den".
no they- tic do
"
.
to t ?c ' dc .
Her ho -killed.
to t yu ' do
Her hetie do
yogo 're
He -struck.
is ra/b'tc.
She she -die do
Jackal ;
Ja.cke.ls
Hyena.:
Hyena :
"G-ood", he sand.
He went. When he wont, ho (je.clcal) ate up the sheep.
censed to dry.
later, he
When he ( ja.ckal ) se.w hin, he threw the skins into the wind. Then
he ran after then. He e at1c d then.
The hyena, also re,n after then. later
ho
Ja.ckal s
e.way.
Ho tied hin.
He hit him in
Ho took hin
Bird:
'
..
not-she-knows
them
She
they-said.
she-said.
"Good",
'yoho ruh i'ye.
no-for send he-said.
night
fan or 'hen.
ser're. tot ke ken ugu'tenc.
they-arrived-atMid-way
Later she and they they-set-out
"anu
"a'tu i'yin 'hade." kale i'ye.
'wokil hassa 'weyne
"I
he-said.
hin-to
son?"
whose
"You
they-made-c
onversation.
There
1
kak
hade, kinni'yo" iye.
"ail 'haro 'ma.nn.al tcne'te"
agi '' dayti
hin-to
(2. certain nan's) son I-an. " hc-sa.id. "This country how you.-co.ne?"
i'ye.
"y 'abba
kada abba. ra'be 'sako fa.rin'to a 'be. ku 'abb at
he-said. "My-father great father he -died day will he -made. Your father-to
nayyada, ga
not-he-know,
'
, i yc .
1
ho-said.
to yi'abba ra 'be
This ny-father he -died
'
'
-'bad.al bey'nc.
Sea-on wo -bo cane -1os t
yi'abbay yinahs/'be.da
in 'kc 'badat ra'de"
My-nothcr and my-father my -no thor ' s-sons all sea-in ho-fell, "
ke
come -out.
yed'heh
he-said.
yod'ho
ho-said
' ine..
mother.
yen.
he-was.
yen.
he-was.
tani 1 to"
wo 'holu ; a'tu yinaiie. 'be.da.k
"(direct-address) thus you ny -mother 's-son-f ron you-are"
"ke ;
wo yab
kenik
to ;b 'be
That speech then-fron she -hoard.
'
Thereupon when they wore made poor, he put three logs on the sea. He, his
Thcy;->jent oh the sea. They went
on those three logs on tlie" "'see*** " They were.
(wrecked ) in the sea. Later
one of his children came out on Shan. One came out on Jam. His. wife came
t
f
i
i
!
i
-vi~
out on a certain island.. Ho, the father, cane out on a certain ..joitd.
He, on the island on which he cane out (found) dates, grapes, apples $
lemons, it was a very good island on which he cane out. Sail "boats and
ships used to enter that island, they say. In that country he me.de a
market. He made soldiers for himself. That one who was on Shan, his
son, became his soldier. That one who was on Jan, his son, became his
soldier. The father does not recognize then. They do not know one
another. In the day that they were little children they were lost on the
sea,.
Later their mother married another nan. She took him to herself,
That nan whom their mother had taken (married) enterred the soldiers with
them. That nan, the man who had married their mother, talked with the
Sultan. (The father is the Sultan of the island.) "Bring my wife to me,
I wont to speak to her, send soldiers for me," he said. Her two sons he
sent. They went there. Later they cane to her. "Your husband sa.id for
you to cone" they said to her. "Very well", she said. She does not know
them. They do not know one another. Later she end they set out. They .
arrived ho,lf way at night. There they na.de conversation, (the two sons)
."
she se.id.
"I the children and husband and I thus went on the sea.. We were lost
on that sea.. Me and my children on that day God caused us to be gathered
together hero. My husband died in the sea. " she sa.id.
The sultan who was speaking to her wa.s her husband. She remembered hin.
"Thus you are ny wife, these children a.re ny children." he sa.id.
The son who did not disobey his father's will received thus, they say.
1. A reply often used in the question, "Whose son a.re you?". Later
ho nay give his father's name. Moaning not cloa.r but has the sense of
"a certain nan's son".
''Ta&ptliX$
k.
'
i-