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Introduction
6.1
Signal Concepts
6.1.1 Amplitude, Wavelength, and Frequency
6.1.2 Analog and Digital Signals
6.1.3 Bandwidth
6.1.4 Decibels
6.1.5 Ohms Law
6.2
Surround Sound
6.2.1 Surround Sound Speakers
6.2.2 Surround Sound Formats
6.2.3 Common Surround Sound Formats
6.2.4 Dolby Laboratories
6.2.5 Digital Theater Systems
6.2.6 THX
6.3
Acoustics
6.3.1 Sound Reflection
6.3.2 Speaker Placement
6.3.3 Front Speaker Placement
6.3.4 Side Speaker Placement
6.3.5 Rear Speaker Placement
6.4
6.5
Chapter Objectives
Describe terms associated with the creation, processing, and transmission of signals.
Define terms associated with home theater surround sound systems.
Define terms associated with acoustics.
Define terms associated with home theater video components.
Terms and Concepts to Know
Advanced Television Systems Committee
Amplitude
Analog Signal
Banana plugs
Bandwidth
CableCard
Crossover
Decibels
Digital Signals
Digital Theater Systems
Digital Video Broadcasting
Dolby Laboratories
Frequency
Liquid Crystal Display
Low Frequency Effects
Ohms Law
Pin-Type Connectors
Plasma
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Scalers
Spade Connectors
Surround Sound
THX
Wavelength
6.0
Introduction
What exactly is a home theater system? In general terms, a home theater system
consists of a large high-definition display that includes a high-quality sound system.
A high-definition display may be three or four times clearer than a standard
television. These components work together to give you the experience that you
would have in a movie theater. For example, a TV may have only one speaker. A
home theater may have five or more speakers so the listener is surrounded by
sound. In a well-equipped home theater system, people often say they feel like they
are actually in the movie.
6.1
Signal Concepts
A home theater is a complete television and radio broadcast station within one unit.
Signals are created, processed, and transmitted between devices within the home
theater. Also, signals may be broadcast throughout the home where there may be
other televisions and speakers that receive the signals. It is important to be able to
describe how signals are created, processed, and transmitted. The signal concepts
that you should be familiar with include:
6.1.1
6.1.2
Digital Signals
Digital devices take samples of analog signals to create digital signals. Unlike an
analog signal, the shape of a digital signal changes (in steps) as it encodes analog
signals (see figure 6.1.2c). The size of an analog signal is reduced when it is
converted into a digital signal. For this reason it is easier to transmit, receive, and
store digital signals. Electronic devices that convert an analog signal to a digital
signal are called Analog to Digital (A/D) converters. Electronic devices that convert
digital data to an analog signal are called Digital to Analog (D/A) converters.
6.1.3
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the range of signal frequencies that can be sent through a cable, the
air, or an electronic device. For example, the bandwidth of RG-6 coax cable is
typically measured between 1.5 and 3.0 GHz. In contrast a Cat 5e cable has a
bandwidth of 100MHz. You can think of bandwidth like the lanes of a road; the
more lanes, the more cars the road can carry (see figure 6.1.3). In an analog device,
bandwidth is measured in frequency (MHz).
6.1.4
Decibels
Early sound researchers devised the Bel system to compare the level of different
sounds. The Bel system measured the sound pressure that sounds produce. A sound
that was twice as loud as another sound was considered to be one Bel. However, the
Bel system was not useful in comparing the differences in sounds that were similar
in volume. The Bel system was dropped for the decibel system.
A decibel (dB) is one-tenth of a Bel. The dB works closer to the way the human ear
works and it quickly became the standard unit to compare two or more sounds. In
decibels, a sound that is twice as loud as another is considered to be 10 dB louder. 1
decibel is considered to be the smallest change in volume that the human ear can
detect. However, most people can only detect a 3 dB change in volume.
It is helpful to understand the relationship of sound level and power requirements.
In general terms, a small increase in sound level takes a large increase in power. For
example, a 3dB increase in sound pressure (volume) requires twice as much input
power. In other words, an electronic device would need to double its power output
before most people would notice a change in volume. A 10 dB change in sound
takes ten-times the power (see figure 6.1.4).
Volume Change
Measured in decibels
+3
+6
+ 10
+ 20
2x
4x
10 x
100 x
6.1.5
Ohms Law
In an electrical circuit, the mathematical relationship between power, current,
voltage, and resistance is known as Ohms Law. You may already understand how
Ohms Law works and not know it. Have you ever walked across a stream of water?
The slope of the hill that the steam is running through determines the speed of the
water. The amount of water in the stream determines how much current will flow.
If the stream is fast moving, there is little resistance to the current. If the water
current is flowing fast and there is a lot of water, the stream can do a lot of work
(see figure 6.1.5a).
In other words, a 100 watt light bulb needs approximately 1 amp of current. Now
lets take the standard Ohms Law equation and rewrite it so we can see other
relationships (see figure 6.1.3b).
P=V x I
To determine current:
To determine voltage:
To determine the resistance:
I = P/V
V = P/I
R=V/I
Figure 6.1.3b, flash demonstration of Ohms Law. The student enters two numbers
from a choice of voltage, current, power, or resistance. The answer is shown to the
student. The Ohms Law circle shows the numbers that the student entered; the
answer, and the relationship between all the variables.
6.2
Surround Sound
At a concert you are surrounded by sounds. You may hear music reflect off of the
ceiling and walls, and you may hear sounds from the audience. A surround sound
format is an attempt to surround you with the same sounds that you would hear at a
concert. Sound is recorded on several tracks at a concert and these sounds are
played back on speakers that surround you in your home.
6.2.1
Front right
Front left
Center
Left Surround Sound
Right Surround Sound
LFE Subwoofer
6.2.2
6.2.3
Dolby Laboratories
Dolby Laboratories and Digital Theater Systems have developed most of the
surround sound formats used in home theaters. Dolby Laboratories (see figure
6.2.3a, Dolby logo) is responsible for the following common surround sound
formats:
6.2.4
6.2.5
THX
If you have been to a movie in the last twenty years, you may have heard of THX
surround sound. THX surround follows the Dolby Digital EX 6.1 surround sound
format. THX is the trade name and standard that was originally developed for
movie theaters. THX stands for Tomlinson Holman's eXperiment. Tomlinson
Holman worked at Lucasfilm in 1982. He worked on a sound system to ensure that
the soundtrack for The Return of the Jedi film would sound the same no matter
which theater it was seen in.
THX does not specify recording standards. THX is not a surround sound format as
much as it is a quality assurance system. THX is used primarily as a certification
process that assures listeners that the sounds they hear will be what the movie
makers intended. The THX certification process has spread to home theaters. It is
now common to see the THX logo on home theater equipment (see figure 6.2.5).
6.3
Acoustics
Acoustics is the study of the generation, transmission, and physical properties of
sound. Sound is produced when air is moved by a vibrating object. If you take the
cover off of a low frequency, bass speaker you can see the cone of the speaker
vibrate (see Figure 6.3). As the cone vibrates, the air in front of the speaker is
compressed and decompressed, when the cone moves backward and forward, and
sound is produced.
(Figure 6.3, flash animated speaker cone, as the cone moves slowly low base sounds
are heard. As the student pushes up a frequency bar, the speaker moves faster and
the pitch of the sound is increased)
6.3.1
Sound Reflection
Sound may reach the listener directly from the speakers or it may reach the listener
after it bounces off surfaces. A reflected sound is a sound that hits a surface and
bounces before it reaches the listener. The shape of a home theater room will affect
how sound is reflected in a room. A home theater room should not be perfectly
square, or where the length of the room is twice as long as the width. Also, domes
and concave surfaces can cause sound to be focused in a small area, and this can
cause unintended sound reflections. Rooms with these shapes and surfaces can
create noise, echoes, and fluttering sounds.
Adding surfaces that absorb sound can help to eliminate reflection problems (see
Figure 6.3.1). You may have to add a rug, and window and wall coverings, to reduce
sound reflections. Adding or moving furniture can also help reduce sound reflection
problems. It should be noted that adding too much absorption material can deaden
the sound in a room.
6.3.2
Speaker Placement
The speakers in a home theater system are based on the placement of the video
display. The larger the display, the farther the viewers will be sitting from it. As a
general rule, multiply the height of the video display by three or four to determine
where the viewers should sit. For example, if a video display is one meter high the
viewers should be sitting three to four meters from the display. Also, the furniture in
a home theater should be placed so the listener is no more than 15-20 degrees from
the side of the video display. In a home theater, the primary surround sound
speakers are placed near, and around, the video display.
6.3.3
6.3.4
6.3.5
6.4
6.4.1
Speaker Components
Speakers convert electrical energy into sound waves. The cone in a speaker produces
sound when it vibrates. The cone is usually made of paper or plastic. The edge of
the cone is attached to the speakers metal frame (or basket) with a flexible material.
The flexible material allows the cone to freely move back and forth when a sound
signal is sent to the speaker. The center of the cone is connected to a device that is
called a spider. The spider connects the cone to the voice coil, and it is placed inside
of a permanent magnet. The voice coil fits inside the permanent magnet, but it is
not connected to it. The voice coil is allowed to move freely up and down inside the
permanent magnet.
The speakers voice coil is connected to an electrical sound source. As sound signals
are sent to the voice coil, it interacts with the permanent magnet. As the sound
signal changes between positive and negative voltages, the voice coil moves up and
down in the permanent magnet. This interaction between the coil and the
permanent magnet causes the speakers cone to move back and forth. As the cone
moves back and forth, air is compressed and decompressed and sound is produced.
6.4.2
Drivers
If you take the front off of a speaker you may see three individual speakers within a
speaker enclosure. Technically the entire enclosure is called a speaker; the devices
inside are called drivers. Drivers are divided into three basic types: woofers,
tweeters, and midrange. Each driver type is designed to reproduce a range of
frequencies:
Woofers
Woofers are designed to reproduce low frequencies that are usually below 200 Hz.
A woofer is the largest of the speakers (see figure 6.4.2a).
6.4.3
6.4.4
Speaker Specifications
How are speakers compared with each other? Why is one speaker considered better
than another? The best way to answer these questions is to understand basic speaker
specifications. There are two speaker specifications that all installers should be able
to describe: frequency response and speaker sensitivity.
Frequency Response
The human ear can hear frequencies from about 20Hz to 20,000Hz. A speaker's
frequency response specifies how much of the 20-20,000Hz range can be
reproduced. It is also important that the frequency response is flat across this range.
In the frequency charts below you can see that speaker A is almost flat, where
speaker E drops off at the higher frequencies. Also, speaker Es frequency response
is not flat (see figure 6.4.4a). Speaker A is the best choice for your home theater.
Speaker Sensitivity
The speaker sensitivity rating lets you know how much sound pressure (volume) a
speaker will produce for a given amount of input power. The higher the sensitivity
rating, the louder the speaker will be for a given amount of power. The sensitivity
rating measures the volume (measured in dB) for every watt of input power.
Sensitivity is an industry standard, and test conditions are critical for sensitivity
specifications to be meaningful. To measure a speakers sensitivity, the following
test conditions must be in place:
Input test conditions:
The input power is 1 watt.
The standard input voltage is 2.83 volts.
The speakers input impedance will be 8 ohms.
Output test conditions:
The output will be measured in an anechoic chamber. An anechoic
chamber is a room that absorbs all sound.
The output is measured one meter from the speakers. The output is a
measurement of the speakers sound pressure level (SPL). SPL is the
acoustic power of sound waves produced by the speakers and is measured
in dB.
The following is an example of a sensitivity test: 87dB @ 1W/1m. This means that
the speaker produced 87dB of volume with 1 watt of input power at distance of 1
meter. A speakers sensitivity rating is usually displayed as a single number. In the
example above, 87dB @ 1w/1m would be displayed as 87dB. Sensitivity ratings can
be misleading if you dont remember how to convert dB into power. Remember, to
gain 3dB more of volume your speakers will need twice the power. For example, a
speaker with a sensitivity of 89dB will need twice the power to be as loud as a
speaker with a sensitivity rating of 92dB (see flash animation 6.4.4b).
(Figure 6.4.4b, flash animation: as the student slides the speaker sensitivity bar the
sound of the speaker changes. As the speaker is made to be more sensitive the
louder it becomes.)
6.4.5
Speaker Types
There are several types of speakers that are common in home theaters: freestanding,
in-wall, ceiling mounted, and surface mounted.
Freestanding speakers
Freestanding, or box speakers, stand alone on the floor (see figure 6.4.5a).
Freestanding speakers include the traditional wooden box speakers that have been
popular for years. Many freestanding speakers are thought of as furniture, and use
premium woods. However, today you may see tall speakers that look like a tower.
Unlike in-wall and ceiling speakers, freestanding speakers are tuned to the case. For
this reason, most audio technicians believe that freestanding speakers sound better
than in-wall speakers.
6.4.6
Speaker Connectors
There are many ways to connect speaker cables to the home theater equipment. On
the back of most speakers is a connector that is called a 5-way binding post (see
figure 6.4.6a). Cables can be connected to a binding post with five different types of
connectors: bare wire, spade, pin-type, banana, and double banana.
Pin-type Connectors
If you are using thick speaker wire, you might consider using pin-type connectors.
The slender pin will fit in the hole that is at the base of the binding post. This is
similar to the way bare wire is connected to a binding post. After the pin-type
connector is placed in hole, the binding post can be tightened down to hold it in
place (see figure 6.4.6d).
6.5
6.5.1
6.5.2
6.5.3
HDTV 720 (1,280 horizontal pixels x 720 vertical pixels) 16:9 aspect ratio
HDTV 1080 (1,920 horizontal pixels x 1,080 vertical pixels) 16:9 aspect ratio
You may also see and i or a p next to the resolution standard. The i means
that the signal is interlaced. In an interlaced signal, every other line is skipped during
the first pass of the video signal and filled in on the second pass (see figure 6.5.3).
The p stands for progressive scanning. A progressive signal does not skip any
lines as it draws a picture. In a progressive signal picture, every line of the HDTV is
drawn the first time the video signal passes over the display. A 1080p HDTV has a
higher resolution than a 1080i HDTV. Most digital broadcast signals can achieve
resolutions up to 1080i. Some digital video disks can achieve resolutions up to
1080p.
6.5.4
6.5.5
6.5.6
6.5.7
Direct View
Direct view displays use CRTs. Direct view displays have been around the longest
and deliver an excellent picture. However, CRTs are heavy and need more power
than other video displays. The largest direct view display measures about 40 inches
(see figure 6.5.7c). For these reasons, direct view displays are losing home theater
market share.