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A Theology of the Urban Space


NSTOR O. MGUEZ*

This article discusses the development of a theology of the urban


space from a Latin American point of view, without ignoring the
global implications of the present expansion of urban life. It shows
how the reality of urban life has affected our way of doing theology, especially through notions of development, planning, and
progress. The article proposes a change of paradigm through a
theology of dialogue among human beings with God. and with the
whole of creation. It also shows the effects of corruption, not only
as an occasional occurrence but at the very heart of the economic
system that today upholds the present way of urbanization and
global market economy. Finally, it advocates for an ethics of anticipation, beginning to act in a toay that creates alternatives that
might imply a greater respect of our fellow human beings, of creation, and. of the presence of God.

First of all, I want to say thank you for the opportunity given to
me by this invitation to share this conference with you through these
days. Even if it was not the original intention, it resulted in our being
here at what might become a meaningful moment in the world history: the first days of the presidency of Barack Obama, with all the
novelty, expectation, and opportunities opened by this event. Unpredicted things occur in human history and this might be a chance for
this to happen. Things change in history, sometimes through intended human actions, other times because of sudden human decisions, and other times in spite of them. What and how much of tlie

* Nstor O. Mguez is Professor of New Testament Studies at Instituto Universitario ISEDET, Buenos Aires, Argentina. His publications include Beyond, the Spirit
of the Empire (with J. M. Sung and J. Rieger; SCM Press, 2009). He is a leader both
in articulating an authentic Latin American reading of the Bible and in ecumenical efforts to strengthen theological education worldwide. This paper was presented as part
of the Trinity Institutes January 2009 conference. Radical Abundance: A Theology of
Sustainability.

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awaited and needed change will really happen is yet to be seen. Unplanned things surge in human reality, sometimes opening new
hopes, sometimes frustrating them. And the decisions made in the
coming days will tell us which of these two will take place, or, more
probably, how both hopes and frustration will intertwine in expected
and unexpected ways.
It is also at least a coincidence that we meet on Wall Street, at the
locus of the financial crisis that is shocking the world, putting on stage
a dramatically misshapen world economy under the doctrines of neoHberalism, monetarism, and financial speculation, and the impositions
of the global and total free market. Those who prophesied the end of
ideologies, only to enthrone their own as the only valid discourse, find
the ideological farce of their speech slapping back in their own faces.
The preached "only way" turned out to be a way to growing injustice,
leading to disaster, exposed to fraud, and driving millions of people
into the abyss of uncertainty, poverty, and helplessness. Many of us
were clear about what was happening, but it was difficult to row
against the stream. But now the system has overtly shown its demises,
and, as always, the price is to be paid by the workers, the poor and destitute, the same ones who have no part in or benefit from the prevailing order.
As we meet today in our conference, these things should not be
kept out of our minds and conversations. They offer also a way of entry
to what is one of my arguments in this discussion, and that is the tension between planning, dialogue, and the unexpected, the historical
surprise. In a sense, as I will propose in the development of this conversation, it is the need to recover the eschatological dimension, even
tlie apocalyptic thrust of the Christian faith, of the already-but-notyet, of a coming that is already here, of the eruption of the transcendence that is yet immanent, a nucleus of the confidence that nurtures
the life of the people oriented by the messianic dynamics of Jesus.
From Planning to Dialogue
Some theologies have read in Scripture a plan of salvation as a predetermined route that God provides to humans for their restitution.
This reading is not new, but in modem times it has been highly infiuenced by the idea of progress, of a more or less continuous development
of a creation that, arisen from Creation and Fall, God conducts toward
afinalfulfillment of God's will. Recent thought about a plan of salvation

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has been influenced by the notion of planned development. In ancient


understanding, development was a matter of putting into action what
was already potential. The tree is in the seed, the man is in the child; development was the acting out of what was already in the ontological
script of the matter, the intended goal of the thing. It is true that some
philosophers proposed a diagram of the ideal human life, but it was
more a description of the matter than a way to achieve it. But the Enlightenment and modernity brought about another concept: The advance of a plan was not inscribed in the thing, in the origin, but in the
idea of humans; the fulfillment of the will was not so much a matter of
the expression in action of what was potential. Rather, it was a matter of
human (or divine) activity that, in a sense, created the possibihties of
one thing to become another through the action of an agent. And these
achievements were to be implemented through certain stages, intentional actions, and successive steps. This possibihty is not an act of nature, but the expression of human capacity to investigate and foresee, to
imagine and transform, to desire and do.
Whether through a Hegehan realization of the Absolute Spirit, a
positivistic approach to the unending conquest of science, or the
Marxist idea of a class struggle that will lead to the classless society of
perennial welfare for all, different philosophical systems clung to this
idea of a stage-by-stage way up of humanity. The different theories of
evolution also drink from the same waters. We can see in all of these a
certain more traditional interpretation. In that sense, Hegel is still attached to the idea of a dialectical unfolding of the outcome concealed
in the essential origin. But we also see a new approach: reaching the
goal through human agency.
The capitalistic "end of history" sees in neohberal economics the
chmax of individualistic happiness, with the invisible hand of the market taking care of all contradiction, solving unexpected conflicts and,
through competition and technology, endlessly increasing riches, estabhshing a paradigm of human nature in which greed and speculation bring about perennial happiness. And yet, though they claim that
this is in human nature, it requires some very unnatural conduct for
this economic system to continuefor example, die accumulation of
individual wealth beyond any human possibility of using it, or the conventional syinbohsm of money, which is totally cultural, as the motor
of economic activity.
These philosophical and economic ideas have had their theological correlates, some more crude, others more sophisticated. Even

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some conservative theologies, like dispensaonalism, are based in the


idea of a Cod who provides a series of increasing dispensations,
though in this case it ends with the annihilation of history and any
meaning of history in itself. Liberal theologies of the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries sought the ethical progress of humankind, in a western pattern of increasing moral response, but the
World Wars dismantled this project. The Hominization process described by Pierre Teilhard de Chardin^ is not free from this scheme,
nor is what we call "process theology." Our own Latin American liberation theology fell in this ambush, at least in some of its more radical
authors, seeing Cod using the poor as a messianic force that certainlyalmost in a mechanical waythrough revolution, will conquer
for humankind the reign of Cod. Oppressed People, Lord of History^
is the title of a book that shows how sloganish a progressive theology
can become. Surely, some ofthe more subtle thinkers in this line prevented us from a too optimistic approach, but the bulk of what
reached the general public was far more optimisticand we are now
paying the cost of such naivete.
Along the same line, biblical scholars were able to depict a history
of salvation in Scripture, a plan that takes us one step to another in
Cod s redeeming plan. The idea of progressive revelation, through the
Old and New Testaments, from polytheistic religion to monotheistic
faith, from sacrificial religion to the love commandment, or the interpretation of the biblical scheme in a successive Trinitarian timely disclosure dominated certain trends of scriptural studies. Certainly
fundamentalism, the dumb child of positivism, was also influenced by
this idea, and its reading of Revelation and other apocalyptic texts,
now in a negative way, reflected a Cod who neglects human response
and goes on delivering all kind of woes upon Cod's creatures, regardless of their suffering, in order to fulfill a script conceived beforehand.
Cood old Jonah would have been quite happy with this destructive
Deity, unable to change his mind and spare Nineveh.
Why should we take time to consider this particular point of
progress in the philosophies and theologies of the past century? One

^ This idea runs through the whole work of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. It is
clearly exposed in his book The Human Phenomenon (New York: Harper Torchbook,
1961).
^ Hugo Assniann, ed.. Pueblo Oprimido, Seor de la Historia (Montevideo: Tierra
Nueva, 1972).

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reason is that these ideas have been accompanying the process of urbanization of the world population. They are ideas born and bred in
and with the growing of city life, and, in many respects, are closely associated with the notion of civilization, that life in the dvitas, in the
city, is a superior way of life. So, if city life grows, civilization is advancing. Human rights are enforced in the rights of the citizen, the
dweller of the city. A certain common sense has been created, in
the sense that life in the city is the true human life. City life is associated in that way with progress, with the advancement of science and
education, with a betterment of life conditions for most people. The
bourgeoisie, the inhabitants of the burgo, have been considered the
motor of historic change. The possibility of bourgeois ideas to become
hegemonic is at the root of the ideologies of progress. That is, the ideology of the class born and dominant in the modem city is the guiding
paradigm underlying most cultural and ethical constructions, concealed in the worldview even of those who oppose it. Certainly, there
is certain nostalgia about the beatitudes of country lifenostalgia that
mostly exists in city dwellers, since many people in the countryside, especially those at the bottom of the agrarian society, who do not enjoy
bucolic leisure but have to put up with hard and oftentimes oppressive
work, increasingly look up to city life as a goal, as urban culture penetrates also the rural areas through the expansion of mass media, the automobile culture, and the shopping center, which propagate the
illusions of city-centered consumer society even in unsuspected rural
wilderness. So today to move out of the city does not entail getting
away from city culture. As a matter of fact, we see many more peasants
moving into the cities than melancholic upper middle class urban inhabitants moving into the country, except for a brief vacation, or to
relax at night through a commuter culture. As a matter of fact, urban
residence continually increases; it already surpasses the rural population globally and continues to grow, especially in certain countries, like
Bolivia or Peru, that were rural countries until fifteen years ago.
The economy of the city may have provided the pattern for this
understanding of history. From urban artisanship to industrial production, and now to digital virtual finance capitalism, the city was able
to disentangle itself from the cyclical rhythm of agriculture, and
was able to plan and foresee (at least to a certain point) the development of work and market. So the idea of progress and the habit of
planning were matched in the mind of the bourgeois. Yet, planning
was the activity of entrepreneurs, who planned their activity in order

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to maximize profits, regardless of the consequences beyond their immediate reach. With neoliberalism the idea of state planning or the intervention of any force that could curtail private interest became a bad
idea. Yet, they kept planning their own business and reHed on the omniscient wisdom of the market to care for the rest. As is now evident,
that did not work. Also unsuccessful was the Soviet counterpart: strict
planning, supposedly universal, but once again planned from a state
that thought it could foresee the total needs of a society without the
need of the intervention of the concrete human groups and persons
that made up that society.
Postmodernism did at least bring a certain suspicion to this overarching scheme. Progress and planning were not as sure as they
seemed. While it would be foolish to deny that changes have occurred,
and in some sense for the betterment of human life, new foes and inequality have been brought up. The gap between rich and poor is constantly increasing, reaching now a level of unfairness unprecedented
in economic history. The planet is at risk due to the uncontrolled waste
of resources and unpredicted consequences of certain developments
in the areas of technologies, sanitary conditions, use of energy, and so
on. New immoral war theories are formulated, and corruption, as I
will explain later, is the leading attitude in business. The idea of linear
or even dialectical progress has to be submitted to falsification by
these and other facts. Progress in some fields has to be balanced with
decay and increasing injustice in others, or with blindness to our own
human faUibility.
Without ignoring, then, the various changes in human situations,
we should not look at them as a one-way paved street to happiness, not
even as a bumpy way, but as an ongoing effort to find out how to deal
with things and modifications as they come about or we provoke them.
There is a necessary dialogue that has to take into account new circumstances, different ways of posing and solving problems, alternative ways of seeing things and responding to them, not only from
human beings, but by the whole created reality.
From the Plan of Salvation to the Dialogue of Salvation
Another reading of the Bible allows us to see things in a different
way. In this view God does not act out a preconceived plan, but
maintains a dialogue with humanity that takes into account the diversity of situations and human responses. God maintains the intention of

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salvation, but not the rigidity of a given plan. As individuals and communities engage in the exercise of their freedom, with their predicted
and unpredicted consequences, in their acts of selfishness and
solidarity, courage and cowardice, mistakes and violence, but also in
their love and hopes, we go about changing our situations, living conditions, and ways of conceiving our relationships with our neighbor,
nature, and the divinity.
God does not overlook this process, for God is tlie giver of that
freedom (and in a way, the preserver of it). It would be a self-denial of
Gods love if God were to go ahead with God's own plan, ignoring or
only judging human action, demanding always one and only one possible response to God's presence. God's omniscience is not about
knowing in advance what humans are about to do, now and always, or
requesting the correct answer to an ethical test. Instead, God's perennial wisdom embraces multiple ways of giving loving responses and renewing creative relationships amid the changing scenarios caused by
our activity, and tliat of the whole of creation. So there is no sacred history in which God runs God's own plans in parallel to human events,
inserting here and there a few stitches in the tissue of human dealings.
That is why it is necessary to think that in the divine paradigm, the
whole task of planning must maintain a momentum of dialogue and
openness, with persons, peoples, and cultures (forms of family, habitus, class issues and sectors, and so on), but also with the built and natural environment. God's action in history takes into account human
planning and expectations, but also the unplanned events that produce unexpected results. Through history, God hears humans' answers, sees our activity, discerns our goals, and takes them seriously.
But not only that: through the prophets, through the visions of the
faith community, through unannounced happenings and promised
fulfillments, tlirough the action of the people or the claims of the
weak, God also takes the initiative, proposes alternatives, invites new
involvement of human beings in our own salvation. That is the way of
grace, a grace that does not depend on human agency, but neither disallows human synergy.
Thus, the different and often ambiguous and contradictory responses of human beings are part of the salvation dialogue. Instead of
looking at history as a succession of events predetermined by God, or
even as a mechanical development of what is inscribed in nature, in
human society, or in economic laws, we consider history the everchanging setting of an ongoing interaction of multiple actors and facts.

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Humanity is not by any means single and unique. We are crisscrossed


by reahties of class, culture, gender, and ways of hving. These are not
neutral facts in this dialogue. Humanity is an abstraction, and human
responses to historical situations are built out of concreteness. And
God's action in this dialogue is also partisan. God's messianic presence
is that of those bom in total modesty, of the pohtical refugee, of the
wandering artisan, of the popular leader, of the despised prophet, of
the crucified by the powers that be. God's concern in God's dialogue
with humanity is tied up with different historical situations, but also
with the luck of the weak. When we think about the built environment
as Ghristians, we cannot look at it without bringing into the picture
God's partisanship.
But, coming to our own concern in this conference, how does this
view affect our understanding of radical abundance, especially in the
built environment? It has to do with city planning: For whom do they
plan? With what sense of power and with what perspective of human
hfe does city planning occur? How does dialogue enter into the situation? How do different attitudes and circumstances in hfe affect the
vision of the planner? Any planner is in a power position, and that
means a class and culture location. Gity planners do not come from
the margins; they are not chosen among the underprivileged dwellers
of the outskirts of the city; they are not the poor. In most cases, gender
is also a factor, and patriarchal vision is not excluded even in women
planners.
My own personal experience, the only time I was involved in
some way in a housing project, was about twenty years ago and was not
a very happy one. With all good will and social concern, a project was
agreed upon between an ecumenical social action group and the municipal authorities in the city of Moreno, part of the so-called "third
collar" of Greater Buenos Aires. The houses were meant especially for
single-parent famihes headed by women, and all the inhabitants came
from what we would call "lower class." I got involved as the pastor of
one of the churches that supported the project, and some of the
women who attended our day care center became active in it. It was a
neat project, and the women participated in different aspects of the
planning. Finally we came to a certain agreement as to what was to be
done and how. Planners, architects, and builders brought their own
expertise to the project. In a sense, because of the technicahties involved, they had the final word. Ecumenical institutions and the city
council shared the financing. So finally the power was there, and not
with the women involved. Beyond all the problems and difficulties

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that sprout when politicians are involved, the barrio was finally inaugurated (even if it was never totally finished). When compared to the
previous living conditions of those families, it was like heaven. I was
asked to go house by house to bless them, following the ways of popular religiosity. Women were shocked by the idea that they were having
their own house. Many tears came to their eyes as they took possession
of the houses, that by our middle class standard we would consider
modest, but for them were deemed palaces.
Then, cultural issues that no one had considered appeared. For
example, these women, who had been living under very poor conditions, were not used to paying for electricity or to contributing for the
maintenance of the common water well. The fact that now they had a
brick house had not bettered their economic or working conditions.
For some, transportation to their workplace became more expensive.
Some of them believed that we had lured them into a trap to get
money out of them (that was their experience with other institutions).
One of them went back into prostitution to pay her part, for she
wanted to meet the standards of the most affluent in the neighborhood (I only came to know this a few months later, because of some
useful gossiping). These things eroded the women's confidence in the
churches, and even in themselves, creating tensions between those
who were able to pay and those who were not, or who refused to do so.
Some of them invited their casual partners to live in the houses,
and police and judicial matters came to the fore when some ofthe men
took possession ofthe houses when the relationship was over: it is typical for men to send the women away and not the other way around. As
small children grew into teenagers, the problem of sexual harassment
and drug abuse became urgent. Following ancestral custom, some relatives moved in, and some ofthe houses became so crowded that once
again one of the foes we thought we were to combat, promiscuity, became a matter of concern. And I can enumerate a number of other
sources of conflict that appeared. At the end, the betterment of the
quality of life we had envisioned for those families, after some years,
had faded away. And the institutions that had supported the project
withdrew little by little, unable to cope with the new problems. Even
the ecumenical base community we had created in the barrio, together
with an Anglican pastor and a Catholic priest, broke up because ofthe
internal struggles originated by these circumstances. Unfortunately, I
was assigned to another parish, and the pastor who took my place was
not very much concerned with this project, even less with the problems it had brought. Finally the ecumenical institution was dissolved.

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Even though I tried to keep some form of relationship with some of tlie
women, little by little facts in life made that more difficult. The last one
I saw had rented (obviously, unlawfully) her house in order to get some
extra money, and moved back into a slum. I must say, the church, in this
case, did not stand up to its vocation, and finally left the neighborhood
unattended. I have learned recently that a Pentecostal group has
moved in, and some Cathohc nuns of a very conservative order have
opened a kindergarten in a nearby place, to attend to tlie children of
working mothers.
Yet, through another organization, was formed by the Madres de
Plaza de Mayo,'^ new experiences of social housing have taken place,
taking into account and trying to overcome the circumstances that
caused the failure of the previous ones. (Unfortunately, ours was not
the only failure: block building for poor famihes by governmental
agencies proved equally unsafe.) To our shame, the churches have not
become involved in these new projects, though some of us support
them through other civil organizations.
Why was it that our project failed? What were some of the
facts that we had not taken seriously? Or was it that our dialogue
was not profound enough? It might be, but I will also point to our
shortcomings:

Some cultural habitus are hidden even, and especially, for


those who live in them. It was totally natural and culturally expected that if someone has a house, relatives will move in: it is
part of family solidarity embedded in popular culture. Yet, as
middle-class planners we were unaware of it in planning
houses and the use of space (even though we knew it), and for
them it was so usual that it went without saying. So finally, no
provision was made for that.
The educational process failed. We certainly had prehminary
meetings, in which things were discussed and rules were
spelled out and agreed upon, but many of these women had
learned to stay alive beyond and against the rules. It was
thought that changing their living conditions would help

^ The organization was formed by the mothers who came together to demonstrate
in the Mayo Square, in front of tlie Presidential House, on behalf of the disappeared
during the time of the military dictatorship. They have now, among otlier things, created a social development organization.

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them to incorporate new habits, but centuries of survival culture were more powerful than a couple of years of monthly
meetings.
The system had not changed, and oppressive conditions
championed over our good will. Abusive conditions and the
consequences of poverty could not be done away with
through planning a friendlier barrio. We had overlooked the
fears and prejudices, the cultural mistrust, the aggressiveness
and loss of dignity created by centuries of exploitation, by
the political system based on a patron-client scheme, by the
framework of violence in which these people were brought
up, by the persistence of some gender-marked attitudes, even
in the cases of women who became aware of them but were
unable to avoid the consequences. And that was, and is, beyond any planning.
Other things were part of the built environment that we had
not considered. There was already a whole "built environment" of institutions, private and governmental, with their
laws and bureaucratic instances. There was an economic environment built through capitalistic exploitation, and a cultural
environment that stressed the limits of the poor, the women,
the excluded. These environments, built not only outside but
also in the subjectivity of all of us who were involved in the
project, were much more solid and stable that the bricks, and
they persisted beyond what we had thought, resisting the creation of alternative building.
Finally, the natural environment also gave unexpected answers. The soil did not behave well with the new situation.
Among other things, because the water was not absorbed as
before, it ran through the newly paved streets and accumulated in the old mud streets and open spaces, and with the first
storm many trees fell because their roots had become rotten.
That could be explained afterward, but was not expected beforehand. Other similar inconveniences appeared. The reaction of the soil, of the trees, of the water well, protested in
their own language. The natural means and the materials also
gave their answers.

This frustrating experience made me revise the whole idea of


planning. Who plans, with whom, and what for? And it makes me

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appreciate in new ways God's patience and incarnation. Planning is an


open business, and results are never what we expect. The new and unexpected comes in; surprises, good or bad, appear. Sometimes they
can be explained afterward and then they seem logical, but in practice
we always ignore some of the facts: the reaction of free human beings,
the deepness of cultural persistence, the changes in politics, the behavior of nature, and many other things are never strictly predictable.
And it is not only the human environment, but the Divine and the
whole of creation that becomes part of the dialogue. It is necessary to
take into account the integrity of creation, the material dimension of
the dialogue. It is a dialogue of all creation.
To venture into this type of dialogue and development is far from
an ontological design that shows itself evolving through time; neither
is it a fixed destiny already spelled out in the stars (or in a celestial
book), and even less the outcome of the will of human power or
knowledge. There is human force and love, certain expected natural
resources available, an amount of needed luck in any enterprise, and
many other good possibilities, yet these are inscribed in the precarious, in the fragility of created things; a successful outcome is not guaranteed even in the better conceived projects. But, because of God's
grace, there is also the new, the unexpected, the "messianic device" inscribed in us, giving hope, inspiring faith, inviting us to persist. There
is also God's Spirit, coming from outside our subjectivity, from God's
transcendence. Acknowledgment of our limited capacities does not
mean to renounce our involvement in human history, to propose and
plan, to create and do, to will and perform. On the contrary, part of
this surprise is God mixing in human history as we carry it out, God's
presence in history, most of the times in unexpected ways, as we recently celebrated in Christmas. God is more constant than the church,
and God's grace is exactly that, the expected surprise.
Corruption as System
Now, why is it that people and things do not "behave"? The Bible
gives us many clues. I will just mention one paragraph from Paul
which seems to me extremely meaningful and appropriate for our
theme:
For I consider that the sufferings of this present time are not worthy to be compared with the glory that is to be revealed to us. For

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the anxious longing of the creation waits eagerly for the revealing
of God's children. For the creation was subjected to futility, not
willingly, hut hecause of who subjected it, in hope that the creation itself also will be set free from its slavery to corruption into
the freedom of the glory of the children of God. For we know that
the whole creation groans and suffers the pains of childbirth togetlier until now. (Rom. 8:18-22)''
I am aware of the many exegetical difficulties in the passage that
we do not have here the time to consider. But taking it as a whole,
what struck me in this description by Paul is the image of a bondage to
corruption. The present suffering is attributed to a creation under oppression, in bondage to futility, that is, slavery to corruption. Who subjected it and why is one of the ambiguities involved in the text. Is it a
design of God, as part of the chastisement for human disobedience? Is
it Satan as ruler of the world, or the principahties and powers that oppose the divine? Is it the Roman Empire (not totally separated from
the previous), and its oppressive injustice, that God's children have to
endure as part of the struggle while awaiting the glorious manifestation of the Messiah, so they can exhibit the fullness of their liberty?
Arguments supporting each of these and perhaps other explanations,
or the combination of some, are not wanting. Yet, whatever our explanatory option might be, something is clear: Things are not what
they were created to be. They have become sometliing else, because
they have become vanity, futility. The Greek word here recalls hngering, wandering about without a clear goal, doing worthless things or
also emptiness: that is, actions or things devoid of their original intent.
That is what is meant by a bondage to corruption. When I look up the
word "corruption" in a dictionary, in this case the English online
Wikipedia, I find:
Corruption is essentially termed as an "impairment of integrity,
virtue or moral principle; depravity, decay, and/or an inducement to wrong by improper or unlawful means, a departure from
the original or from what is pure or correct, and/or an agency or

Quotations are taken from the New American Standard Bible, though some
words have been changed, by the authors translation, in order to better match the
Greek te.xt.

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influence that corrupts." Corruption, when applied as a technical
term, is a general concept describing any organized, interdependent system in which part of the system is either not performing
duties it was originally intended to, or performing them in an improper way, to the detriment ofthe system s original purpose.^

The corruption of an object or a human being is a deviation from


its original purpose, meaning, or function. And I find that todays
world system has become absolutely corrupt. It is not only the petty
corruption of a bribe given to police to avoid a traffic fine, nor even
some governor selling a Senate chair, or an African leader denying the
dramatic failure of his country's health care system, or a presidents
dishonesty in enforcing terror while saying that he combats terrorism.
Corruption is the essence ofthe present world order, especially when
we look at the development of the economy. The examples just given
are the hyperbolic expression of what is embedded throughout the
structure of globalizingand globalization is the "built environment"
of todays world. The system will not work if not on the basis of corruption. Corruption is the motor ofthe system.
The hegemonic pattern today is what has been called late financial capitalism. For capitalism, in any of its faces, the idea of profit is
considered as an engine of all human activity. It even goes further, and
some of its more radical advocates maintain that lust for gain and anxiety for accumulation are part of human nature. Yet, it must be clearly
stated that that claim is far from true. The ways and objectives of exchange vary through different cultures. Economic greed is not universal, but a construction of the West. You find many sins in other
cultures, but the wiU and ways to become rich, acquire glory, or exercise power are not always the same. And, in our case, greed is not considered sin, but a virtue! Not only a virtue, one among others, but the
virtue that decides: to be ambitious is a requirement to be promoted
to executive posts in business.
Now, the search for economic gain causes human activities to be
subjected to an end other than their own. For example, a laboratory
produces a medicine to cure disease. The declared goal is to ensure

^ This definition was taken from the online Wikipedia in October 2008. It has
changed slightly since then.

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573

health. But in that same act is the pursuit of another purpose, which is
economic gain. And if the two conflict, then the search for proflt takes
the upper hand. It is more important to satisfy the shareholders than
to provide medicine to a sick population, especially if it is poor. Copyright and trademark laws are enforced to protect profit, not the wellbeing of the population.
In that same order, many urban construction companies are engaged in building houses to sell, not necessarily for inhabitance. They
design houses, buildings, and closed neighborhoods that are modeled
by fashion, planned for the market, meeting the requirements of
the investor, not of the occupant, even less of the complex needs of the
city and its environment, natural and social. The recent mortgage crisis reveals the weakness of the housing market, since plans are made
in order to sell, not for the sake of better living conditions.
Now, this should not surprise us. The modem city is a result, in
many senses, of industrial production. It grew with the industrial revolution, and modified the medieval and feudal city by the introduction
of new forms of production. This produced the city and the built environment that we now know and inhabit, not only because the city was
needed and adapted for industrial production, but also because the
products of industry shape our Hves and environment (the car being
the most evident example).
Industrialization grew hand in hand with capitahsm, with the rise
of the bourgeois class. Even if protest grewand eventually in some
areas different sorts of sociahst experiments grew and are still implementedthe basic design of the modem city is still marked by tlie
changes brought by capitalistic industrialization, at least in the West.
The ideologies and theologies of progress that we mentioned before
are associated also with this development.
In Latin America and many other third world nations and peoples, the city is the product of colonialism, which either constructed
them or dramatically altered the traditional existing cities. As a matter
of fact, conquest and colonial occupation are what have built todays
environment, not only in the cities, but also in rural areas. Traditional
ways of life were submitted to the greed, needs, and customs of the invaders. And the existing economic systems and culture were modified
to meet the demands of the new hegemonic impositions. The introduction of new myths and rites, of capitahst values and relationships,
has hybridized the existing culture and uprooted people s identity. It is
very difficult to find oneself at home when home is defined, arranged.

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and even owned by others. The Pauline statement that all creation is
subjected to the slavery of corruption is not only a theological assertion, it is the life experience of the poor, of the oppressed, of the destitute, of those who suffer ethnic, gender, or class discrimination. That
fragility has been worsening with todays globalization.
Although many of these countries, through the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries, became independent, most of them are still subject (under the bondage of futility, in slavery to corruption) to neocolonial conditions, to the dictates of international finance centers, to
the requirements of external markets. The prevailing economic
scheme at tlie world level is that of financial capitalism, and everything
built in it must adapt to its laws. While postmodernism criticized the
cunning of reason of the Enlightenment, it goes on without a severe
critique of its economic outcome: financial capitalism. Rather, in the
last analysis, postmodern philosophy acts as an ideological cover of
late global capitalism: the cunning of reason has turned into the reason for cunning. In its late stage, submitting the production of goods
to financial speculation and the global imposition of the free market, it
pretends to replace the collective with the individual, the res publica
with the private interest, the needs of the majority of the worlds population with the hedonist pleasure of the global elite.
To give one example, we can mention the rise of the prices of
food, especially grain and oil producing commodities, because of the
need to turn them into energy for the cars of the affiuent world and its
ruling class. Small agricultural producers rent their land to seed pools,
which produce for the large world market using new technologies that
replace the rural laborers. So the small farms are swallowed up by
these great anonymous capitals, and do not feed anyinore the immediate population. The farmers get a higher rent than the benefit they
obtained through the hard work, and they go to the city to gamble in
the commodities stock market. Away also go the laborers and their
families to populate the miserable shanty towns that encircle the big
cities. This is really the way the environment is being built in the reality of most of the third world and also in the holes of poverty of the affiuent world. This is also the cause behind the new trends of
migration: people go where their money goes.
Who plans, who decides, what are the goals and considerations in
the way tliis environment is built? The whole landscape has changed:
the environment is now built and designed, not anymore by the hopes.

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lives, and desires of the surrounding population, but by the tyranny of


the free market. This has altered the whole agricultural scheme in the
world, and is threatening to increase the suffering of the hungerstricken populations of Asia, Latin America, and Africanot to mention the consequences for nations like Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia
of the increase of drug consumption in the developed world, able to
pay for some grams of cocaine the worth of several days of a family
diet. What were once bean-producing farms have turned into hidden
coca plantations, and those living in what were communal rural villages are now living afraid of the dealer's power. Creation subjected to
corruption.
It is not my intent to blame the city for the distress of the poor.
City and rural poor alike are not fit for the global free market economy, while great financial players become, when their brokers so tell
them, transitory or permanent landowners. The market only considers
those who have money, and the amount of money you deposit in the
game places you in the market. The free market does not exist: market
goods are never free, and what is free needs no market. Obviously, I
am aware that I am playing with the ambivalence of the word "free" in
English. When the advocates of the free market use this expression
they in no way mean that things are gratuitous, but that the market
should not be controlled by any rules but its own. Yet the two are not
so far apart as they seem, because to have an uncontrolled market
amounts to letting the market control everything. So in order to have
a free market, nothing can be free of the market, so the market itself
becomes the slave market. The poor of the world and die ecology of
the Earth are paying the price of the free market. By the way, Christian theology still is lacking a thorough study of the consequences of
the doctrine of grace in the field of economics.
It is the dynamic of the financial market that plans and indicates
the way we build our environment, rural and city alike. The worst
nightmare of science-fiction stories, where human-created devices
become autonomous and end up dominating human life, is already
happening: money, capital, a man-created reality, has captured the
minds of humans. It imposes its own decisions and kills those who
disobey its laws. It separates and creates distinctions from one person
to another, from one people to another. It grants human respect to
some, and denies it to others. It rules over creation, propitiating its destruction. Nothing can exist without its permission and regulations.

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Nothing can be traded, acquired, disposed of without its intervention.


It is, for John of Patmos, the mark of the beast (Rev. 13:17).
The suffering of human beings and the whole of creation by this
particular system of submitting creation to corruption shows that
cities, houses, or even the way of land ownership are not built to fulfill
their primary goal, but are corrupted by another value, that measured
in terms of money. As we read in the definition quoted above: "part of
the system is either not performing duties it was originally intended
to, or performing them in an improper way, to the detriment of the
system's original purpose." It is profit, and not the quality of hfe of
the majority of the people, that moves today's housing developments.
It is certainly not the free market that Paul is thinking of when he
writes that "the creation itself also will be set free from its slavery to
corruption into the freedom of the glory of the children of God." Free
market is not an expression of liberty, as the spokespersons of the Empire want to convince us, but of corruption. And by Empire I do not
mean the imperial dominion of any given country, but the alignment
of certain political, economic, and military powers that comprise the
global elite and that aspire to impose their will and might without control, to the exclusive end of their benefit. Their Hberty means the slavery of billions of other people. The purpose of financial gain is set as
social organizer, thus fostering the perversion of ends. No wonder that
the creation groans and suffers. Gorruption, under other names (corporate ambition, progress, the right to royalties, preemptive war, and
so on), even acquires an axiological sense or meaning in a capitalist
scale. Paul's warning to the Galatians is ignored: "But if you bite and
devour one another, take care that you are not consumed by one another" (Gal. 5:15).
Anticipation as Ethical
Is there any hope? After depicting such an ominous panorama, is
there anything that can be done but cry and lament? What would be a
Ghristian witness in the built environment in these given circumstances? What can a theology that wants to advance "the freedom of
the glory of the children of God" offer?
Gurrent pragmatic practices try to give fast and direct solutions to
the problems that are arising, but they do not measure the consequences and unexpected reach of those answers. When people want to
raise more fundamental questions about the ultimate direction of the
action, they are put aside as "ideological" (or "theological"). Immediate

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577

profit, short-term solutions, and ethnocentrismnot to mention egotism, blindness, obstinate stubbornness, superficiality, or negligence
guide the actions of politicians and planners, of developers, and many
times, also of volunteers in socially concerned organizations.
However, faith does not move as a reaction to a problem but from
a vision inspired by Cod, guided by a commitment to life that begins
to live up to that hope, tlie promised reign of Cod. In many quarters,
those who become aware of the present and coming problems begin
to grow strategies of resistance. Yet resistance, while necessary in certain circumstances, is never enough. Resistance is anchored in some
illusion ofthe past. Resistance means opposition, but as Christians we
are bound to talk of proposition, of hope, ofthe coming, of Cod's surprise. There is no future in the past. What we need is not only an
etliics of resistance, but the vision of a possible future. It is anticipation ofthe kind of world we long for, but we long for the coming reign
of Cod, not for a past Eden. Perhaps sometimes it is necessary to go a
step backward to take another road, yet our hope is not of what we
have already seen, but for the manifestation of the freedom of the
glory ofthe children of Cod.
When we continue reading the passage of Paul's letter to the Romans, we find this assertion of faith:
And not only this, but also we ourselves, having the first fruits of
tlie Spirit, even we ourselves groan within ourselves, waiting eagerly for the adoption as sons [and daughters], the redemption of
our body. For in hope we have been saved, but hope tliat is seen is
not hope; for who hopes for what it is already seen? But if we
hope for what we do not see, with perseverance we wait eagerly
forit. (Rom. 8:23-25)

This is, without doubt, embedded in Paul's apocalyptic theology.


Yet we should not, in that sense, confuse Paul's apocalyptic theology with the Armageddon and rapture vision construed and sponsored by dispensationalist theology. For Paul (as for John of Patmos),
the final revelation of the Messiah in his glory is not a message of destruction and hatred, but of confidence in the loving judgment of the
Cod of Justice, a justice that restores and saves, a justice aware of
the suffering ofthe victims, a justice nurtured in grace.
Certainly, in Paul's anthropology, material existence is not to be
despised: we do not await the saving of our souls, but, as he puts it, the
redemption of our body: the material existence of human beings and

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the whole of creation need not be condemned or vanquished, dissolved into some spiritual evasion, but we need a bodily redemption of
ourselves and the whole of creation. Creation has to be saved from
corruption and restored to its original purpose: human life, the beauty
of creation, and divine love are also manifested in the way we deal
with the material reality, in which materiality is included in our salvation dialogue.
For that reason anticipation is the ethical way of faith. We are
called to act in such a way that our behavior shows the kind of life we
are longing for. This leads to adjusting behavior to the vision, as a way
of changing the prevailing symbolic system. That is to put life, and not
profit, at the center of any decisionHfe tliat is worthy of humans for
everybody, life that liberates not only people, but the totality of the
created world. Life that is conscious of its ambiguities, failures, and
restrictions bom of our inadequate knowledge, which means openness to review, to correct, to hear; openness to the new, to the unexpected, to the cry of the "least of our brothers and sisters." Life that is
aware of the limits that can only be overcome by the glorious manifestation of the triumphant Messiah, who is none other than the slaughtered victim of human history, with whom the victims of Babylon are
identified (Rev. 18:24).
Paul is aware that this justice needs to overcome the shortcomings of what he calls "the law." The main problem with the law, as I understand Paul, is that it conceals the real people. It acts as a screen that
occults the other, and only lets us see a projected shadow. The other is
not the subject with whom I interact, but the object of a regulated action. So my goal is not the life of the other, to honor the life Cod shed
in them, but to fulfill the formal requirements of the law. Thus, the law
replaces the real other with a fiction of the other. This is why the only
law that resists this failure is the one that directs me directly to the
other: "Love your neighbor."
The market has acquired the dimension of what Paul calls "the
law." It conceals the real neighbor, and presents us a virtual "other,"
and relations with the other and with nature are mediated by money.
Now, as with the law, I do not condemn the market: there is a place for
the market economy, as there is a place for life under the law. But the
same law (market) that was meant for life, because of sin, became
death. Our problem is with the idea that only the market rules. The
law condemns, knows no mercy, as the market knows not the idea of
grace, of the gratuitous. Yet life is the product of love, our humanness

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579

is sustained and nurtured in what cannot be priced. To put a price to


love has another name.
A theology of incarnation, a pneumatology of God's presence in
creation, is bound to take love seriously. It is not simply by chance that
Friedrich Hayek, the most radical champion of the market economy,
explicitly says that love has no place in economics, and, at most, it must
be restrained to domestic relationships.^ If there is no place for love,
for mercy, for grace, there is no place for life. The invisible hand of the
market is pressing the human throat, choking life.
We live by grace: our behavior must signal that reality. We expect
the unexpected, we hear tlie cry of the destitute; we are confident not
in the progress of history, but in the word that comes to us from the
Greator of times. To build a human environment we must recover
the central value of human life, rescue it from the invisible hand of the
market. History is not linear, not even dialectical: it is guided by
the tension between memory and hope, between human liberty (with
its failures and errors, its signs of solidarity and good will) and divine
grace. To live in a human environment is to be aware of this ambiguity, and to be open to the transcendence that is manifested in the
weakest. As Walter Benjamin has said: "For in it every second was
the narrow gate, through which the Messiah could enter."^ The built
environment has to be constructed in this expectation. And as Ghristians, we are called to live in anticipation of this reality, manifesting
that "we have the first fruits of tlie Spirit" and for that, "we hope for
what we do not see."

" Friedrieh Hayek, Los fundamentos de la libertad (Madrid: Unin Editorial,


1998), 114.
^ Walter Benjamin, On the Concept of History, Gesammelten Schriften 1:2
(Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1974). The quotation is in "Addendum B" and
is accessible at http://www.efn.org/~dredmond/ThesesonHistory.htmI.

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