128

N, Jackson crnd C, Sinclqir

In all such artistic pl'ocesses, including those which occur in educational situations, there ale critical moments of feedback, of taking stock, of applying
general principles (and of deliberateiy and consciously going against some
accepted principles or critelia) all of which involve reflective thought and
judgement.

2002.2r
relation:
this voir

(Cowan, 1998:31)
So yes, creativity may sometimes be tacit and invisibie (which may cause plob-

lems for assessment) and may appear to come 'out of the blue', but intuition,
like imagination, tends to be balanced with critical thinking (a point also

acknowledged by Claxton,

1997).

It is not always (nol often) a case of

ei.ther'/or.

Learn
Any appr
towards
general
I

eatne

i)

this model suggests that every learning and teaching sihration ' .. is underpinned by a complex set of conditions relating to the inter-relationship
between student, teachel and task. It also suggests that any teachet', to gain
maximum impact, must be delibelately awale of these relationships and the
ways in which they are iikely to impact on any kind of provision and any
learner l'esponse. This could be of pafiicular interest in the coutext of . . .
irurovation in general, whele - fbl example - students may not be tnotivated

to try out new ways of wot'king, whele they may not have adapted appropriate cognitive and metacognitive strategies, and rnay find this difficult
without suppofi, and may hence lose pelceptions of efficacy - again impacting on motivation.
(Dunne, in Jackson et a|.,2004)

We would expect that the components of an effective teaching and learning

system to support development of students' creativity would be connected and
aligned in the sense of John Biggs' notion of constructive alignment (Biggs,

is

Ailliuc

Bffective teaching and learning systerns

Dunne (in Jackson et a1.,2004) is developing a model fol an effective teaching
and learning system based on the best empirical evidence derived fi'om a systematic review of the resealch literahlre that focused on the effects of reflection
and action planning on students' lealning oritcomes * key compouents of selfregulation. The model highlights the cornplexity of the factols and intelactions
that influence students' learning outcomes.
We are maicing the assumption that these ale impofiant characteristics for
rlost teachel-facilitated learning envirorunents and thet'efore impottant in our
ow1 sealch for an appropliate pedagogy to suppofi the development ofstudents'
creativity. The significance of this model is that it is grown fi'om best empirical
evidence of situations that had measurable beneficial impacts on students' leal'ning, i.e. it is glown from teaching and learning practices that at'e i<nown to be
effective in achieving intended lealning outcomes rathel than theories of what
effective practice ought to be:

.33

Ccn:e
means
In any

Physic

"

Posse

cognit
to ped

Poss

strale
awar

proce

Abilib
mane

ano r
(exec

Perci

Figrti,

Developing str,tdents'

creativie

129

2002,2003). one thing that we would like to emphasise in this complex set of
lelationships, is the crucial issue of teacher-student lelationships (see Dineen,
this volume, chapter 9), A useful perspective on this was provided by one of our
peer reviewers,

Learner characterlstics

Teacher actlvlty

Task

Any approach, or molivatlon

towards a task, or learnlng in
general ls dependent on the

Any approach, or motlvatlon

towards a task or loarnlng In
general ls dependent on the

learner's:

teacher's mode of presentatlon

of the acadomlc task/learnlng

Attltudes/values towards
learnlng ln generaL or partbuhr
types of learnlng or towards
partlcular tasks.

.
.
.

Conceptlons/bellefs of what

'
11

Approprlate skucturlng of
knowledge bases, dependent

means to learn, to be a learner

ln any partlcular context.

on a detalled knowledge of the

academlc content to be learne0.

Physlcal dlsposltlon, e.g. fatgue,

, Attenilon to approprlate learnlng

strategles for students,

Possesslon of a repertolre ol
skllls approprlate to the tasks
Possesslon of a repertolre ol
cognltlve strategles approprlate
to pefformlng any padicular task.
Possesslon of metacognitivs
strategles, l.e. knowledge ano
awareness of thelr own cognltlve
processes.

and metacognltive processes

(executive control).

teacher's:

. Demands - level of dlfflculty,

. Porcelved approprlateness.
. Manner of presentation.
. Representatlon and oppodunlty
provlded for Intended learnlng
oulcomes.

Modes of assessment and

crlteria that are matched to
Intended learnlng outcomes.

dependent on a knowledge ol
cognltlve and metacognltlve
processes and how learners can
be encouraged to use these.

, Abllity to predlct and deal wlth

varlety of studont's cognltive
abillties, motlvatlons, eic.

, AblllV

to demonstrate and model

approaches to required
outcomes.

Abllity to actlvely control and

manago thelr own cognltlve

processes/ref lecllve approaches,

and consolldatlon through:

Any approach, or motivation

towards a task or loarnlng In
general ls dependent on the

, Abllity to promote thlnking

through questlonlng and
challenglng.

Pgrcolved self.etficacy.

, Attentlon to wrltten Instructlons

and examplos that reinforce
spoken Instructlons.

'

Provlding timely feedback,

veltal

and/or wrltten, or computer.

based.

' Abillty to match

assessment to
the intended learnlng outcomes.

Figure 10,1 The corrplex interactions and interdependencies between teacher, learaer
and task. (Developed by Elisabeth Dunne from the
review of the empirical evidence that reflection co
and action planning improves students' achievement
2004)),

130

N. Jaclcson

cLnd

C. Sinclair

My experience

. . . is that the relationship between tutor and sfudent is of

critical importance, depends upon featules which I have still to pinpoint and
seems to depend on those vital early exchanges which can make or break
the cluality of the lelationship, It's a lelationship in which students feel able
to leveal and discuss innermost ways of thinlcing, and tutors can empathise
and at times demonstrate congtuence, fi'om theil own experiences . . . their
effect in initiation, rejection, doubts, acceptance, enthusiasm at the outset, is
clitical to sucsessftil lealnins.

(John Cowan, pels, comrn., 2005)

We can very readily relate this complex set of relationships and inteldependencies to the idea of the cognitive apprenticeship (Collins et a1.,1991), the basis
fol ouL pedagogic model to suppolt development of stndents' creativity, Figule
I0.2 attempts to contextualise the complex set of relationships identified by
Dume (teacher'-student-task - which we take to include environment and
context) within a model of a teaching and lealning system that is putposefully
designed to promote students' cleativity.

3{
tea
lea
e+r

chi
0r

for developing stuclents' creatility

The pedagogic rnodel outlined above is a simple visnal lepresentation of a
complex process, set of conditions and le-lationships pefiaining to the envilonment fol leaming. We need to convelt this into something that can be operationalised by a teacher. Each teacher will sealch for and invent their own way of

A strategy

doing this in a way that is appt'opriate fol their context. Our search has led us to
the following assumption-led stlategy,
That highel education encourages the acquisition of domain-specific lcnowledge and skills. Students cannot be ct'eative in a domain if they aLe not
knowledgeable about the domain and/ol if they don't care enongh about the
domain to want to achieve within it.
If we want to develop students' creativity, we have fu'st to develop onL own

undelstandings about what it means in the contexts fol onr teaching.

Thlough such r,rnderstanding we can be clearer about the types of cteativity
we want to encouLage.
A good way to help shidents learn about creativity is fol a teacher.to reveal
their own creativity and show students what it rneans to them in their own
pl'actice, appreciating that this may be easiel said than done,
But showing students what it means is not enough. We have to help then'r
afiiculate and constluct their own meanings of creativity fol the contexts in
which they are studying and learning. And we have to show them that we
value their understandings rather than sirnply oul own. It is these perceptions that shape theil beliefs and ftiel theit' intlinsic motivations - widening

the range of pelceptions is pelhaps the most important thing we can do

as

teachels to develop students' cleativity. Thele are both individuaL and

collective dimensions to meaning-making, which ellgages dir.eetly with the

ani
abl
an,

Developing stutdents'

creativity

131

5 Through conversation, teachers and students

co-create their understandings of what being
creative means and what creative outcomes
are, in the particular context, and collaborate
their evaluation.

Creatlve aild nonrcrdative outcomes emerge

through the process for both,students and
teachers. Many of these outcomes cannot be

1 Teachei.s use their creativity

3 Stimulated blfacilitative
teaching and qh engaging

envir0nment,
witl{ditferent
(Dunne)
^r .
creative

learning
students
characteristips
draw on their practical,
analytical qhd
abilities in bifferent
and to diffprent degrees,

ways

to design le'arning environments

Mutually respectful
and energising
relationships
necessary
nertncrshios in'

for

""'ii"iiZ,

in which stulents'creativity is
TheY

their
'iN

providing

role

itate

their learning

nstudents in
didactic and non-jldgemental
way.

II
rl
rl

rl

\.

2 The learning environment (conte)ds and tasks)

:

,l
)

characteristics.

to help students develop

embodies the cornplex set of relationships and
interdependencies elaborated in the model by Dunne (Figure 10.1). The
whole environment detnands a self-regulating approach to learning, and
teacher and students collaborate in cognitive apprenticeship (Collins et al.,

Figtre 10.2 Model of

a teaching and learning system designed

their creative potential.

It

I e9 1),

extended abstract field of creative outcomes (Biggs, 2003), The use of web
iogs can be helpful in engaging students and accumulating their understandings, and provides them with a practical illustlation of how knowledge can
be socially constructed.
We have to give students opportunities to experience and practise their creativity by creating the curiculum spaces, conditions and experiences that

are stimulating, relevant and authentic to their field of study' Challenging

problem-working contexts provide favourable environments for practising
to be creative.

132

N, Jqclaon qnd C. Sinclair

We might go fuither by intloducing specific strategies fol encouraging students to develop a repertoire of thinking skills that might help them to think
freshly about the things that they have to give attention to,
. Finally, we need to develop students' capacity to recognise and capture their
own creativities and help them make claims that can be substantiated. They
have to be critical evaluators of their own cleativity as it is manifested in the
learning enterplises in which they at'e engaged.
" The feedback gained thlough this stlategy should enable teachers to refine
their thinlcing and facilitation skilis. The collective ieaming of srudents and
teacher can be used as a l'esouLoe for learning and for students in the futLrre,
This strategy is consistent and overlaps that proposed by John Corvan (this
volume, Chapter 12) for the evaluation of sfudents' creativity,

Information resources to suppott this strategy

A cole purpose of the Imaginative curriculum project is to develop information

resources to help higher education teachers to think about and operationalise the

idea of cleativity. The repository for much of this information ale the Imaginative Curriculum web pages. These pages are continually being updated so the
resources that are identified in Appendix 10.2 will, with time, be extended.
Indeed we l.rope that readers

will contribute ideas and materials to the site,

Concluding remarks
In dlawing this account ofoul search for an applopriate pedagogy to a close, we
imagine that some readers will be disappointed by us not giving clear, unambiguous advice about how a higher education teacher miglrt facilitate students'
creative development. There are resources like the Stelnbelg and williams
(1996) e-booklet, the GASE creative thinking skills booklet edited by caroline
Baillie (see this volume, chapter' 11) and John cowan's excellent descr.iption of
a process (this volume, chapter 12) that provide practical ideas and illustrations
on how to facilitate and evaluate students' creativity, But we believe that the
process of seafching and constructing meanings and undelstandings is irnponanr
in the development of personal pedagogies, so we have opted to provide an
acoount of our own sense-malcing and a navigational aid to what we think are
useful and stimulating resources, and leave the rest to the professional skills and
imaginations of our readers,

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