Site Investigation Manual - 2002

4.

FINAL DESIGN

4.1

General

Chapter 4
Final Design

Investigations for obtaining the geotechnical data that are necessary for designing a
particular project should be based on the information obtained during the feasibility study
and preliminary design. Data obtained during the feasibility study and preliminary design
should be interpreted and the findings applied to optimize the investigations for design in
terms of cost and time.
Subsurface exploration procedures cannot be reduced to a few guidelines that fit all
conditions. Widely diverse geologic environments, local equipment, personal preferences
and time and budget constraints have all contributed to the development of different
approaches.
As mentioned in Chapter 2, investigations for design are often conducted in two stages
(feasibility and preliminary stage, final stage), depending on the terms of reference.
Where two stages are chosen or specified, the frequency of sampling and testing during
the preliminary stage is significantly less that that for the final design. An indication of
the types of tests and testing frequency for preliminary design is given in Table 4-1.
Normally, the feasibility study and preliminary design have identified a final alignment,
and the final stage of design is therefore aimed at defining precisely the earthworks,
pavements and structures including their foundations, as well as the sources of materials.
However, it is time-consuming and costly to mobilize a full fleet of field personnel and
equipment twice to do the investigations. Thus, conversely, the preliminary stage
investigation may often be the main investigation program. The final investigation
program in this instance will be limited and directed only towards confirming design
evaluations (particularly when there have been design changes subsequent to the main
exploration program), for fine-tuning the decision analysis and for any specific problem
areas along the alignment.
If the investigations are to be done in two stages, with more or less equal emphasis, the
specified sampling frequency for each stage is to be followed. However, if major
emphasis is on the preliminary stage, then the frequency as recommended for the final
stage needs to be adopted (see Table 4-1).
The field exploration should be of such extent as to have sufficient data for final design.
The explorations and testing, should serve the obvious needs of civil and structural
design. The final design phase data must have sufficient accuracy, coverage and
applicability to support design analysis and decisions. It should also permit reasonably
accurate final estimates of material quantities and construction costs.
In general, structural foundations have individually planned explorations. If feasible,
depending on the size of the structure and project schedule, these investigations may also
be combined with the main program.

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The investigations for any typical project can broadly be categorized as:

4.2

Earthwork and subgrade soils

Construction materials
Foundations of structures
Earthworks and Subgrade Soils

Investigation of earthworks and subgrade soils may be divided into two general
categories:

4.3
4.3.1

Common Investigations
Special investigations
Common Investigations: New Roads
SAMPLING AND FREQUENCY

Common investigations should cover basic data collection, such as depth and nature of
soils (subgrade and embankment materials), and should be limited to test pits and hand
augers. The common investigations can be for new roads and/or existing roads.
Once the alignment of a new road is finalized, investigations for soil sampling along the
alignment can be initiated. The frequency of sampling depends on the field conditions.
As a standard guideline, at least one representative soil sample should be collected per
kilometer of the proposed roadway alignment, with more frequent samples where there
are significant changes in soil type. Significant changes are those which affect the general
classification of the soils as well as their bearing strength (CBR). The sampling location
may be alternatively on the left and right edge of the proposed roadway. Table 4-1 gives
a recommended sampling frequency and the corresponding tests. This frequency may be
altered depending on the variations in soil types along the alignment.
Spacing in specific locales may (and should) be increased where indications are that the
subgrade exhibits a fair degree of homogeneity, and conversely be decreased where
variations become evident or are suspected, or when problem soils (e.g. expansive soils0
or design problems are encountered.
Table 4-1: Sampling Frequency
Investigation Stage

Test Description

Feasibility/Preliminary

Identification
CBR
Identification
CBR

Final

Frequency of
Cumulative Sampling
1 Km
2 -5Km
0.5 Km
1 Km

Notes:
1. The frequency of sampling is cumulative, i.e. the frequency indicated in the final stage is a
cumulative total of both the preliminary stage and final stage sampling.
2. As mentioned in Section 4.1, if major emphasis is on the preliminary stage, the frequency of
sampling shall be as indicated for the final stage.
3. The sampling should insure at least two tests per each soil group along the alignment.

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The recommended approximate quantity (mass) of sample required may be determined

by verifying the tests required and referring to Table 4-2 below. It is simpler, and
generally preferable, to retrieve in the field each sample large enough to conduct all
required tests (i.e. identification tests as well as compaction and CBR tests) in the
laboratory. This allows for a better selection of representative samples in the laboratory
prior to compaction and CBR testing. If logistics preclude the taking and transportation
of large quantities of samples, careful examination of the soils in the field must be
conducted and judgment must be exercised to select truly representative samples for
compaction and CBR testing.
Table 4-2: Minimum Mass of Sample Required (Soils and Gravels)
1. When only classification tests are required (Grading and Atterberg Limits), the
following masses of field samples are recommended depending on the maximum
particle size:
Maximum Particle Size (mm)
5 mm
40 mm
75 mm

Minimum Sample Mass (Kg)

5 Kg
20 Kg
120 Kg

Further details may be found, for instance, by referring to AASHTO T86.

2. When a compaction test and a single CBR test are required in addition to
classification tests:
A minimum mass of sample of 20 Kg to 40 Kg is recommended, depending on the
method used for the compaction test (i.e. the size of the mold). The method to be used
depends on whether or not the majority of the particles are smaller than 5 mm.
Note: The methods for compaction and CBR provide for replacement of oversize
fraction.
3. When additional CBR tests are required (e.g. for series of CBR with 3 or 6 molds),
a 5 to 10 Kg additional mass of sample is recommended for each additional mold
required depending on the size of particles as indicated in item 2 above.
4. If treatment tests are contemplated, an additional 50 Kg to 100 Kg is
recommended depending on the particle size.
For the purpose of taking representative samples, pits shall be dug mostly in anticipated
cut areas (since these cuts will expose the subgrade support of the future pavement and
provide embankment materials), if possible down to at least 30 cm below the expected
subgrade level. Further, in the case of a new alignment, the depth of any pit should in no
case be less than 1.5 m unless rock or other material impossible to excavate by hand is
encountered. The engineer in charge of planning the investigations should make every
effort to locate the test pits (along the alignment as well as within the lateral extent of the
anticipated excavation) in order to optimize the representativity of the material excavated
from the test pit.

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If deep cuts are proposed through materials indicated to be variable by test pits and a
study of the geological maps, consideration is to be given to drilling the cuts at the final
design stage when the potential hard stone sources are being investigated.
The position (in plan and elevation) of each test pit must be accurately determined and
recorded. This implies that geotechnical and topographical tasks must be coordinated in
the field. In every test pit, all layers, including topsoil, shall be accurately described and
their thicknesses measured. All layers of more than 30 cm (except topsoil) shall be
sampled. This will promote a proper assessment of the bulk of the materials excavated in
cuts and to be used in embankments. The sample shall be taken over the full depth of the
layer by taking a vertical slice of material.
Care shall be taken, when retrieving samples, to secure and preserve a small but
sufficient quantity of soil for the purpose of measuring the moisture content in the
laboratory, unless provisions are made to measure the moisture content in the field.
Measuring the in-situ moisture content is particularly desirable at the anticipated
subgrade level.
The log of each test pit shall be accurately drawn and included in the Soils and Materials
Report. A sample test pit log data sheet is shown in Figure 4-1. Photographs should also
be taken of the test pit location, as well of the soils horizons in the test pit. This will help
both the engineers in charge of reporting the investigations and in charge of interpreting
the results. Selected, representative photographs should also be included in the Soils and
Materials Report.
4.3.2

RECOMMENDED TESTS ON SOIL SAMPLES

For new road alignments, the following tests shall normally be conducted, as a minimum,
on the collected soil samples (see also Appendix B):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Grain Size Analysis (AASHTO T88)

Atterberg Limits (AASHTO T89, T90)
Moisture Content (AASHTO T265)
Compaction Test (AASHTO T180)
CBR and Swell (AASHTO T193)

The compaction test requires preparation of at least four (preferably five) molds for
compaction and at least one mold for CBR. The CBR shall normally be measured after
four days of soaking, except in arid areas (annual rainfall less than 500 mm). In arid
areas, the CBR may be measured at OMC (optimum moisture content) or after a reduced
soaking period, depending on the equilibrium moisture content predicted under the
pavement in the area (see ERA Pavement Design Manual - 2002). The compaction tests
shall be conducted on samples compacted to 95% of the MDD achieved by AASHTO
Test Method T180. The CBR tests shall be conducted at three levels (normally 90%,
95%, and 100%) of compaction, and at each level, two conditions of moisture. This
procedure is to determine design CBR and to know the effect of the relative compaction
and moisture.

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To assess the quantities of the various earthwork categories (i.e. rock, rippable or normal
material), it will in some cases be necessary to drill boreholes. This type of investigation
may advantageously be supplemented by a seismic survey or a resistivity survey.

Figure 4-1:

4.3.3

Typical field book page, log of test pits

CLASSIFICATION OF THE SUBGRADE SOILS

The results from the above testing, combined with the relevant field observations, will
enable a classification of the subgrade soils to be made. A category of soil should include
the soils of the same type having fairly consistent geotechnical characteristics (Grading,
Atterberg Limits, Compaction and particularly CBR). A soil map should be prepared
indicating the area limits of each soil type.

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Usually, the number of soil categories will not exceed 4 or 5 for a given road project. It is
advisable to avoid introducing short sections along the alignment with numerous changes
in the soil categories as this can make the construction operations overly complicated.
Additional guidance regarding the soil categories defining a road project may be found in
the ERA Pavement Design Manual - 2002. For pavement design, the road sections must
be defined in accordance with subgrade strength classes, as follows:

Table 4-3: Subgrade Strength Class vs. CBRs

Subgrade Strength Class
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6

Range
(CBR %)
2
34
57
8 14
15 29
30+

Almost all types of soil, ranging from sandy clays through to broken rock, can be used
for embankment construction and pavement support, the main limitation being the ease
with which the material can be handled and compacted. However, materials with CBRs
less than 2 are usually very difficult to work and, as subgrade, would lead to
uneconomical pavement structures. Such soils, except if unavoidable, are usually
considered unsuitable. If they must be used, they must be covered by select subgrade
materials or capping layers.
The ERA Pavement Design Manual - 2002 also gives guidance regarding estimated
subgrade strength classes depending on the plasticity of soils and the depth of the water
table. This estimated correlation can usefully be referred to as a means to ascertain the
results of the above tests.
4.3.4

TREATMENT TESTS (WHEN APPROPRIATE)

If the above compaction and CBR tests show that the available natural materials do not
meet the quantity or quality (as per specifications) requirements for subgrade and/or
pavement layers, treatment tests shall be carried out on the relevant large samples.
Treatment may be considered to use the materials, with cement or lime, as roadbase
materials, subbase, or capping or selected fill layers.
The selection of the type of treatment (cement or lime) is based on the plasticity and
particle size distribution of the material to be treated. The laboratory testing procedures to
assess the suitability of the materials after cement/lime stabilization are mentioned in
Appendix B.

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4.4

Chapter 4
Final Design

Common Investigations: Existing Roads

This paragraph applies to sections of existing gravel roads that are to be upgraded, the
geometric standards of which are good enough to maintain the existing alignment. The
procedure and frequency of sampling described herein for new roads applies to these
roads as well.

Where more than 10 cm of existing gravel wearing course is in place on the road and
where the shape is adequate, samples of subgrade are to be submitted to laboratory
tests (1) to (4) listed above (i.e. identification and compaction test).

In addition, the Field Moisture Content and Field Dry Density of each sample shall be
measured; this is to decide whether to leave the subgrade undisturbed or to recompact
it. Methods are suggested for the purpose of these measurements in Section 4.1 of this
manual. However, an entire project should not rely entirely on nuclear methods, and
verification of the results should be made using in particular the Sand-Cone Method
(AASHTO T 191) for in-situ density and AASHTO T 217 for moisture content.

If the degree of field compaction is found to be consistently satisfactory (preferably at

least 95% of the maximum dry density achieved by AASHTO T180), then CBRs
shall be measured in the laboratory at Field Dry Density on representative samples of
the subgrade. These measurements may be supplemented by direct measurements of
the subgrade strength using DCP testing (see Appendix C). If the degree of
compaction is not satisfactory, the subgrade will need recompaction and the CBRs
shall then be measured at 95% M.D.D. (AASHTO T180).

The design moisture content to be adopted in the design of new pavement is to be

determined based on the project conditions, taking into consideration the depth to
water table and rainfall characteristics.
Direct measurements of the subgrade strength may also be taken under existing
pavements, as indicated in ERA's Pavement Design Manual - 2002.

4.5

Materials

The Field Investigation Program, in stages, as described in Chapter 3, also applies to

materials investigation. If the major emphasis of the investigation is on the preliminary
stage, the frequency of sampling as intended for the final stage needs to be adopted.
Information gathered during the preliminary stage should enable haulage diagrams to be
prepared which show estimated resource volumes and existing minimum haulage
distances. Resource deficiencies will thus be identified.
During the final stage, investigations should be carried out as required at additional
expected sources to ensure minimum haulage and ample selection of material of suitable
quality.
Pavement material searches are generally restricted to a 10 km corridor centering on the
road. The cost of constructing access tracks to pit/quarry sites offset from the road may
very well be prohibitive to development, so viable sources will require some kind of
existing track, unless the terrain is very subdued.

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From the viewpoint of their use in the finished road, materials for road construction (new
road construction or rehabilitation) include:
-

Embankment materials: in this chapter, brief considerations are given for the cases
when common investigations for earthworks and subgrade have revealed conditions
resulting in a need for additional embankment materials (e.g. poor subgrade
conditions requiring replacement, or imbalance of quantities or excessive haulage
distances)

Pavement layers materials: these materials include mainly naturally occurring

granular materials and crushed rock materials

Rock is also used for concrete, masonry and other miscellaneous uses

Sand and water also constitute construction materials: sand may be mechanically
mixed with other unbound naturally occurring or crushed materials to improve their
characteristics, as fine aggregate for bituminous mixes or in cement concrete mix;
water is used in earthworks, pavement layers and concrete, as well.

From the viewpoint of the logistics involved in the investigations and testing, however,
the materials object of this chapter will be simply classified as:

Naturally occurring soil and gravel materials

Crushed stone aggregates (quarry materials)

Water

Costs relating to the haulage and processing of pavement materials have a considerable
impact upon the economics of the road construction or upgrading. Therefore, during final
design, detailed construction material sources and evaluations must be undertaken.
Investigations along road lengths requiring reconstruction should be directed towards the
location of regularly spaced sources of pavement materials. Emphasis must be given
during the field studies to the identification of material sources that meet the following
criteria:
-

The material sources must be located as close as possible to the project road.

The material sources must be located at frequent intervals along the road.

The material sources should have little overburden and low extraction costs.

Quarry sites must be located at sites suitable for the erection of crushing plants.

Blasting should be minimized to produce stone fragments ready for crushing.

Materials should require minimal processing to achieve a suitable specification.

4.5.1

EXISTING PAVEMENT MATERIALS

Where an existing road is to be upgraded (or rehabilitated) on the same alignment, the
existing pavement materials may provide materials for improved subgrade, subbase or
other pavement layers.

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Chapter 4
Final Design

This may be the case, for instance, for an existing gravel road being upgraded to paved
road. In such a case, measurements of the thickness and width of the gravel wearing
course shall be recorded every 100 m. One sample per kilometer of existing gravel
wearing course shall be taken where the layer is at least 15 cm thick. Each sample shall
be submitted to tests as per the specifications corresponding to the intended use of the
material. Normally, the tests to be carried out for gravel material are:
-

Sieve analysis
Atterberg limits
Moisture content
Compaction test
CBR test

Other examples of reuse of existing pavement materials include (i) recycling reclaimed
asphalt pavement materials and/or reclaimed aggregate materials with new asphalt and
(ii) recycling surface materials with new asphalt and aggregate chips for the surface
course.
4.5.2

SOIL AND GRAVEL BORROW PITS

Information obtained at the Preliminary Design stage (see Chapter 3) will enable a
selection of the most suitable borrow areas to be made. Chapter 3 also summarizes the
various possible uses of soil and gravel materials as pavement layers materials.
Consideration shall be given, during final design, to the following factors:
-

Quality of the materials, so as to comply with the specifications for intended use
Location of the proposed borrow areas, so as to minimize haul and obtain the most
economic use of materials
Ease of working (land acquisition, clearance of the site, access, overburden, thickness
of exploitable horizon, etc.)

Natural gravel deposits offering potential for use for road construction may include
outcrops of closely fractured (rippable) basalt, limestone gravels and possible alluvial
deposits, including riverbeds.
Highly fractured basalt outcrops may represent an easily excavated source of pavement
aggregate, but the presence of seams of highly plastic clay may render the material
unsuitable for road base. Also, apparently strong basalt gravels may contain minerals that
are prone to rapid deterioration in service. As a result, closely fractured basalt deposits
should be carefully investigated and tested in a central laboratory to fully establish their
soundness and engineering characteristics.
Field Investigations and Sampling Procedures
Pits shall be dug at every point on a grid (50 m grid during the preliminary stage and 25
m grid during the final stage), through the full depth of the layer(s) proposed for use.
The position of each proposed borrow pit shall be indicated on a key plan. A site plan of
each proposed borrow pit shall be prepared, showing the position of each test pit, the
characteristic features of the site and the means of access and location.

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In every test pit, all layers, including top soil and overburden, shall be accurately
described and their thicknesses measured and recorded. All layers proposed for use shall
be sampled. The log of each test pit shall be accurately drawn and included in the Soils
and Materials Report.
The sample shall be taken over the full depth of the layer proposed for use, by taking a
vertical slice of material.
The quantity of material in each sample must be sufficient to carry out the testing
required. The required quantity may be assessed from Table 4-2.
4.5.3

SAMPLES OF SAND

Sand for any type or class of concrete and for mortars requires washed and processed
material composed of quartz or other hard durable particles. The sand particles shall be
predominantly angular in shape and be free of soft particles. Also, the material shall be
non-plastic in nature.
Sand borrow areas, such as streambed deposits, should be located for use in concrete for
bridge and drainage structures. Samples need to be gathered by test pits in representative
areas. Sand may also be used as part of the mix for bituminous mixes, and may also be
considered as an additive for mechanical stabilization.
4.5.4

EMBANKMENT MATERIALS

In most cases, side borrow will prove sufficient for raising grades in areas not
characterized by highly plastic soils. Otherwise, borrow areas should be located in
adjacent areas with sufficient high caliber borrow materials (e.g., CBR over 5). This may
prove necessary, in particular, in areas of expansive soils. Samples should be gathered by
test pits dug in representative areas.
The tests required on samples of embankment materials have been defined in Chapter 3.
Sampling shall be carried out so as to obtain the required number of samples as given in
Table 4-4.

Table 4-4 Sampling Frequency (Soils and Gravels)

Test

Sampling Frequency
Preliminary Stage

Final Stage

Identification Test

Every 4,000 m3

Every 1,000 m3

Large samples (for

compaction and CBR)

Every 15,000 m3

Every 5,000 m3

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Chapter 4
Final Design

Testing
In addition to the testing indicated above, gravel material shall be subjected to some or all
of the following tests: (a) Los Angeles Abrasion, (b) Aggregate Crushing Value, and (c)
Flakiness Index, depending on its intended use (i.e. as subbase, roadbase, wearing
course), to verify conformity with the corresponding division of the Specifications.
Tests for Sand
Tests to be undertaken on representative samples of sand include:
-

Sieve analysis

Sand equivalent

Soundness

The results of the above tests should be compared to the specific project requirements for
the intended use (e.g. concrete, bituminous mix, etc.).
4.5.5

QUARRY MATERIALS

General
Information obtained during the feasibility study will guide in selecting the most suitable
quarry sites, on the basis of rock quality, location, access and ease of working.
If possible and if necessary, the quantities of quarry materials may be ascertained by
geophysical methods. Geophysical methods are strongly recommended in particular if
conditions impose a limitation to the number of core borings.
Rock quarries furnish materials for roadbase, gravel surfacing, bituminous surfacing,
asphalt wearing surface, and aggregates for concrete. They also furnish large rocks that
can be used for masonry or scour protection.
Crushed hard rock (basalt and limestone) will often be important sources for roadbase
materials required for new road construction, as well as for upgrading existing roads. In
some cases, it may even prove economical to use crushed materials for subbase. In a
majority of cases, it will be more convenient to use crushed aggregates for roadbase,
rather than naturally occurring gravels that may contain too many plastic fines.
Each potential source of crushed rock should be examined to determine the rock jointing
characteristics and weathering profile within the outcrop. Based on the results of the field
and laboratory investigations, quarry sites with the best excavation characteristics (well
jointed) and uniform strength properties should be selected for development. Typically,
in many parts of the country, sources of crushed hard rock are available at regular
intervals along the alignment.
Investigations, Drilling and Sampling
Each selected potential quarry site shall be investigated as follows:

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Test holes shall be dug or drilled on a 30 m grid (average) to prove overburden and
ascertain quantities.

Boreholes shall be drilled to prove quantity and quality of rock. It is recommended

that, normally, the cores diameter be 76 mm (coring bits required: HWG, formerly
HX). In any case, the minimum coring diameter shall be 55 mm (NWG, formerly
NX), so as to recover stone in sufficient quantity for testing. The log of each
borehole shall be accurately recorded, drawn and included in the Soil and Materials
Report.

Consideration should be given to the use of a bulldozer or other mechanical

excavator to prove the availability of solid rock. Such an excavation may also be
shown to bidders during a conducted site visit. This will also allow a better selection
of the locations of borings and facilitate access.

Samples of fresh rock shall be obtained by hand, or pneumatic drilling from existing
faces and outcrops. Great care shall be taken to avoid sampling from a superficial
horizon of weathered rock and to ensure that the samples are representative of the
stone to be used.

In addition, whenever possible, deeper samples shall be obtained by blasting.

Depending on the consistency of the rock and whether it is an existing or a new quarry, 5
to 10 samples are required per quarry during the final stage of the investigation, as
against 3 samples during the preliminary investigation.
A site plan of each potential quarry shall be prepared, showing the characteristic features
of the site (outcrops, existing faces, etc.) and the means of access and location.
The position and level of each borehole and each sampling point shall be accurately
determined and recorded on the site plan, after the quarries have been drilled.
Each sample shall contain sufficient material to carry out the tests indicated below. The
quantity of material required is on the order of 200 Kg.
Testing
Testing is aimed at verifying the suitability of the rock for the intended use and for
conformance with the corresponding division of the Specifications, such as crushed stone
subbase and crushed stone roadbase.
Each sample shall be subjected to the following tests:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Los Angeles Abrasion (AASHTO T 96)

Aggregate Crushing Value (BS 812, Part 110)
Sodium Sulphate or Magnesium Sulphate Soundness (AASHTO T 104)
Plasticity Index on fines from the Los Angeles Abrasion test (AASHTO T 89, T 90)
and Plasticity Index on material passing the 425 micron sieve (the latter to verify
suitability of fine aggregate for asphalt concrete mix)
5. Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate (AASHTO T 84)
6. Bitumen Affinity (for stone proposed for use with bitumen, immersion tray test).

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Chapter 4
Final Design

Moreover, one large sample obtained from each quarry (representative of the stone to be
used) shall be crushed with a small crusher (and not broken by hand), to a maximum size
depending on the proposed use of the stone (usually ranging from 20 to 40 mm). The
crushed stone shall be submitted to tests (1) through (6) above and, in addition, to the
following tests:
(1) Grading to 0.075 mm sieve (AASHTO T 88)
(2) Flakiness Index (BS 812, Part 105)
(3) Sand Equivalent (AASHTO T 176)
Compaction and CBR tests may also be run for materials intended for use as unbound
roadbase materials.
Notes:
1. While the above tests are deemed necessary to ensure the suitability of the materials
for their purpose (e.g. the preparation of bituminous mixes), it is beyond the scope of
normal investigations to actually produce specific job-related mixes. Rather, a jobmix formula should be prepared by the Contractor to satisfy the Specifications, e.g. in
terms of stability. As a result, testing procedures on bituminous mixes are not listed
above. However, references are indicated in Chapter 4.
2. Since the flakiness may be influenced to a significant extent by the crushing process,
it may be advisable to repeat the process with some variation (e.g. control of the
crusher feed) to assess the sensitivity of the flakiness index to the process.
4.5.6

WATER

The needs for water during construction must be evaluated, in particular in areas where it
is scarce, and additional search is to be planned as required.
Data from a review of topographic maps and the field reconnaissance of the previous
stages of study can indicate if sources of surface water for use in construction should be a
problem. Major water sources need to be sampled and analyzed (chloride, sulfate, and
organic content) in order to check their suitability for use in construction of pavement
and concrete structures. Consulting hydrogeological maps and literature (e.g. as listed in
References) may be of use.
Water intended for use in Portland cement concrete shall meet the requirements of
AASHTO T 26.
Tests to be considered for water include:
-

Chloride content
Sulphate content
Total dissolved salts
pH

It is usually unlikely the water will contain sufficient salt to prevent their use in
compaction of pavement layers or in concrete mixes.

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4.6

Site Investigation Manual - 2002

Foundations of Structures

During preliminary design, borings will be required at the anticipated locations of the
bridge substructures, although the geometry of the bridge is still subject to change during
final design. Soil samples, disturbed and undisturbed as appropriate, should be retrieved
for laboratory testing. The possible foundation solutions should be identified during the
preliminary stage. During the final stage, limited exploration to verify the design
assumptions is recommended.
For culverts, a detailed exploration with drilling rigs may not be required. Limited
exploration by way of test pits using hand augers should be sufficient.
4.6.1

SOIL, ROCK AND OTHER PROBLEM CONDITIONS

Geologic and environmental conditions can influence the performance of foundations and
may require special considerations during design. To the extent possible, the presence
and influence of such conditions should be evaluated as part of the subsurface
exploration program. A representative, but not exclusive, listing of problem conditions
requiring special consideration is presented below for general guidance.
Soil Problems
-

Organic soil; highly plastic clay: low strength and high compressibility
Sensitive clay: potentially large strength loss upon large straining
Micaceous soil: potentially high compressibility
Expansive clay/silt: potentially large expansion upon wetting
Liquefiable soil: complete strength loss and high deformations due to earthquake
loading
Collapsible soil: potentially large deformations upon wetting

Rock Problems
-

Laminated rock: low strength when loaded parallel to bedding

Expansive shale: potentially large expansion upon wetting; degrades readily upon
exposure to air/water
Soluble rock: soluble in flowing and standing water (limestone, gypsum)
Cretaceous shale: indicator of potentially corrosive ground water
Weak claystone: low strength and readily degradable upon exposure to air/water
Gneissic and Schistose rock: highly distorted with irregular weathering profiles and
steep discontinuities
Subsidence: typical in areas of underground mining or high ground water extraction
Sinkholes / solutioning: typical of areas underlain by carbonate rock strata (e.g.
limestone, dolomite, etc.)

Condition Problems
-

Negative skin friction/expansion loading: additional compressive/uplift load on deep

foundations due to settlement/uplift of soil
Capillary water: rise of water level in silts and fine sands leading to strength loss

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Site Investigation Manual - 2002

4.6.2

Chapter 4
Final Design

SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND TESTING PROGRAMS

The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing programs shall be the
responsibility of the designer based on the specific requirements of the project and
experience with local geologic conditions.
General Requirements
As a minimum, the subsurface exploration and testing programs shall define the
following, where applicable:

Soil strata
-

Depth, thickness, and variability

Identification and classification

Relevant engineering properties (i.e. shear strength, compressibility, stiffness,

permeability, expansion or collapse potential)

Rock strata
-

Depth to rock

Identification and classification

Quality (i.e. soundness, hardness, jointing and presence of joint filling, resistance
to weathering, if exposed, and solutioning)

Compressive strength

Ground water elevation

Ground surface elevation

Local conditions requiring special consideration

Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata descriptions, penetration resistance for
soils (e.g. Standard Penetration Test (SPT) or Cone Penetration Test (CPT)), sample
recovery and RQD (Rock Quality Designation) for rock strata. The drilling equipment
and method, use of drilling mud, type of SPT hammer or cone penetrometer (i.e.
mechanical or electrical), and any unusual subsurface conditions such as artesian
pressures, boulders or other obstructions, or voids shall also be noted on the exploration
logs. A sample boring log is presented in Appendix B.
Minimum Depth
Where substructure units will be supported on spread footings (in the judgment of the
engineer responsible for exploration), the minimum depth of the subsurface exploration
shall extend below the anticipated bearing level a minimum of two footing widths (B) for
isolated, individual footings where L<= 2 B, and four footing widths for footings where
L>5B (L = footing length). For intermediate footing lengths, the minimum depth of
exploration may be estimated by linear interpolation as a function of L between depths of
2 B and 5 B below the bearing level. Greater depths may be required where warranted by
local conditions.
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Chapter 4
Final Design

Site Investigation Manual - 2002

Where substructure units will be supported on deep foundations, the depth of the
subsurface exploration shall extend a minimum of 6 meters below the anticipated pile or
shaft tip elevation. Where pile or shaft groups will be used, the subsurface exploration
shall extend at least two times the maximum pile group dimension below the anticipated
tip elevation, unless the foundations will be end bearing on or in rock. For piles bearing
on rock, a minimum of 3 meters of rock core shall be obtained at each exploration
location to insure the exploration has not been terminated on a boulder. For shafts
supported on or extending into rock, a minimum of 3 meters of rock core, or a length of
rock core equal to at least three times the shaft diameter for isolated shafts or two times
the maximum shaft group dimension for a shaft group, whichever is greater, shall be
obtained to insure that the exploration has not terminated on a boulder and to determine
the physical characteristics of rock within the zone of foundation influence for the design.
Minimum Coverage
A minimum of two soil borings shall be made for each substructure unit.
Laboratory Testing
Laboratory testing shall be performed as necessary to determine the engineering
properties of samples, including unit weight, shear strength, compressive strength and
compressibility. In the absence of laboratory testing, engineering properties may be
estimated based on published test results or local experience. The designer shall prepare
the laboratory testing program. However, Chapters 3 and 4 give general guidelines for
selecting the type of test, depending on the nature of the sample.

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