In this post, we will discuss about finite element method.

Finite element method has

been developed intuitively by application oriented engineers who were more
interested in solving more complicated problems rather than mathematicians. Thus
finite element method cannot lay claim to rigorous mathematical basis as had been
the case with finite difference method and still lot of work is being done to establish
the mathematical basis and credentials of this method. However, the power and
potential of this method is tremendous and the same has been exploited by the
engineers to revolutionary extent.

It is only because of this method, geotechnical engineers have been able to solve
complicated problems which have defied conventional deterministic and closedform solutions. What actually is finite element method? Well, on phenomenological
basis, it can be defined as a method comprising of six different processes
discretization, selection of approximate function, selection of interpolation model,
assembling the element equations to form global equations, computation of primary
and secondary quantities and evaluation of stresses and strains. These steps can be
discussed one by one and should be understood with clarity as they form the
backbone of numerical analysis of geotechnical engineering.

1. Discretization: The primary step involves division of a continuum into an

equivalent system of smaller continua called as finite elements. The nodal
lines separated these elements and intersect at nodal points. The continuum
may represent a physical body like soil or concrete like in a spread foundation
system where one is interested in displacement of nodes. In separate case,
soil may represent as a rigid mass while fluid may represent a continuum and
one is interested in knowing flow potential at the nodes. The quantities like
displacement and the fluid potential may represent the main, or primary,
unknowns of the problems while one may need to compute secondary
quantities like stresses from displacements and quantity of flow from fluid
potentials.
A unique feature of finite element method is that analysis of each finite
element is separate and unique. Each element is assigned its constitutive
properties separately and its property and stiffness equations are formulated
individually. Subsequently, these individual pieces are assembled
mechanically to obtain equations for the global matrix for the whole structure
using compatibility constraints. Depending on the problems dimensions, we
can use finite element which may range from one-dimensional to threedimensions.
2. Selection of appropriate functions: In this step, we assume intuitionally a
pattern of solution for the unknown quantity such as the displacement or flow
potential over each element. This pattern is usually chosen in polynomial
form in terms of nodal displacements or in terms of some generalized
displacements. The order of the polynomial depends on the type of problem

and degree of accuracy desired. In general, adoption of higher degree of

polynomials gives higher degree of accuracy. A number of conditions must be
satisfied for the chosen polynomial to yield a satisfactory, consistent, stable
and convergent solution. Finally, in this discretization procedure, we try to
seek solutions in terms of values of displacements at the nodes which
requires inversion of stiffness matrix.
However, in recent times, concept of shape functions obviates the need for
matrix inversion. This is done by choosing interpolation functions directly in
matrix. An interpolation function assumes a value of unity at a particular
node and zero at all other nodes of an element.
The concept of isoperimetric elements is also in vogue in finite element
method. It has many advantages like efficient integrations and
differentiations and handling of arbitrary geometrical shapes. This concept
advocates common parametric description of displacement and geometry of
element by using same interpolation function.
A number of procedures are available for derivation of equations defining
properties of a finite element. Typically, two methods are predominantly used
variational methods and residual methods. Presently, residual method like
Galerkins procedure is being extensively used. Residual methods have been
found to be more general and suitable for problems governed by both linear
and nonlinear problems. The final result is an element equation comprising of
[k] being element property matrix which may be stiffness matrix in the
displacement problem or permeability matrix in the seepage problem.

In case of solid mechanics problems, formulation of finite element method

can be done by any of these three procedures: displacement (or stiffness),
stress (or equilibrium), and mixed. In the displacement method, displacement
in an element is assumed to be unknown, and the element equations are
derived by using the variational procedures based on principle of minimum
potential energy. In the equilibrium approach, stresses are assumed to be
unknown, and the principle of minimum complementary energy is used. In
mixed procedure, both displacements and stresses are assumed to be
unknown, and special variational principles like based on Hellinger-Reissner
functional are used.

One may ask, what procedure is more effective in geotechnical engineering

for formulation of element equations. In literature survey, one may find
extensive use of displacement method in solving most of geotechnical
problems. Reasons are many One is the traditional bias of engineer due to
familiarity associated with this method as this method was the first to be
advocated by mathematicians; other reason being the smaller number and
bandwidth of the final stiffness equations produced by this method compared

to others; and third being the ease with which approximate functions can be
established to satisfy compatibility requirements than other methods.
However, this approach may suffer from several drawbacks in particular
scenarios. It is unable to provide a comprehensive general solutions for
complex problems involving multiple steps like simulation of excavation,
medium interaction, strain softening, contact stresses, many dynamic
interaction situations and transient flow situations. It can also be more
sensitive to change in geometry, material properties, and stress-strain laws
and may be unsuitable for prediction of precise distribution of transient
stresses. For such cases and in limit-equilibrium problems, equilibrium and
mixed procedures are found to be more suitable. However, use of mixed
procedures is still not much except in consolidation problems, however its use
is likely to increase in future.

The current trend is towards using equilibrium and mixed procedures due to
their several advantages over displacement methods and their enhanced
efficiency in terms of generality, accuracy and computational efforts.

As far as choice of finite element is concerned, triangular and quadrilateral

elements have been extensively used by geotechnical engineers. The triangle
element was generally chosen to be a constant-strain type, implying that
displacement functions were linear. Recently, trend has emerged towards use
of isoparametric elements. For two dimensional problems, 4-node, 8-node,
and 12-node isoparametric elements are being employed, and for threedimensional cases the 8-node hexahedral element is being used.

For interpolation functions, use of cubic and bicubic spline function is bound
to increase for certain category of problems however most of the problems in
geotechnical engineering may not require higher order interpolation
functions. Lower-order elements may be more suitable in many cases as a
tradeoff between cost and accuracy.

In next post, we will cover other aspects of finite element method.