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DutchEastIndiaCompany
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheUnitedEastIndianCompany(Dutch:
VereenigdeOostIndischeCompagnieVOC),
referredtobytheBritishastheDutchEastIndia
Company,[2]wasoriginallyestablishedasachartered
companyin1602,whentheDutchgovernment
grantedita21yearmonopolyonDutchspicetrade.It
isoftenconsideredtohavebeenthefirstmultinational
corporationintheworld[3]anditwasthefirst
companytoissuestock.[4]Itwasapowerfulcompany,
possessingquasigovernmentalpowers,includingthe
abilitytowagewar,imprisonandexecuteconvicts,[5]
negotiatetreaties,strikeitsowncoins,andestablish
colonies.[6]
Statistically,theVOCeclipsedallofitsrivalsinthe
Asiatrade.Between1602and1796theVOCsent
almostamillionEuropeanstoworkintheAsiatrade
on4,785ships,andnettedfortheireffortsmorethan
2.5milliontonsofAsiantradegoods.Bycontrast,the
restofEuropecombinedsentonly882,412people
from1500to1795,andthefleetoftheEnglish(later
British)EastIndiaCompany,theVOC'snearest
competitor,wasadistantsecondtoitstotaltraffic
with2,690shipsandamereonefifththetonnageof
goodscarriedbytheVOC.TheVOCenjoyedhuge
profitsfromitsspicemonopolythroughmostofthe
17thcentury.[7]
Havingbeensetupin1602,toprofitfromthe
Malukanspicetrade,in1619theVOCestablisheda
capitalintheportcityofJayakartaandchangedthe
citynameintoBatavia(nowJakarta).Overthenext
twocenturiestheCompanyacquiredadditionalports
astradingbasesandsafeguardedtheirinterestsby
takingoversurroundingterritory.[8]Itremainedan
importanttradingconcernandpaidan18%annual
dividendforalmost200years.[9]

DutchEastIndiaCompany

Formertype

Publiccompany

Industry

Trade

Fate

Dissolved

Founded

20March1602[1]

Defunct

31December1799

Headquarters EastIndiaHouse,Amsterdamand
OostIndischHuis,Middelburg,
DutchRepublic

TheshipyardoftheDutchEastIndiaCompanyin
Amsterdam.1726engravingbyJosephMulder.

Weigheddownbycorruptioninthelate18thcentury,theCompanywentbankruptandwasformally
dissolvedin1800,[9]itspossessionsandthedebtbeingtakenoverbythegovernmentoftheDutch
BatavianRepublic.TheVOC'sterritoriesbecametheDutchEastIndiesandwereexpandedoverthe
courseofthe19thcenturytoincludethewholeoftheIndonesianarchipelago,andinthe20thcentury
wouldformtheRepublicofIndonesia.

Contents

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Contents
1 History
1.1 Background
1.2 Formation(1602)
1.3 Growth
1.4 Reorientation
1.5 Decline
2 EuropeandiscoveryofAustralia
3 Organization
3.1 VOCoutposts
3.2 CouncilofJusticeinBatavia
3.3 Useofslaves
4 NotableVOCships
5 Seealso
6 References
7 Furtherreading
8 Dutchsources
9 Externallinks

History
Background
Duringthe16thcentury,thespicetradewasdominatedbythePortuguesewhousedLisbonasastaple
port.BeforetheDutchRevolt,Antwerphadplayedanimportantroleasadistributioncentreinnorthern
Europe.However,after1591thePortugueseusedaninternationalsyndicateoftheGermanFuggersand
Welsers,andSpanishandItalianfirms,thatusedHamburgasitsnorthernstapleporttodistributetheir
goods,therebycuttingDutchmerchantsoutofthetrade.
Atthesametime,thePortuguesetradesystemwasunabletoincreasesupplytosatisfygrowingdemand,
inparticularthedemandforpepper.Demandforspiceswasrelativelyinelastic,andthereforeeachlagin
thesupplyofpeppercausedasharpriseinpepperprices.
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Inaddition,asthePortuguesecrownhadbeenunitedina
personalunionwiththeSpanishcrownin1580,withwhichthe
DutchRepublicwasatwar,thePortugueseEmpirebecamean
appropriatetargetforDutchmilitaryincursions.Thesethree
factorsmotivatedDutchmerchantstoentertheintercontinental
spicetradethemselves.Further,anumberofDutchmenlikeJan
HuyghenvanLinschotenandCornelisdeHoutmanobtainedfirst
handknowledgeofthe"secret"Portuguesetraderoutesand
practices,therebyprovidingopportunity.[10]
ThestagewasthussetforHoutman's1595fourshipexploratory
AbondissuedbytheDutchEast
expeditiontoBanten,themainpepperportofWestJava,where
IndiaCompany,datingfrom7
theyclashedwithboththePortugueseandindigenous
November1623,fortheamountof
Indonesians.Houtman'sexpeditionthensailedeastalongthe
2,400florins
northcoastofJava,losingtwelvecrewtoaJavaneseattackat
SidayuandkillingalocalrulerinMadura.Halfthecrewwere
lostbeforetheexpeditionmadeitbacktotheNetherlandsthefollowingyear,butwithenoughspicesto
makeaconsiderableprofit.[11]
In1598,anincreasingnumberoffleetsweresentoutby
competingmerchantgroupsfromaroundtheNetherlands.Some
fleetswerelost,butmostweresuccessful,withsomevoyages
producinghighprofits.InMarch1599,afleetofeightships
underJacobvanNeckwasthefirstDutchfleettoreachthe'Spice
Islands'ofMaluku,thesourceofpepper,cuttingouttheJavanese
middlemen.TheshipsreturnedtoEuropein1599and1600and
theexpeditionmadea400percentprofit.[11]
VOCheadquartersinAmsterdam

In1600,theDutchjoinedforceswiththeMuslimHitueseon
AmbonIslandinanantiPortuguesealliance,inreturnforwhich
theDutchweregiventhesolerighttopurchasespicesfromHitu.[12]DutchcontrolofAmbonwas
achievedwhenthePortuguesesurrenderedtheirfortinAmbontotheDutchHituesealliance.In1613,
theDutchexpelledthePortuguesefromtheirSolorfort,butasubsequentPortugueseattackledtoa
secondchangeofhandsfollowingthissecondreoccupation,theDutchonceagaincapturedSolor,in
1636.[12]
EastofSolorontheislandofTimor,Dutchadvanceswerehaltedbyanautonomousandpowerfulgroup
ofPortugueseEurasianscalledtheTopasses.TheyremainedincontroloftheSandalwoodtradeand
theirresistancelastedthroughoutthe17thand18thcentury,causingPortugueseTimortoremainunder
thePortuguesesphereofcontrol.[13][14]

Formation(1602)
Atthetime,itwascustomaryforacompanytobesetuponlyforthedurationofasinglevoyage,andto
beliquidateduponthereturnofthefleet.Investmentintheseexpeditionswasaveryhighriskventure,
notonlybecauseoftheusualdangersofpiracy,diseaseandshipwreck,butalsobecausetheinterplayof
inelasticdemandandrelativelyelasticsupply[15]ofspicescouldmakepricestumbleatjustthewrong
moment,therebyruiningprospectsofprofitability.Tomanagesuchrisktheformingofacartelto

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controlsupplywouldseemlogical.TheEnglishhadbeenthe
firsttoadoptthisapproach,bybundlingtheirresourcesintoa
monopolyenterprise,theEnglishEastIndiaCompanyin1600,
therebythreateningtheirDutchcompetitorswithruin.[16]
In1602theDutchgovernmentfollowedsuit,sponsoringthe
creationofasingle"UnitedEastIndiesCompany"thatwasalso
grantedmonopolyovertheAsiantrade.Thecharterofthenew
companyempoweredittobuildforts,maintainarmies,and
concludetreatieswithAsianrulers.Itprovidedforaventurethat
wouldcontinuefor21years,withafinancialaccountingonlyat
theendofeachdecade.[16]
In1603,thefirstpermanentDutchtradingpostinIndonesiawas
establishedinBanten,WestJavaandin1611,anotherwas
establishedatJayakarta(later"Batavia"andthen"Jakarta").[17]
In1610,theVOCestablishedthepostofGovernorGeneralto
morefirmlycontroltheiraffairsinAsia.Toadviseandcontrol
theriskofdespoticGovernorsGeneral,aCounciloftheIndies
(RaadvanIndi)wascreated.TheGovernorGeneraleffectively
becamethemainadministratoroftheVOC'sactivitiesinAsia,
althoughtheHeerenXVII,abodyof17shareholders
representingdifferentchambers,continuedtoofficiallyhave
overallcontrol.[12]

Reproductionofamapofthecity
Bataviacirca1627,collection
Tropenmuseum

DutchBataviain1681,builtinwhat
isnowNorthJakarta

VOCheadquarterswerelocatedinAmbonduringthetenuresof
thefirstthreeGovernorsGeneral(16101619),butitwasnotasatisfactorylocation.Althoughitwasat
thecentreofthespiceproductionareas,itwasfarfromtheAsiantraderoutesandotherVOCareasof
activityrangingfromAfricatoIndiatoJapan.[18][19]Alocationinthewestofthearchipelagowasthus
soughttheStraitsofMalaccawerestrategic,buthadbecomedangerousfollowingthePortuguese
conquestandthefirstpermanentVOCsettlementinBantenwascontrolledbyapowerfullocalrulerand
subjecttostiffcompetitionfromChineseandEnglishtraders.[12]
In1604,asecondEnglishEastIndiaCompanyvoyage
commandedbySirHenryMiddletonreachedtheislandsof
Ternate,Tidore,AmbonandBandainBanda,theyencountered
severeVOChostility,whichsawthebeginningofAngloDutch
competitionforaccesstospices.[17]From1611to1617,the
EnglishestablishedtradingpostsatSukadana(southwest
Kalimantan),Makassar,JayakartaandJeparainJava,andAceh,
PariamanandJambiinSumatrawhichthreatenedDutch
ambitionsforamonopolyonEastIndiestrade.[17]
TheIsleofAmboina

DiplomaticagreementsinEuropein1620usheredinaperiodof
cooperationbetweentheDutchandtheEnglishoverthespice
[17]
trade. Thisendedwithanotorious,butdisputedincident,knownasthe'Amboynamassacre',where
tenEnglishmenwerearrested,triedandbeheadedforconspiracyagainsttheDutchgovernment.[20]
AlthoughthiscausedoutrageinEuropeandadiplomaticcrisis,theEnglishquietlywithdrewfrommost
oftheirIndonesianactivities(excepttradinginBantam)andfocusedonotherAsianinterests.
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Growth
In1619,JanPieterszoonCoenwasappointedGovernorGeneral
oftheVOC.HesawthepossibilityoftheVOCbecomingan
Asianpower,bothpoliticalandeconomic.On30May1619,
Coen,backedbyaforceofnineteenships,stormedJayakarta
drivingouttheBantenforcesandfromtheashesestablished
BataviaastheVOCheadquarters.Inthe1620salmosttheentire
nativepopulationoftheBandaIslandswasdrivenaway,starved
todeath,orkilledinanattempttoreplacethemwithDutch
plantations.[21]Theseplantationswereusedtogrowclovesand
nutmegforexport.CoenhopedtosettlelargenumbersofDutch
colonistsintheEastIndies,butimplementationofthispolicy
nevermaterialised,mainlybecauseveryfewDutchwerewilling
toemigratetoAsia.[22]

GravesofDutchdignitariesinthe
ruinedSt.Paul'sChurch,Malaccain
theformerDutchMalacca

AnotherofCoen'sventureswasmoresuccessful.AmajorproblemintheEuropeantradewithAsiaat
thetimewasthattheEuropeanscouldofferfewgoodsthatAsianconsumerswanted,exceptsilverand
gold.Europeantradersthereforehadtopayforspiceswiththepreciousmetals,andthiswasinshort
supplyinEurope,exceptforSpainandPortugal.TheDutchandEnglishhadtoobtainitbycreatinga
tradesurpluswithotherEuropeancountries.Coendiscoveredtheobvioussolutionfortheproblem:to
startanintraAsiatictradesystem,whoseprofitscouldbeusedtofinancethespicetradewithEurope.In
thelongrunthisobviatedtheneedforexportsofpreciousmetalsfromEurope,thoughatfirstitrequired
theformationofalargetradingcapitalfundintheIndies.TheVOCreinvestedalargeshareofitsprofits
tothisendintheperiodupto1630.[23]
TheVOCtradedthroughoutAsia.ShipscomingintoBataviafromtheNetherlandscarriedsuppliesfor
VOCsettlementsinAsia.SilverandcopperfromJapanwereusedtotradewithIndiaandChinaforsilk,
cotton,porcelain,andtextiles.TheseproductswereeithertradedwithinAsiaforthecovetedspicesor
broughtbacktoEurope.TheVOCwasalsoinstrumentalinintroducingEuropeanideasandtechnology
toAsia.TheCompanysupportedChristianmissionariesandtradedmoderntechnologywithChinaand
Japan.AmorepeacefulVOCtradepostonDejima,anartificialislandoffthecoastofNagasaki,wasfor
morethantwohundredyearstheonlyplacewhereEuropeanswerepermittedtotradewithJapan.[24]
WhentheVOCtriedtomilitaryforceMingdynastyChinatoopenuptoDutchtrade,theChinese
defeatedtheDutchinawaroverthePenghuislandsfrom16231624andforcedtheVOCtoabandon
PenghuforTaiwan.TheChinesedefeatedtheVOCagainattheBattleofLiaoluoBayin1633.
TheVietnameseNguyenLordsdefeatedtheVOCina1643battleduringtheTrnhNguynWar,
blowingupaDutchship.TheCambodiansdefeatedtheVOCinawarfrom164344ontheMekong
River.
In1640,theVOCobtainedtheportofGalle,Ceylon,fromthePortugueseandbrokethelatter's
monopolyofthecinnamontrade.In1658,GerardPietersz.HulftlaidsiegetoColombo,whichwas
capturedwiththehelpofKingRajasingheIIofKandy.By1659,thePortuguesehadbeenexpelledfrom
thecoastalregions,whichwerethenoccupiedbytheVOC,securingforitthemonopolyovercinnamon.
TopreventthePortugueseortheEnglishfromeverrecapturingSriLanka,theVOCwentontoconquer
theentireMalabarCoastfromthePortuguese,almostentirelydrivingthemfromthewestcoastofIndia.
WhennewsofapeaceagreementbetweenPortugalandtheNetherlandsreachedAsiain1663,Goawas
theonlyremainingPortuguesecityonthewestcoast.[25]

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In1652,JanvanRiebeeckestablishedanoutpostattheCapeof
GoodHope(thesouthwesterntipofAfrica,currentlyinCape
Town,SouthAfrica)toresupplyVOCshipsontheirjourneyto
EastAsia.Thispostlaterbecameafullfledgedcolony,theCape
Colony,whenmoreDutchandotherEuropeansstartedtosettle
there.
VOCtradingpostswere
alsoestablishedinPersia,
Bengal,Malacca,Siam,
VOCMonogramformerlyabovethe
Canton,Formosa(now
entrancetotheCastleofGoodHope
Taiwan),aswellasthe
MalabarandCoromandel
coastsinIndia.In1662,however,KoxingaexpelledtheDutch
fromTaiwan[26](seeHistoryofTaiwan).
DutchfactoryofHuglyChinsurahin
Bengal

In1663,theVOCsigned"PainanTreaty"withseverallocallords
inthePainanareathatwererevoltingagainsttheAcehSultanate.
ThetreatyresultedinVOCtobuildatradingpostintheareaand
eventuallymonopolisethetradethere,especiallyingold

trade.[27]
By1669,theVOCwastherichestprivatecompanytheworldhadeverseen,withover150merchant
ships,40warships,50,000employees,aprivatearmyof10,000soldiers,andadividendpaymentof
40%ontheoriginalinvestment.[28]
ManyoftheVOCemployeesintermixedwiththeindigenouspeoplesandexpandedthepopulationof
Indosinprecolonialhistory[29][30]

Reorientation
Around1670,twoeventscausedthegrowthofVOCtradeto
stall.Inthefirstplace,thehighlyprofitabletradewithJapan
startedtodecline.ThelossoftheoutpostonFormosatoKoxinga
inthe1662SiegeofFortZeelandiaandrelatedinternalturmoil
inChina(wheretheMingdynastywasbeingreplacedwiththe
Qingdynasty)broughtanendtothesilktradeafter1666.
ThoughtheVOCsubstitutedBengaliforChinesesilkother
forcesaffectedthesupplyofJapanesesilverandgold.The
shogunateenactedanumberofmeasurestolimittheexportof
thesepreciousmetals,intheprocesslimitingVOCopportunities
fortrade,andseverelyworseningthetermsoftrade.Therefore,
JapanceasedtofunctionasthelynchpinoftheintraAsiatictrade
oftheVOCby1685.[31]

TradeareaoftheVOCaround1700

Evenmoreimportantly,theThirdAngloDutchWartemporarilyinterruptedVOCtradewithEurope.
Thiscausedaspikeinthepriceofpepper,whichenticedtheEnglishEastIndiaCompany(EIC)to
aggressivelyenterthismarketintheyearsafter1672.Previously,oneofthetenetsoftheVOCpricing
policywastoslightlyoversupplythepeppermarket,soastodepresspricesbelowthelevelwhere
interloperswereencouragedtoenterthemarket(insteadofstrivingforshorttermprofitmaximisation).
ThewisdomofsuchapolicywasillustratedwhenafiercepricewarwiththeEICensued,asthat
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companyfloodedthemarketwithnewsuppliesfromIndia.In
thisstruggleformarketshare,theVOC(whichhadmuchlarger
financialresources)couldwaitouttheEIC.Indeed,by1683,the
lattercameclosetobankruptcyitssharepriceplummetedfrom
600to250anditspresidentJosiahChildwastemporarilyforced
fromoffice.[32]
However,thewritingwasonthewall.Othercompanies,likethe
FrenchEastIndiaCompanyandtheDanishEastIndiaCompany
alsostartedtomakeinroadsontheDutchsystem.TheVOC
VOCshipsinChittagong,Bengal
thereforeclosedtheheretoforeflourishingopenpepper
emporiumofBantambyatreatyof1684withtheSultan.Also,
ontheCoromandelCoast,itmoveditschiefstrongholdfromPulicattoNegapatnam,soastosecurea
monopolyonthepeppertradeatthedetrimentoftheFrenchandtheDanes.[33]However,theimportance
ofthesetraditionalcommoditiesintheAsianEuropeantradewasdiminishingrapidlyatthetime.The
militaryoutlaysthattheVOCneededtomaketoenhanceitsmonopolywerenotjustifiedbythe
increasedprofitsofthisdecliningtrade.[34]
Nevertheless,thislessonwasslowtosinkinandatfirsttheVOCmadethestrategicdecisiontoimprove
itsmilitarypositionontheMalabarCoast(hopingtherebytocurtailEnglishinfluenceinthearea,and
endthedrainonitsresourcesfromthecostoftheMalabargarrisons)byusingforcetocompelthe
ZamorinofCalicuttosubmittoDutchdomination.In1710,theZamorinwasmadetosignatreatywith
theVOCundertakingtotradeexclusivelywiththeVOCandexpelotherEuropeantraders.Forabrief
time,thisappearedtoimprovetheCompany'sprospects.However,in1715,withEICencouragement,
theZamorinrenouncedthetreaty.ThoughaDutcharmymanagedtosuppressthisinsurrection
temporarily,theZamorincontinuedtotradewiththeEnglishandtheFrench,whichledtoanappreciable
upsurgeinEnglishandFrenchtraffic.TheVOCdecidedin1721thatitwasnolongerworththetrouble
totrytodominatetheMalabarpepperandspicetrade.Astrategicdecisionwastakentoscaledownthe
DutchmilitarypresenceandineffectyieldtheareatoEICinfluence.[35]
The1741BattleofColachelbyNairwarriorsofTravancore
underRajaMarthandaVarmadefeatedtheDutch.TheDutch
commanderCaptainEustachiusDeLannoywascaptured.
MarthandaVarmaagreedtosparetheDutchcaptain'slifeon
conditionthathejoinedhisarmyandtrainedhissoldierson
modernlines.ThisdefeatintheTravancoreDutchWaris
consideredtheearliestexampleofanorganisedAsianpower
overcomingEuropeanmilitarytechnologyandtacticsandit
signalledthedeclineofDutchpowerinIndia.[36]
Theattempttocontinueasbeforeasalowvolumehighprofit
CityhallofBataviain1682
businessenterprisewithitscorebusinessinthespicetradehad
thereforefailed.TheCompanyhadhoweveralready(reluctantly)
followedtheexampleofitsEuropeancompetitorsindiversifyingintootherAsiancommodities,liketea,
coffee,cotton,textiles,andsugar.Thesecommoditiesprovidedalowerprofitmarginandtherefore
requiredalargersalesvolumetogeneratethesameamountofrevenue.Thisstructuralchangeinthe
commoditycompositionoftheVOC'stradestartedintheearly1680s,afterthetemporarycollapseofthe
EICaround1683offeredanexcellentopportunitytoenterthesemarkets.Theactualcauseforthe
changelies,however,intwostructuralfeaturesofthisnewera.

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Inthefirstplace,therewasarevolutionarychangeinthetastes
affectingEuropeandemandforAsiantextiles,andcoffeeandtea,
aroundtheturnofthe18thcentury.Secondly,aneweraofan
abundantsupplyofcapitalatlowinterestratessuddenlyopened
aroundthistime.ThesecondfactorenabledtheCompanytoeasily
financeitsexpansioninthenewareasofcommerce.[37]Betweenthe
1680sand1720s,theVOCwasthereforeabletoequipandmanan
appreciableexpansionofitsfleet,andacquirealargeamountof
preciousmetalstofinancethepurchaseoflargeamountsofAsian
commodities,forshipmenttoEurope.Theoveralleffectwasto
approximatelydoublethesizeofthecompany.[38]
Thetonnageofthereturningshipsroseby125percentinthis
period.However,theCompany'srevenuesfromthesaleofgoods
NativesofArakansellslavesto
landedinEuroperosebyonly78percent.Thisreflectsthebasic
theDutchEastIndiaCompany,c.
changeintheVOC'scircumstancesthathadoccurred:itnow
1663
operatedinnewmarketsforgoodswithanelasticdemand,inwhich
ithadtocompeteonanequalfootingwithothersuppliers.This
madeforlowprofitmargins.[39]Unfortunately,thebusinessinformationsystemsofthetimemadethis
difficulttodiscernforthemanagersofthecompany,whichmaypartlyexplainthemistakestheymade
fromhindsight.Thislackofinformationmighthavebeencounteracted(asinearliertimesintheVOC's
history)bythebusinessacumenofthedirectors.Unfortunatelybythistimethesewerealmost
exclusivelyrecruitedfromthepoliticalregentclass,whichhadlongsincelostitscloserelationshipwith
merchantcircles.[40]
Lowprofitmarginsinthemselvesdonotexplainthedeteriorationofrevenues.Toalargeextentthe
costsoftheoperationoftheVOChada"fixed"character(militaryestablishmentsmaintenanceofthe
fleetandsuch).Profitlevelsmightthereforehavebeenmaintainediftheincreaseinthescaleoftrading
operationsthatinfacttookplace,hadresultedineconomiesofscale.However,thoughlargerships
transportedthegrowingvolumeofgoods,labourproductivitydidnotgoupsufficientlytorealisethese.
IngeneraltheCompany'soverheadroseinstepwiththegrowthintradevolumedeclininggross
marginstranslateddirectlyintoadeclineinprofitabilityoftheinvestedcapital.Theeraofexpansion
wasoneof"profitlessgrowth".[41]
Concretely:"[t]helongtermaverageannualprofitintheVOC's163070'GoldenAge'was2.1million
guilders,ofwhichjustunderhalfwasdistributedasdividendsandtheremainderreinvested.Thelong
termaverageannualprofitinthe'ExpansionAge'(16801730)was2.0millionguilders,ofwhichthree
quarterswasdistributedasdividendandonequarterreinvested.Intheearlierperiod,profitsaveraged18
percentoftotalrevenuesinthelatterperiod,10percent.Theannualreturnofinvestedcapitalinthe
earlierperiodstoodatapproximately6percentinthelatterperiod,3.4percent."[41]
Nevertheless,intheeyesofinvestorstheVOCdidnotdotoobadly.Thesharepricehovered
consistentlyaroundthe400markfromthemid1680s(exceptingahiccuparoundtheGlorious
Revolutionin1688),andtheyreachedanalltimehighofaround642inthe1720s.VOCsharesthen
yieldedareturnof3.5percent,onlyslightlylessthantheyieldonDutchgovernmentbonds.[42]

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PieterCnollandhis
wifeCorneliavan
NijenrodebyJacob
Coeman(1665)

Dutchchurchat
Batavia,1682

Kraakporcelainina
museuminMalacca

Engravingof
Colombo,circa1680

Thecoverofthe
HortusMalabaricusby
HendrikAdriaanvan
ReedetotDrakenstein

Panoramaof
Ayutthayainthe
Bushuis,Amsterdam

TheshipVryburgona
platter,commissioned
1756

Anonymouspainting
withTableMountainin
thebackground,1762

TheVOCfactoryat
Surat

Decline
However,fromthereonthefortunesoftheVOCstartedtodecline.Fivemajorproblems,notallofequal
weight,canbeusedtoexplainitsdeclineinthenextfiftyyearsto1780.[43]
TherewasasteadyerosionofintraAsiatictradebecauseofchangesintheAsiaticpoliticaland
economicenvironmentthattheVOCcoulddolittleabout.Thesefactorsgraduallysqueezedthe
companyoutofPersia,Suratte,theMalabarCoast,andBengal.Thecompanyhadtoconfineits
operationstothebeltitphysicallycontrolled,fromCeylonthroughtheIndonesianarchipelago.
ThevolumeofthisintraAsiatictrade,anditsprofitability,thereforehadtoshrink.
ThewaythecompanywasorganisedinAsia(centralisedonitshubinBatavia)thatinitiallyhad
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offeredadvantagesingatheringmarketinformation,begantocausedisadvantagesinthe18th
century,becauseoftheinefficiencyoffirstshippingeverythingtothiscentralpoint.This
disadvantagewasmostkeenlyfeltintheteatrade,wherecompetitorsliketheEICandtheOstend
CompanyshippeddirectlyfromChinatoEurope.
The"venality"oftheVOC'spersonnel(inthesenseofcorruptionandnonperformanceofduties),
thoughaproblemforallEastIndiaCompaniesatthetime,seemstohaveplaguedtheVOCona
largerscalethanitscompetitors.Tobesure,thecompanywasnota"goodemployer".Salaries
werelow,and"privateaccounttrading"wasofficiallynotallowed.Notsurprisingly,it
proliferatedinthe18thcenturytothedetrimentofthecompany'sperformance.[44]Fromaboutthe
1790sonward,thephraseperishedbycorruption(alsoabbreviatedVOCinDutch)cameto
summarisethecompany'sfuture.
AproblemthattheVOCsharedwithothercompanieswasthehighmortalityandmorbidityrates
amongitsemployees.Thisdecimatedthecompany'sranksandenervatedmanyofthesurvivors.
AselfinflictedwoundwastheVOC'sdividendpolicy.Thedividendsdistributedbythecompany
hadexceededthesurplusitgarneredinEuropeineverydecadebutone(17101720)from1690to
1760.However,intheperiodupto1730thedirectorsshippedresourcestoAsiatobuildupthe
tradingcapitalthere.Consolidatedbookkeepingthereforeprobablywouldhaveshownthattotal
profitsexceededdividends.Inaddition,between1700and1740thecompanyretired5.4million
guildersoflongtermdebt.Thecompanythereforewasstillonasecurefinancialfootinginthese
years.Thischangedafter1730.Whileprofitsplummetedthebewindhebbersonlyslightly
decreaseddividendsfromtheearlierlevel.Distributeddividendswerethereforeinexcessof
earningsineverydecadebutone(17601770).Toaccomplishthis,theAsiancapitalstockhadto
bedrawndownby4millionguildersbetween1730and1780,andtheliquidcapitalavailablein
Europewasreducedby20millionguildersinthesameperiod.Thedirectorsweretherefore
constrainedtoreplenishthecompany'sliquiditybyresortingtoshorttermfinancingfrom
anticipatoryloans,backedbyexpectedrevenuesfromhomeboundfleets.
Despiteofallthis,theVOCin1780remainedanenormousoperation.ItscapitalintheRepublic,
consistingofshipsandgoodsininventory,totalled28millionguildersitscapitalinAsia,consistingof
theliquidtradingfundandgoodsenroutetoEurope,totalled46millionguilders.Totalcapital,netof
outstandingdebt,stoodat62millionguilders.Theprospectsofthecompanyatthistimethereforeneed
nothavebeenhopeless,hadoneofthemanyplanstoreformitbeentakensuccessfullyinhand.
However,thentheFourthAngloDutchWarintervened.BritishattacksinEuropeandAsiareducedthe
VOCfleetbyhalfremovedvaluablecargofromitscontrolanddevastateditsremainingpowerinAsia.
ThedirectlossesoftheVOCcanbecalculatedat43millionguilders.Loanstokeepthecompany
operatingreduceditsnetassetstozero.[45]
From1720on,themarketforsugarfromIndonesiadeclinedasthecompetitionfromcheapsugarfrom
Brazilincreased.Europeanmarketsbecamesaturated.DozensofChinesesugartraderswentbankrupt
whichledtomassiveunemployment,whichinturnledtogangsofunemployedcoolies.TheDutch
governmentinBataviadidnotadequatelyrespondtotheseproblems.In1740,rumoursofdeportationof
thegangsfromtheBataviaarealedtowidespreadrioting.TheDutchmilitarysearchedhousesof
ChineseinBataviaforweapons.Whenahouseaccidentallyburntdown,militaryandimpoverished
citizensstartedslaughteringandpillagingtheChinesecommunity.[46]ThismassacreoftheChinesewas
deemedsufficientlyseriousfortheboardoftheVOCtostartanofficialinvestigationintothe
GovernmentoftheDutchEastIndiesforthefirsttimeinitshistory.
AftertheFourthAngloDutchWar,theVOCwasafinancialwreck,andaftervainattemptsbythe
provincialStatesofHollandandZeelandtoreorganiseit,wasnationalisedon1March1796[47]bythe
newBatavianRepublic.Itscharterwasrenewedseveraltimes,butallowedtoexpireon31December
1799.[47]MostofthepossessionsoftheformerVOCweresubsequentlyoccupiedbyGreatBritain
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duringtheNapoleonicwars,butafterthenewUnitedKingdomoftheNetherlandswascreatedbythe
CongressofVienna,someofthesewererestoredtothissuccessorstateoftheoldDutchRepublicbythe
AngloDutchTreatyof1814.

EuropeandiscoveryofAustralia
Intermsofworldhistoryofgeographyandexploration,theVOCcanbecreditedwithputtingmostof
Australia'scoast(thenHollandiaNovaandothernames)ontheworldmap,between1606and1756.[48]
AnAustralianvintnerhasusedtheVOClogosincethelate20thcentury,havingreregisteredthe
company'snameforthepurpose.[49]

Organization
TheVOChadtwotypesofshareholders:theparticipanten,whocouldbeseenasnonmanaging
members,andthe76bewindhebbers(laterreducedto60)whoactedasmanagingdirectors.Thiswasthe
usualsetupforDutchjointstockcompaniesatthetime.TheinnovationinthecaseoftheVOCwas,
thattheliabilityofnotjusttheparticipanten,butalsoofthebewindhebberswaslimitedtothepaidin
capital(usually,bewindhebbershadunlimitedliability).TheVOCthereforewasalimitedliability
company.Also,thecapitalwouldbepermanentduringthelifetimeofthecompany.Asaconsequence,
investorsthatwishedtoliquidatetheirinterestintheinterimcouldonlydothisbysellingtheirshareto
othersontheAmsterdamStockExchange.[50]Confusionofconfusions,a1688dialoguebytheSephardi
JewJosephdelaVegaanalysedtheworkingsofthisonestockexchange.
TheVOCconsistedofsixChambers(Kamers)inportcities:Amsterdam,Delft,Rotterdam,Enkhuizen,
MiddelburgandHoorn.DelegatesofthesechambersconvenedastheHeerenXVII(theLords
Seventeen).Theywereselectedfromthebewindhebberclassofshareholders.[51]
OftheHeerenXVII,eightdelegateswerefromtheChamberofAmsterdam(oneshortofamajorityon
itsown),fourfromtheChamberofZeeland,andonefromeachofthesmallerChambers,whilethe
seventeenthseatwasalternativelyfromtheChamberofMiddelburgZeelandorrotatedamongthefive
smallChambers.Amsterdamhadtherebythedecisivevoice.TheZeelandersinparticularhad
misgivingsaboutthisarrangementatthebeginning.Thefearwasnotunfounded,becauseinpracticeit
meantAmsterdamstipulatedwhathappened.
ThesixchambersraisedthestartupcapitaloftheDutchEastIndiaCompany:
Chamber Capital(Guilders)
Amsterdam 3,679,915
Middelburg 1,300,405
Enkhuizen 540,000
Delft

469,400

Hoorn

266,868

Rotterdam 173,000
Total:

6,424,588

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TheraisingofcapitalinRotterdamdidnotgososmoothly.Aconsiderable
partoriginatedfrominhabitantsofDordrecht.Althoughitdidnotraiseas
muchcapitalasAmsterdamorMiddelburgZeeland,Enkhuizenhadthe
largestinputinthesharecapitaloftheVOC.Underthefirst358
shareholders,thereweremanysmallentrepreneurs,whodaredtotakethe
risk.TheminimuminvestmentintheVOCwas3,000guilders,whichpriced
theCompany'sstockwithinthemeansofmanymerchants.[52]

VariousVOCsoldieruniforms,circa
1783.

Amongtheearlyshareholdersofthe
VOC,immigrantsplayedan
importantrole.Underthe1,143
tendererswere39Germansandno
fewerthan301fromtheSouthern
Netherlands(roughlypresent
BelgiumandLuxembourg,then
underHabsburgrule),ofwhom
IsaacleMairewasthelargest
subscriberwith85,000.VOC'stotal
capitalisationwastentimesthatof

Bothsidesofaduit,a
coinmintedin1735by
theVOC.

itsBritishrival.
ThelogooftheVOCconsistedofalargecapital'V'withanOontheleftanda
Contherightleg.Itappearedonvariouscorporateitems,suchascannonsand
thecoinillustratedabove.Thefirstletterofthehometownofthechamber
conductingtheoperationwasplacedontop(seefigureforexampleofthe
Amsterdamchamberlogo).Theflagofthecompanywasorange,white,blue
(seeDutchflag)withthecompanylogoembroideredonit.

Thelogoofthe
AmsterdamChamber
oftheVOC.

TheHeerenXVII(LordsSeventeen)metalternately6yearsinAmsterdamand2
yearsinMiddelburgZeeland.TheydefinedtheVOC'sgeneralpolicyand
dividedthetasksamongtheChambers.TheChamberscarriedoutallthe
necessarywork,builttheirownshipsandwarehousesandtradedthe
merchandise.TheHeerenXVIIsenttheships'mastersoffwithextensive
instructionsontheroutetobenavigated,prevailingwinds,currents,shoalsand
landmarks.TheVOCalsoproduceditsowncharts.

InthecontextoftheDutchPortugueseWarthecompanyestablisheditsheadquartersinBatavia,Java
(nowJakarta,Indonesia).OthercolonialoutpostswerealsoestablishedintheEastIndies,suchasonthe
MalukuIslands,whichincludetheBandaIslands,wheretheVOCforciblymaintainedamonopolyover
nutmegandmace.Methodsusedtomaintainthemonopolyinvolvedextortionandtheviolent
suppressionofthenativepopulation,includingmassmurder.[53]Inaddition,VOCrepresentatives
sometimesusedthetacticofburningspicetreestoforceindigenouspopulationstogrowothercrops,
thusartificiallycuttingthesupplyofspiceslikenutmegandcloves.[54]

VOCoutposts
OrganizationandleadershipstructureswerevariedasnecessaryinthevariousVOCoutposts:
OpperhoofdisaDutchword(pl.Opperhoofden)whichliterallymeans'supremechief'.InthisVOC
context,thewordisagubernatorialtitle,comparabletotheEnglishChieffactor,forthechiefexecutive
officerofaDutchfactoryinthesenseoftradingpost,asledbyafactor,i.e.agent.
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SeemoreatVOCOpperhoofdeninJapan

CouncilofJusticeinBatavia
TheCouncilofJusticeinBataviawastheappellatecourtforalltheotherVOCCompanypostsinthe
VOCempire.

Useofslaves
BythetimethesettlementwasestablishedattheCapein1652,theVOCalreadyhadalongexperience
ofpractisingslaveryintheEastIndies.JanvanRiebeeckconcludedwithintwomonthsofthe
establishmentoftheCapesettlementthatslavelaborwouldbeneededforthehardestanddirtiestwork.
Initially,theDutchEastIndiaTradingCompanyconsideredenslavingmenfromtheindigenous
Khoikhoipopulation,buttheideawasrejectedonthegroundsthatsuchapolicywouldbebothcostly
anddangerous.MostKhoikhoihadchosennottolaborfortheDutchbecauseoflowwagesandharsh
conditions.Inthebeginning,thesettlerstradedwiththeKhoikhoibuttheharshworkingconditionsand
lowwagesimposedbytheDutchledtoaseriesofwars.TheEuropeanpopulationremainedunder200
duringthesettlement'sfirstfiveyears,andwaragainstneighborsnumberingmorethan20,000would
havebeenfoolhardy.Moreover,theDutchfearedthatKhoikhoipeople,ifenslaved,couldalwaysescape
intothelocalcommunity,whereasforeignerswouldfinditmuchmoredifficulttoeludetheir
"masters."[55]
Between1652and1657,anumberofunsuccessfulattemptsweremadetoobtainmenfromtheDutch
EastIndiesandfromMauritius.In1658,however,theVOClandedtwoshiploadsofslavesattheCape,
onecontainingmorethan200peoplebroughtfromDahomey(laterBenin),thesecondwithalmost200
people,mostofthemchildren,capturedfromaPortugueseslaveroffthecoastofAngola.Exceptfora
fewindividuals,theseweretobetheonlyslaveseverbroughttotheCapefromWestAfrica.[55]
From1658totheendoftheCompanysrule,manymoreslaveswerebroughtregularlytotheCapein
variousways,chieflybyCompanysponsoredslavingvoyagesandslavesbroughttotheCapebyits
returnfleets.Fromthesesourcesandbynaturalgrowth,theslavepopulationincreasedfromzeroin
1652toabout1,000by1700.Duringthe18thcentury,theslavepopulationincreaseddramaticallyto
16,839by1795.[56]
Aftertheslavetradewasinitiated,alloftheslavesimportedintotheCapeuntiltheBritishstoppedthe
tradein1807werefromEastAfrica,Mozambique,Madagascar,andSouthandSoutheastAsia.Large
numberswerebroughtfromIndia,Ceylon,andtheIndonesianarchipelago.Prisonersfromother
countriesintheVOC'sempirewerealsoenslaved.Theslavepopulation,whichexceededthatofthe
Europeansettlersuntilthefirstquarterofthenineteenthcentury,wasoverwhelminglymaleandwas
thusdependentonconstantimportsofnewslavestomaintainandtoaugmentitssize.[55]
Bythe1660stheCapesettlementwasimportingslavesfromIndia,Malaya(Malaysia),andMadagascar
toworkonthefarms.[57]
ConflictbetweenDutchfarmersandKhoikhoibrokeoutonceitbecamecleartothelatterthattheDutch
weretheretostayandthattheyintendedtoencroachonthelandsofthepastoralists.In1659Doman,a
KhoikhoiwhohadworkedasatranslatorfortheDutchandhadeventraveledtoJava,ledanarmed
attempttoexpeltheDutchfromtheCapepeninsula.Theattemptwasafailure,althoughwarfare
draggedonuntilaninconclusivepeacewasestablishedayearlater.Duringthefollowingdecade,
pressureontheKhoikhoigrewasmoreoftheDutchbecamefreeburghers,expandedtheirlandholdings,
andsoughtpasturelandfortheirgrowingherds.Warbrokeoutagainin1673andcontinueduntil1677,
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whenKhoikhoiresistancewasdestroyedbyacombinationofsuperiorEuropeanweaponsandDutch
manipulationofdivisionsamongthelocalpeople.Thereafter,KhoikhoisocietyinthewesternCape
disintegrated.SomepeoplefoundjobsasshepherdsonEuropeanfarmsothersrejectedforeignruleand
movedawayfromtheCape.Thefinalblowformostcamein1713whenaDutchshipbroughtsmallpox
totheCape.Hithertounknownlocally,thediseaseravagedtheremainingKhoikhoi,killing90percentof
thepopulation.[58]
Throughouttheeighteenthcentury,thesettlementcontinuedtoexpandthroughinternalgrowthofthe
Europeanpopulationandthecontinuedimportationofslaves.Theapproximately3,000Europeansand
slavesattheCapein1700hadincreasedbytheendofthecenturytonearly20,000Europeans,and
approximately25,000slaves.[58]

NotableVOCships
ReplicashavebeenconstructedofseveralVOCships,markedwithan(R)
Akerendam
Amsterdam(R)
Arnhem
Batavia(R)
Braek
Concordia
Dromedaris("Dromedarycamel")
Duyfken("LittleDove")(R)
Eendracht(1615)("Unity")
Galias
GrootenBroeck("GreatBrook")
GoedeHoop("GoodHope")
GuldenZeepaert("GoldenSeahorse")
HalveMaen("Halfmoon")(R)
Haerlem[59][60]
Hoogkarspel
Heemskerck
Hollandia
KleinAmsterdam("SmallAmsterdam")
Landskroon
Leeuwerik("Lark")
Leyden
Limmen
Mauritius
Meermin("Mermaid")
Naerden
NieuwHoorn("NewHoorn")
Oliphant("Elephant")
Pera("Perak")
PrinsWillem("PrinceWilliam")(R)
Reijger
RidderschapvanHolland("KnighthoodofHolland")
Rooswijk
Sardam
Texel
Utrecht
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company

ReplicaoftheVOCvessel"Batavia"1620
1629

VOCAmsterdamreplicatesthethree
masted,fullriggedVOCvesselwhichwas
launchedin1748andsunkin1749.

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VerguldeDraeck("GildedDragon")
Vianen
VliegendeHollander("FlyingDutchman")
VliegendeSwaan("FlyingSwan")
Walvisch("Whale")
WapenvanHoorn("ArmsofHoorn")
Wezel("Weasel")
Zeehaen("SeaCock")
Zeemeeuw("Seagull")
Zeewijk
Zuytdorp("SouthVillage")

Seealso
Charteredcompanies
Corporatocracy
Listoftradingcompanies
Spicewars
Whampoaanchorage

Amodernreconstructionofthe18th
centuryVOCAmsterdamispermanently
anchoredintheharbourattheNederlands
Scheepvaartmuseum(theNational
MaritimeMuseum)inAmsterdam.

Othertradecompaniesoftheageofthesail
MuscovyCompany,Englishtradingcompany
charteredin1555asthefirstmajorcharteredjoint
stockcompany
TheBritishEastIndiaCompany,foundedin1600
TheDanishEastIndiaCompany,foundedin1616
TheDanishWestIndiaCompany,foundedin1671
TheDutchWestIndiaCompany,foundedin1621
ThePortugueseEastIndiaCompany,foundedin1628
TheFrenchEastIndiaCompany,foundedin1664
TheSwedishEastIndiaCompany,foundedin1731
TheEmdenCompany,founded1751
TheSwedishWestIndiaCompany,foundedin1786

AscalemodelofawarshipusedbyDutch
EastIndiaCompany.

GovernorsGeneraloftheDutchEastIndiaCompany
GovernorGeneraloftheDutchEastIndies

References

DutchandotherEuropean
settlementsinIndia.

1."TheDutchEastIndiaCompany(VOC)".CanonvanNederland.
Retrieved19March2011.
2.THEDUTCHEASTINDIACOMPANY(http://europeanheritage.org/netherlands/alkmaar/dutcheastindia
company),EuropeanHeritageProject,"TheDutchnamewasVereenigdeOostIndischeCompagnie,what
literallymeanstheUnitedEastIndianCompany."
3.http://www.kb.nl/themas/geschiedenisencultuur/koloniaalverleden/voc16021799VOCattheNational
LibraryoftheNetherlands(inDutch)
4.MondoVisionewebsite:Chambers,Clem."Whoneedsstockexchanges?"
(http://www.mondovisione.com/exchanges/handbookarticles/whoneedsstockexchanges/)Exchanges
Handbook.retrieved21August2011.
5."SlaveShipMutiny:ProgramTranscript".SecretsoftheDead.PBS.11November2010.Retrieved
12November2010.
6.Ames,GlennJ.(2008).TheGlobeEncompassed:TheAgeofEuropeanDiscovery,15001700.pp.102103.
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7.VanBoven,M.W."TowardsANewAgeofPartnership(TANAP):AnAmbitiousWorldHeritageProject
(UNESCOMemoryoftheWorldreg.form,2002)".VOCArchivesAppendix2,p.14.
8.Vickers(2005),p.10
9.Ricklefs,M.C.(1991).AHistoryofModernIndonesiaSincec.1300,2ndEdition.London:MacMillan.
p.110.ISBN0333576896.
10.DeVriesandVanderWoude,p.383
11.Ricklefs,M.C.(1991).AHistoryofModernIndonesiaSincec.1300,2ndEdition.London:MacMillan.p.27.
ISBN0333576896.
12.Ricklefs,M.C.(1991).AHistoryofModernIndonesiaSincec.1300,2ndEdition.London:MacMillan.
pp.2528.ISBN0333576896.
13.(Portuguese) Matos,ArturTeodorode(1974),TimorPortugues,15151769,Lisboa:InstitutoHistrico
InfanteDomHenrique.
14.(Dutch) Roever,Arendde(2002),Dejachtopsandelhout:DeVOCendetweedelingvanTimorinde
zeventiendeeeuw,Zutphen:WalburgPers.
15.Inthemediumterm,asnewsupplierscouldenterthemarket.Intheshorttermthesupplywas,ofcourse,also
inelastic.
16.DeVriesandVanderWoude,p.384385
17.Ricklefs,M.C.(1991).AHistoryofModernIndonesiaSincec.1300,2ndEdition.London:MacMillan.p.29.
ISBN0333576896.
18.OmPrakash,TheDutchEastIndiaCompanyandtheEconomyofBengal,16301720(PrincetonUniversity
Press,1985)
19.WilliamDeLange,ParsJaponica:thefirstDutchexpeditiontoreachtheshoresofJapan,(2006)
20.Miller,George(ed.)(1996).ToTheSpiceIslandsandBeyond:TravelsinEasternIndonesia.NewYork:
OxfordUniversityPress.xvi.ISBN9676530999.
21.Ricklefs,M.C.(1991).AHistoryofModernIndonesiaSincec.1300,2ndEdition.London:MacMillan.p.30.
ISBN0333576896.
22.TheDutchSeaborneEmpire16001800,p.218
23.DeVriesandVanderWoude,p.386
24.Ames,GlennJ.(2008).TheGlobeEncompassed:TheAgeofEuropeanDiscovery,15001700.p.115.
25.VOCWarfarepoliticalinteraction(http://vocwarfare.net/thesis/3/politicalinteraction)
26.Andrade,Tonio(2005).HowTaiwanBecameChinese:Dutch,SpanishandHanColonizationinthe
SeventeenthCentury.ColumbiaUniversityPress.
27.http://majalah.tempointeraktif.com/id/arsip/1982/07/31/BK/mbm.19820731.BK47129.id.html
28.Thesharepricehadappreciatedsignificantly,sointhatrespectthedividendwaslessimpressive
29.DeWitt,D."TheEasternizationoftheWest:TheRoleofMelaka,theMalayIndonesianarchipelagoandthe
Dutch(VOC).(InternationalseminarbytheMelakaStateGovernment,theMalaysianInstituteofHistorical
andPatriotismStudies(IKSEP),theInstituteofOccidentalStudies(IKON)attheNationalUniversityof
Malaysia(UKM)andtheNetherlandsEmbassyinMalaysia.Malacca,Malaysia,27July2006".Childrenof
theVOCat.
30.Blusse,Leonard.Strangecompany:Chinesesettlers,Mestizowomen,andtheDutchinVOCBatavia.
(DordrechtHollandRiverton,U.S.A.,ForisPublications,1986.xiii,302p.)number:959.82B659.
31.DeVriesandVanderWoude,pp.434435
32.DeVriesandVanderWoude,pp.430433
33.DuringtheNineYears'War,theFrenchandDutchcompaniescametoblowsontheIndianSubcontinent.The
FrenchsentnavalexpeditionsfrommetropolitanFrance,whichtheVOCeasilycountered.Ontheotherhand,
theVOCconqueredtheimportantfortressofPondichryafterasiegeofonly16daysbyanexpeditionof
3,000menand19shipsunderLaurensPitfromNegapatnaminSeptember1693.TheDutchthenmadethe
defensesofthefortressimpregnable,whichtheycametoregretwhentheDutchgovernmentreturnedittothe
FrenchbytheTreatyofRyswickinexchangefortariffconcessionsinEuropebytheFrench.Chauhuriand
Israel,p424
34.DeVriesandVanderWoude,pp.433434
35.ChaudhuriandIsrael,pp.428429
36.However,theVOChadbeendefeatedmanytimesbefore.OntheIndianSubcontinent,theEIChadsuffereda
resoundingdefeatfromtheMughalforcesinits1689MughalWarChaudhuryandIsrael,pp.435436
37.ItwasalsohelpfulthatthepricewarwiththeEICintheearlydecadehadcausedtheaccumulationof
enormousinventoriesofpepperandspices,whichenabledtheVOCtocutdownonshipmentslateron,
therebyfreeingupcapitaltoincreaseshipmentsofothergoodsDeVriesandVanderWoude,p.436
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38.DeVriesandVanderWoude,pp.436437
39.DeVriesandVanderWoude,pp.437440
40.DeVriesandVanderWoude,pp.441442
41.DeVriesandVanderWoude,p.447
42.DeVriesandVanderWoude,p.448
43.DeVriesandVanderWoude,pp.449455
44.Aparticularlyegregiousexamplewasthatofthe"AmfioenSociety".ThiswasabusinessofhigherVOC
employeesthatreceivedamonopolyoftheopiumtradeonJava,atatimewhentheVOChadtopaymonopoly
pricestotheEICtobuytheopiuminBengalBurger,passim
45.DeVriesandVanderWoude,pp.454455
46.Kumar,Ann(1997).JavaandModernEurope:AmbiguousEncounters.p.32.
47.TANAP,TheendoftheVOC
48."TheAOTMLandingsList16061814".historyandheritagedivisionoftheAustralasianHydrographic
Society.AustraliaontheMap.6February2008.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2April2013.Retrieved
2April2013."AfterleavingBandaon18November1605,atabouttheendofMarch1606VOCCaptain
WillemJanszoon,*SupercargoJanLodewijkszoonvanRosingeynandtheircrewonboardtheDuyfken,
chartedabout300kmofthewestcoastofCapeYorkPeninsulainQueensland.Firstdocumentedvisitof
EuropeanstotheshoresofAustralia."
49.TimTreadgold(13March2006)."CrossBreeding".Forbes.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2April2013.
Retrieved2April2013."MichaelWrightreplicatestheDutchEastIndiaCompanyathiswineryinWestern
Australia."
50.DeVriesandVanderWoude,p.385
51.DeVriesandVanderWoude,pp.384385
52.Ames,GlennJ.(2008).TheGlobeEncompassed:TheAgeofEuropeanDiscovery,15001700.p.103.
53.Hanna,WillardA.(1991).IndonesianBanda:ColonialismanditsAftermathintheNutmegIslands.
Bandanaira:YayasanWarisandanBudayaBandaNaira.
54.Ames,GlennJ.(2008).TheGlobeEncompassed:TheAgeofEuropeanDiscovery,15001700.p.111.
55.Byrnes,Rita(1996).SouthAfrica:ACountryStudy.Washington:GPOfortheLibraryofCongress.
pp.EstablishingaSlaveEconomy.
56.5.2Numbers,Origins,andTradesinWhichSlaveswereEngaged.
57.Appiah,AnthonyHenryLouisGates(2004).Africana:TheEncyclopediaoftheAfricanandAfrican
AmericanExperience.OxfordUniversityPress.p.732.
58.Byrnes,Rita(1996).SouthAfrica:ACountryStudy.Washington:GPOfortheLibraryofCongress.
pp.EmergenceofaSettlerSociety.
59.Worden,N.vanHeyningen,E.andBickfordSmith,S.:CapeTown:ThemakingofaCityCapeTown:David
PhilipPublishers.ISBN9780864864352
60.http://www.vocsite.nl/schepen/detail.html?id=11610

Furtherreading
Ames,GlennJ.TheGlobeEncompassed:TheAgeofEuropeanDiscovery,15001700.PearsonPrenticeHall,
2008.
Blusse,Leonard.AnInsaneAdministrationandInsanitaryTown:TheDutchEastIndiaCompanyand
Batavia(16191799)(SpringerNetherlands,1985)
Borschberg,Peter,Journal,MemorialsandLettersofCornelisMatelieffdeJonge.Security,Diplomacyand
Commercein17thCenturySoutheastAsia(Singapore:NUSPress,2015)https://www.academia.edu/4302783
Boxer,CharlesRalph.JanCompagnieinWarandPeace,16021799:AShortHistoryoftheDutchEast
IndiaCompany(HeinemannAsia,1979)
Boxer,CharlesR.JanCompagnieinJapan,16001850:AnEssayontheCulturalArtisticandScientific
InfluenceExercisedbytheHollandersinJapanfromtheSeventeenthtotheNineteenthCenturies.DenHaag,
1950.
Boxer,CharlesR.TheDutchSeaborneEmpire:16001800(London,1965.)
BraamHouckgeest,AndreEverardVan(1798),AnauthenticaccountoftheembassyoftheDutchEastIndia
Company,tothecourtoftheemperorofChina,intheyears1794and1795,London:R.Phillips,
OCLC002094734v.2(https://archive.org/stream/authenticaccount02vanb#page/n5/mode/2up)
Bruijn,J.R.,FemmeGaastra,andI.Schffer,eds.,DutchAsiaticshippinginthe17thand18thcenturies.
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Rijksgeschiedkundigepublicatin.Groteserie,vol.165167.(TheHague:Nijhoff,1979,1987).
Burger,M."TheForgottenGold?TheImportanceoftheDutchopiumtradeintheSeventeenthCentury",in
Eidos.UniversityCollegeUtrechtAcademicMagazine.(2003),Issue2/2003UtrechtUniversity
(http://students.ucu.uu.nl/eidos/issues/eidos2.pdf)
Chaudhuri,K.N.,andIsrael,J.I."TheEnglishandDutchEastIndiaCompaniesandtheGloriousRevolution
of16889",inJonathanI.Israel,ed.TheAngloDutchmoment.EssaysontheGloriousRevolutionandits
worldimpact(CambridgeU.P.1991),ISBN0521390753,pp.407438
DeLange,William.ParsJaponica:thefirstDutchexpeditiontoreachtheshoresofJapan,(FloatingWorld
Editions2006).ISBN1891640232
Furber,Holden,RivalEmpiresofTradeintheOrient16001800.Minneapolis,1976
Gelderblom,Oscar,andJoostJonker."Completingafinancialrevolution:ThefinanceoftheDutchEastIndia
tradeandtheriseoftheAmsterdamcapitalmarket,15951612."JournalofEconomicHistory64.03(2004):
641672.online(http://www.parisschoolofeconomics.com/hautcoeurpierre
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Externallinks
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3/20/2016

DutchEastIndiaCompanyWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

WikimediaCommonshas
DutchIndia
mediarelatedtoDutchEast
(http://www.worldstatesmen.org/India.htm#Dutch)a
IndiaCompany.
chronologyofDutchruleinIndia
Oldestshare(http://www.worldsoldestshare.com/)the
DutchWikisourcehas
oldestshareintheworld(VOC1606)
originaltextrelatedtothis
AtasteofadventureThehistoryofspicesisthehistory
article:
oftrade(http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?
OctrooivandeVOC
Story_ID=179810),TheEconomist,17December1998.
DutchPortugueseColonialHistory
(http://www.colonialvoyage.com/)
VoyagesbyVOCshipstoAustralia(http://www.voc.iinet.net.au/voyages.html)
WhydidtheLargestCorporationintheWorldgoBroke?(http://gutenberg.net.au/VOC.html)
ThehistoryoftheDutchEastIndiesCompany(http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?
PageId=45&EventId=454)(LecturesatGreshamCollege,1and8March2006)
ManuscriptchartoftheNetherlands,VOC,ca.1690
(http://www.swaen.com/old_map_images.htm?
zoomifyImagePath=http://www.swaen.com/os/zoom/22834/)(highresolutionzoomablescan)
OldprintofheadquartersofV.O.C.ca.1750(http://www.swaen.com/old_map_images.htm?
zoomifyImagePath=http://www.swaen.com/os/zoom/03900/)(highresolutionzoomablescan)
DeathofanEastIndiaman(http://www.bymnews.com/new/content/view/8588/80/)
TowardsaNewAgeofPartnershipaDutch/Asian/SouthAfricanprogrammeofcooperation
basedonamutualpast(TANAP)
(http://www.tanap.net/content/voc/organization/organization_intro.htm)jointarchivalprojectof
UNESCO,andtheNetherlandsandIndonesiannationalarchivesontheVOC:"AnAmbitious
WorldHeritage".
VOCvoyages(http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/DAS/voyages)onlinedatabaseof
voyagesofVOCships
AtlasofMutualHeritage(http://www.nationaalarchief.nl/amh/main.aspx?lang=en)onlineatlas
ofVOCsettlements
VOCshipwrecksdatabase(http://www.vocshipwrecks.nl/)
(Dutch)DatabaseofVOCcrewmembers(http://vocopvarenden.nationaalarchief.nl/default.aspx)
VOCWarfare(http://vocwarfare.net)WebsiteonthemilitaryaspectsofthehistoryoftheVOC

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