Valliammai Engineering College, Kattankulathur

Department of Physics
Question Bank
Engineering Physics II PH6251
UNIT-I Conducting Materials
PART A
1. What are the classifications of conducting materials?
Conducting materials are classified into
Zero resistive materials. Ex.Superconductors
Low resistive materials. Ex. Silver , Aluminium , Alloys
High resistive materials. Ex. Tungsten, platinum ,Nichrome
2. What are the sources of resistance in metals?
The resistance in metals is due to
Impurities present in metals
Temperature of the metal
Number of free electrons
3. Give any three postulates of classical free electron theory.
The free electrons in the metal move freely, similar to the gas molecules moving in a vessel
and it obeys the classical kinetic theory of gases.
These free electrons move in a constant potential field due to the ions fixed in the lattice
When the field is applied the free electrons move in a direction opposite to that of the field
direction
4. Define drift velocity. How is it different from thermal velocity of an electron?
It is the average velocity acquired by the free electron in a particular direction, due to the
application of electric field but thermal velocity is the velocity of an electron without any external
filed. Here the electrons move in random direction.
5. Define the terms relaxation time, collision time and Mean free path of an electron.
Relaxation time: The average time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position from
its disturbed position due to application of an external electric field is called relaxation time.
Collision time: It is the average time taken by a free electron between two successive collisions.

Mean free path: The average distance travelled by a free electron between any two successive
collisions in the presence of an applied field is known as mean free path.
6. The mobility of electron in copper is 3x10-3 m2/Vs. Assuming e = 1.6x10-19C and me= 9.1x10-31
kg, calculate the Mean free time.

Equating (1) and (2) we get,

7. Differentiate between electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.

S. No
1
2

3
4

Electrical Conductivity

Thermal Conductivity

Electrical conductivity is based on the

no of free electrons
The quantity of electrical charges
flowing per unit time across unit area
in the metal for unit applied electric
field is called electrical conductivity

Thermal conductivity is based both on

electrons and phonons
It is defined as the amount of heat
conducted per unit time through the metal
having unit area of cross section
maintaining at unit temperature gradient
between the two ends
Electrical conductivity takes place Thermal conductivity takes place from hot
from higher potential side to lower end to cold end.
potential side
unit :-1 m-1
unit :W-1 m-1K-1

8. Mention the drawbacks of classical free electron theory of metals.

It is a microscopic theory
Classical theory states that all the free electrons will absorb energy, but quantum theory states
only few electrons will absorb energy.
This

theory

cannot

explain

the

Compton,

photo-electric

effect,

paramagnetism,

ferromagnetism, etc.
The theoretical and experimental values of specific heat and electronic specific heat are not
matched.
The Lorentz number by classical theory does not have good agreement with the experimental
value and it is rectified by quantum theory.

9. What are the merits of classical free electron theory of metals?

It is used to verify ohms law.
The electrical and thermal conductivities of metals can be explained by this theory.
It is used to derive Wiedemann-Franz law.
It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.
10. Find the drift velocity of electrons copper wire whose cross sectional area is 1 mm2. When the
wire carries a current of 10 A. Assume that each copper atom contributes one electron of the
electron gas. Given n = 8.5x1028 /m3.
Drift velocity

11. A conducting rod contains 8.5x1028 electrons per m3. Calculate the electrical conductivity at
room temperature if the collision time for electron is 2 X 10-14 s.

12. State any three assumptions of quantum free electron theory.

The potential energy of an electron is uniform or constant throughout the metal.
The electrons have wave nature.
The free electrons obey Fermi Dirac statistics.
13. What are the merits and demerits of quantum free electron theory?
Merits:
This theory attracts the electron quantum mechanically rather than classically.
It explains the electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity of
metals, photoelectric effect and Compton Effect.
Demerits
Even though it explains most of the physical properties of the metals, it fails to state the
difference between conductor, semiconductor and insulator.

 It also fails to explain the positive value of Hall coefficient and some of the transport
properties of metals.
14. Define Fermi level and Fermi energy with its importance.
Fermi level: It is the highest reference energy level of a particle at 0K.
Importance: It is the reference energy level that separates the filled energy levels and vacant
energy levels.
Fermi energy: It is the maximum energy of the quantum state corresponding to Fermi energy
level at 0K.
Importance: It determines the energy of the particle at any temperature.
15. Write down the expression for Fermi-Dirac distribution function and plot it as a function of
energy.
Fermi distribution function is given by F(E) =

16. Calculate the Fermi energy of copper at 0 K if the concentration of electrons is 8.5x1028 m-3

17. Define Density of Energy states.

Density of state Z (E) dE is defined as the number of available states present in a metal
per unit volume in an energy interval E and E+ dE.

18. Define Lorentz number.

The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) of a metal to the product of electrical conductivity
() of a metal and absolute temperature (T) of the metal is a constant. It is called Lorentz number
and it is given by
Where L is Lorentz number whose value is 2.44 x 10-8 W K-2 at 293 K.
19. The thermal conductivity of a metal is 123.92 W/m/k. Find the electrical conductivity and
Lorentz number when the metal possess relaxation time 10-14 seconds and 300 K.(Density of
electrons = 6 x 1028 /m3).
Electrical Conductivity

20. The Fermi temperature of a metal is 24600 K. Calculate the Fermi velocity.

m/s.
PART B
1. i) Define Electrical conductivity. Derive an expression for electrical conductivity of a metal by
using classical free electron theory.
Electrical conductivity: The quantity of electric charge flows in unit time per unit area of
cross section of the conductor per unit potential gradient.

ohm1 m1
Expression for electrical conductivity

ii) Find the mobility of electrons in copper if there are 9x1028 valence electrons/m3 and the
conductivity of copper is 6x107 mho/m.

4.166 X
2. i) Define thermal conductivity Derive an expression for thermal conductivity of a metal.
Thermal Conductivity (K): The amount of heat flowing through an unit area of a material
per unit temperature gradient.
K=W/m/K.
The negative sign indicates that heat flows from hot end to cold end.

Expression for thermal conductivity

ii) Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities for a metal with a relaxation time 10-14
second at 300 K. Also calculate Lorentz number using the above result. (Density of electrons
=6x1028 m-3).

Thermal conductivity

K = 123.80 W/m/K

3. Deduce mathematical expression for electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity of a

conducting material and hence obtain Wiedemann-Franz law.
Electrical conductivity:

When an electric field of strength (E) is applied to the conductor, the force experienced
by the free electrons is given by

F=eE

From Newtons 2nd law of motion, the force acquired by the electrons can be written as
F=ma
Equating the above equations

eE=ma

Thermal conductivity:

The average kinetic energy of an electron at hot end A of temperature (T) =

The average kinetic energy of an electron at cold end B of temperature (T-dT) =

The net heat energy transferred from end A to B per unit area per unit time

Amount of heat transferred per unit area per unit time is given by

We know for metals relaxation time (

collision time

Therefore thermal conductivity

Wiedemann-Franz law: This law states that the ratio between the thermal conductivity and
the electrical conductivity of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of
the metal.

Proof:

T
4. State and prove Wiedemann-Franz law. Why does the Lorentz number determined
experimentally does not agree with the value calculated from the classical theory.
Wiedemann-Franz law: This law states that the ratio between the thermal conductivity and the
electrical conductivity of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the
metal.

Proof:

T
5. Derive an expression for the density of states and based on that calculate the carrier
concentration in metals.

The Fermi function F (E) gives only the probability of filling up of electrons in a given energy
state, it does not gives the information about the number of electrons that can be filled in a
given energy state. To know that we should know the number of available energy states, so
called density of states
Density of state N (E) dE is defined as the number of available states present in a metal per
unit volume in an energy interval E and E+ dE.

Z(E)dE =

Z(E)dE =
Z(E)dE =
Carrier concentration

6. i) Starting with the density of energy states obtain the expression for the Fermi energy of an
electron at 0 K and hence obtain the expression for the average energy of an electron.
Carrier concentration

Expression for Fermi energy at 0K

Expression for Mean energy at 0K

=
=
=
ii) The Fermi energy of silver is 5.51 eV. What is the average energy of a free electron at 0 K.

7. i) Define mobility.
When electric field (E) is applied to metals, the electrons move in the direction
opposite to the field direction with the velocity v, then mobility of an electron is defined as the
velocity acquired by the electron per unit electric field (E).
Unit: m2V-1s-1.

ii) What are Fermi particles or Fermions?

Fermi particles or fermions or particles with integral spin values. Eg., electrons.
iii) A uniform silver wire has a resistivity of 1.54x10-8 ohm/m at room temperature. For an
electric field along the wire of 1 Volt/cm, compute the average drift velocity of electron assuming
that there is 5.8x1028 conduction electrons/m3. Also calculate the mobility.

8. Write an expression for the Fermi energy distribution function F (E) and discuss its behaviour
with change in temperature. Plot F (E) versus E for T=0K, and T > 0K.
Fermi distribution function: The probability F (E) of an electron occupying a given energy
level is given by Fermi-Dirac distribution function

At T =0K and E< Ef

At T =0K and E> Ef

At T =0K and E= Ef

At T = any K
Due to the supply of thermal energy electrons in the lower energy level absorb
the supplied energy and move to higher energy level thereby creating vacant energy levels
below the Fermi energy level.

9. i) Use the Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of F (E) for the level just
above the Fermi level at 200 K.

ii) Evaluate the Fermi function of energy KBT above the Fermi energy.

0.01eV

10. i) The density of silver is 10.5x103 kg/m3. The atomic weight of silver is 107.9. Each silver
atom provides one conduction electron. The conductivity of silver at 20C is 6.8 x107-1m-1.
Calculate the density of electron and also the mobility of electrons in silver.

ii) Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities of a metal with the relaxation time of
10-14 second at 300 K. The electron density is 6x1026 m-3.

Thermal conductivity K = L
K = 1.241 W/m/K.
iii) Calculate the Fermi energy and Fermi temperature in a metal. The Fermi velocity of
electrons in the metal is 0.86x106 m/s.
Fermi energy

Fermi Temperature

UNIT-II SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS

PART A
1. Define semiconductor and mention its properties.
The material which has the electrical conductivity between conductors and insulators are
called semiconductors. It is special class of material very small in size and sensitive to heat,
light and electricity.
The resistivity lies between 10-4 to 0.5 ohm meters.
At 0K, they behave as insulators.
They empty conduction band and almost filled valence band.
The conductivity of a semiconductor increases both due to the temperature and
impurities.
They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
In semiconductors both the electron and holes are charge carriers and will take part in
conduction.
2. What is the band gap energy Eg ? Give its value for Germanium & Silicon.
Energy band gap (Eg) is the region of energies which are not occupied by the electrons
and is equal to the energy difference between minimum energy of conduction band (Ec) and
the maximum energy of valence band (Ev).

3. What are the differences between elemental and compound semiconductors? Give examples.
S.No

Elemental semiconductors

Compound semiconductors

They are made up of single element.

They are made up of compounds.

They are called indirect band gap

semiconductors.

They are called as direct band gap

semiconductors.

Here heat is produced during

recombination.

Here the photons are emitted during

recombination.

Life time of charge carriers is more.

Life time of charge carriers is less.

Current amplification is more.

Current amplification is less.

They are used in the manufacture of

diodes and transistors, etc.

They are used for making LEDs, laser

diodes, ICs, etc.

Examples: Ge, Si, etc.

Examples: GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO, etc.

4. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

S.No

Intrinsic semiconductor

Extrinsic semiconductors

Semiconductor in a extremely pure form is

called as intrinsic semiconductors.

Charge carriers are produced only due to

thermal agitation.

Low electrical conductivity

Semiconductor which is doped with

impurities
is
called
extrinsic
semiconductors.
Charge carriers are produced due to
impurities and may also be produced due
to thermal agitation.
High electrical conductivity

Low operating temperature

High operating temperature

At 0K, the Fermi level exactly lies between At 0K, the Fermi level lies closer to
conducting band and valence band.
conducting band in n type and lies near
valence band in p type semiconductor.

Eg: Si, Ge, etc.

Eg: Si and Ge doped with Al, In, P, As,

etc.

5. Write an expression for electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor

Electrical conductivity
Where

2e

(me* mh *) 3/4 e-Eg/2KT (

Intrinsic carrier concentration

Mobility of electron
Mobility of hole.

6. What are the limitations of intrinsic semiconductors?

Electrical conductivity is low. Germanium has a conductivity of 1.67 -1m-1 which is nearly
107 times smaller than copper.
Electrical conductivity is a function of temperature and increases exponentially as temperature
increases.
7. What is meant by doping?
The addition of impurities to a pure semiconductor is known as doping and added impurity is
called as doping agent or dopant.

8. What are n-type and p-type semiconductors?. Give examples.

N-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure semiconductor with pentavalent
impurity. The majority carriers in N-type semiconductor are electrons. Ex. Germanium doped
with Phosphorous, arsenic, antimony
P-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure semiconductor with trivalent
impurity. The majority carriers in P-type semiconductor is holes. Ex Germanium doped with
Boron, aluminium, etc.
9. Give any four differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors.
S.No

n-type semiconductors

p-type semiconductors

n-type semiconductor is obtained by

doping an intrinsic semiconductor with
pentavalent impurity.

p-type semiconductor is obtained by

doping an intrinsic semiconductor with
trivalent impurity.

Here electrons are majority charge

carriers and holes are minority charge
carriers.

Here holes are majority charge carriers and

electrons are minority charge carriers.

It has donar energy levels very close to

conduction band.

It has acceptor energy levels very close to

valence band.

When temperature is increased these

semiconductors can easily donate an
electron level to the conduction band.

When temperature is increased these

semiconductors can accept an electron
from valence band to acceptor energy
level.

10. Why compound semiconductors are called direct band gap semiconductors? Give its
application.
During recombination the photons are emitted so they are called as direct band gap
Semiconductors.
11. What is meant by donor and acceptor level?
Donors are pentavalent impurity atoms like P, As, etc., which donates an
electron to the pure semiconductors like Ge or Si. These energy levels are donor energy levels.
Acceptors are trivalent impurity atoms like Ga, In etc., which can easily accept
an electron from the pure semiconductors like Ge or Si. These energy levels are acceptor energy
levels.

12. i) Define mobility.

Mobility is defined as the drift velocity acquired by a charge carrier per unit electric field
Strength. Its unit is m2 V-1 s-1

ii) Find the resistance of an intrinsic Ge rod 1 cm long,1 mm wide, and 0.5mm thick at 300K.
For Ge, ni= 2.5 x 1019/m3, e= 0.39 m2V-1 S-1 and h= 0.19 m2V-1 S-1 at 300k.

13. Draw the diagram to show the variation of Fermi level with temperature of a p-type
semiconductor for high and low doping level.

14. With increase of temperature the conductivity of semiconductor increases while that of
metals decreases. Give reasons.
At 0K semiconductors behave as insulators. When the temperature is raised or when
impurities are added, their conductivity increases. In the case of conductors when the temperature
increases, the resistivity increases and hence the conductivity decreases.
15. Define Fermi level in the case of semiconductors. Mention its position in intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductor at 0 K.
Fermi level is located half way between the valence band and conduction band in an intrinsic
Semiconductors at 0 K.

EF =

In n-type semiconductor at 0 K, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the donor level Ed and
the bottom of the conduction band Ec

EF =

In p-type semiconductor at 0 K, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the acceptor level Ea and
the top of the valence band Ev

EF =

16. For an intrinsic semiconductor with a band gap of 0.7 eV, determine the position of EF at
T=300 k if mh* = 6 me*.

17. Given an extrinsic semiconductor, how will you find whether it is n-type or p-type?
If Rh value is negative then it is n-type semiconductor.
If Rh value is positive then it is p-type semiconductor.
18. What is Hall Voltage?
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field, an electric
field is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to both the current and the magnetic
field. This effect is known as Hall Effect. The generated voltage is called hall voltage.
19. The Hall Co-efficient of a specimen of a doped silicon is found to be 3.66x10-4 m-3/c.
The resistivity of specimen is 8.93x10-3 m. Find the mobility and density of
charge carriers.
Charge carrier density

20. Mention the applications of Hall Effect.

It is used to find the type of semiconductor.
It is used to measure carrier concentration.
It is used to find mobility of charge carrier.
It is used to measure the magnetic flux density using a semiconductor sample of known
hall coefficient.
PART B
1. Derive an expression for density of electrons in the conduction band, density of holes
in the valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor.

dn = n =
derivation upto

e (EF EC )/KT

n=2
dp = p =

derivation upto

2.

p=

e (Ev EF )/KT

Derive the intrinsic carrier concentration for intrinsic semiconductor and also calculate
the Fermi level and its variation with temperature.
n = p =ni
derivation upto

ni =

(me* mh* )

Variation of Fermi level with temperature

EF =

log (
EF =

)+

e-Eg/2KT

3. i) Derive the Electrical Conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor.

derivation for

I=

(me* mh* )

2e

e-Eg/2KT (e h )

ii) Discuss the variation of electrical conductivity with temperature.

derivation for

log

= A e-Eg/2KT
= log A -

iii) For an intrinsic GaAs, the room temperature of electrical conductivity is 10-6
( m)-1. The electron and hole mobilities are 0.85 and 0.04 m2/V-s, respectively.
Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration at room temperature.

4. Explain the method of determining the band gap of a semiconductor. Also describe
the experimental determination of Band gap.
I

Derivation for

= A e-Eg/2KT

log Ri = log C +
Eg = 2 k

5. Obtain an expression for the carrier concentration of electrons in the conduction band
of n-type semiconductor.
Density of electrons per unit volume is
Derivation upto

n=2

e (EF EC )/KT

n = (2Nd)1/2

e-E/2KT

6. Obtain an expression for the carrier concentration of holes in the Valence band of ptype semiconductor.
p=

Derivation upto

e (Ev EF )/KT

p = (2Na)1/2

7. i) With neat sketches, explain how Fermi level varies with impurity
and temperature in n-type semiconductor.
Explanation about the following diagram

e-E/2KT
concentration

ii) With neat sketches, explain how Fermi level varies with impurity concentration
and temperature in p-type semiconductor
Explanation about the following diagram

8. i) Explain the variation of carrier concentration with temperature and impurity in a

semiconductor.

Explanation of
i) Intrinsic range
ii) Exhaustion range
iii) Impurity range
ii) Explain the variation of electrical conductivity in extrinsic semiconductor.
Explanation about the following graph

9. ( i) Derive an expression of Hall coefficient and mobility of charge carriers. Describe

an experimental setup for the measurement of Hall coefficient.
Hall Effect statement:

derivation for Hall effect in n-type semiconductor

RH =

where RH = -

derivation for Hall effect in p-type semiconductor

RH =

where RH =

Mobility of charge carriers

e = -

h = -

( ii) The Hall co-efficient of certain silicon was found to be -7.35x10-5 m3C-1 from 100 to 400
k. Determine the nature of the semiconductor. If the conductivity was found to be 200 m-1 -1,
calculate the density and mobility of the charge carriers.
(i)

Since hall coefficient is negative the given semiconductor is n-type.

(ii)

(iii)

Charge carrier density

Mobility =

10. (i) For an intrinsic semiconductor with gap width Eg = 0.7 eV, calculate the
concentration of intrinsic charge carriers at 300 k assuming that me*= mh * = m0
(rest mass of electron).

(ii) The resistivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is 4.5 ohm-m at 20C and 2.0 ohmm at 32C. Find the energy band gap in eV.

1.66 X

(iii) A sample of silicon doped with 1023 phosphorous atoms/m3. Find the Hall
voltage in a sample with thickness =100 m, current, Ix=1mA and magnetic field
Bz=0.1 Wb/m2.(Assume electron mobility e=0.07

Hall voltage

m2/V.s)

UNIT -3 - MAGNETIC AND SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS

PART A

1. Classify magnetic materials based on their magnetic moments.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

NOT HAVING PERMANENT

MAGNETIC MOMENT

DIAMAGNETIC
MATERIALS

HAVING PERMANENT
MAGNETIC MOMENT

PARA MAGNETIC
MATERIALS

FERROMAGNETIC
MATERIALS

FERRIMAGNETIC
MATERIALS

2. What is Bohr Magnetron? Write its value.

The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an atom
can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment called bohr magnetron. 1 Bohr
magnetron = B = 9.27 x 10-24 Am2
3. What are paramagnetic materials? Give examples.
Paramagnetic materials can be defined as a type of magnetism in which the material
gets weakly magnetised in the same direction as the applied filed. The paramagnetic susceptibility
is positive and small and relative permeability values are slightly greater than one. Examples:
Platinum, chromium, aluminium, etc.
4. Define intensity of magnetization and flux density.
Intensity of magnetization: The term magnetization means the process of converting a nonmagnetic material into a magnetic material. It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit
volume.

I=

Unit: Weber /m2.

Flux density: It is defined as the number of magnetic lines of forces passing normally through
unit area of cross section.

B=

Unit: Weber/m2 or Tesla.

5. A magnetic field of 2000 A/m is applied to a material which has a susceptibility of 1000.
Calculate the (i) Intensity of Magnetisation and (ii) Flux density.
Intensity of Magnetization

Flux Density

6. Define magnetic susceptibility and permeability.

Magnetic susceptibility: It is defined as the ratio between intensity of magnetisation and the
magnetic field intensity.
Magnetic permeability: It is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux density (B) inside the
substance to the magnetizing field intensity (H).
7. A magnetic field of 1800 ampere/metre produces a magnetic flux of 3x10-5 Weber in an iron
bar of cross sectional area 0.2 cm2. Calculate permeability.

8. Define retentivity and coercivity.

Retentivity is the amount of magnetic induction retained in the material even after the magnetic
field is removed.
Coercivity is the amount of magnetising field applied in the reverse direction to remove the
residual magnetism completely from the material.
9. What are soft and hard magnetic materials.
S.No
1
2

Soft Magnetic Materials

Hard Magnetic materials

They can be easily magnetized and They cannot be easily magnetized or

demagnetized.
demagnetized
Loop area is less and hence the The loop area is large and hence the
hysteresis loss is minimum.
hysteresis loss is maximum.

Susceptibility and permeability is high.

Susceptibility and permeability is low.

Retentivity and Coercitivity are small.

Retentivity and Coercitivity are large.

They have low eddy current loss.

They have high eddy current loss.

These materials are free from These materials have large amount of
irregularities like strain or impurities.
impurities and lattice defect.

10. Define energy product of a magnetic material.

The product of retentivity (Br) and coercivity (Hc) is called energy product. It represents
the amount of energy stored in the specimen. The value of energy product is very high for
permanent magnets.
Energy product = Br x Hc
11. What is antiferromagnetism? Give examples.
In anti-ferromagnetism, electron spin of neighbouring atoms are aligned antiparallel.
Anti-ferromagnetic susceptibility is small and positive and it depends greatly on temperature.
Eg. MnO, MnS, NiCr, Cr2O3, etc.
12. What is superconductivity?
The phenomenon of sudden disappearance of electrical resistivity in materials when it
is cooled to sufficiently low temperature is called superconductivity. The materials that exhibit
superconductivity and which are in the superconducting state are called superconductors.
13. Mention the condition for the material to behave as a superconductor.
It should be pure i.e., the residual resistivity due to scattering by impurities (0) should be
zero.
It should be cooled below transition temperature i.e., the ideal resistivity due to scattering
by phonons (T) should be zero.
Magnetic induction in the material should be zero when it is placed in external magnetic
field.
14. Define critical temperature and critical field.
The temperature at which the normal conductor loses its resistivity and becomes a
superconductor is known as transition temperature or critical temperature (TC). The magnetic field
at which the superconducting property of a material disappears is called as critical magnetic field.

15. What is isotope effect?

In a superconducting material, transition temperature varies with the average isotopic
mass M of its constituents.

i.e.,

Where is called isotope effect coefficient.

16. What is meant by persistent current?
When DC current of large magnitude is induced in a superconducting ring, then due to
the diamagnetic property of the superconductor, the magnetic flux is trapped inside the ring and
hence the current persists in the ring for a longer time. This is called persistent current.
17. What are high Tc superconductors? Give examples.
Any superconductor, if the transition temperature is above 10 K it is called as high TC
superconductor.
Examples:
YBa2Cu3O7

TC = 92 K

La1.85Ba0.05CuO4

TC = 36 K

18. What are cooper pairs?

The attractive interaction between two electrons mediated by means of a phonon
exchange dominates the usual repulsive interaction. Pair of such electrons having opposite spins
which interact interactively in the phonon filed are called a cooper pair.
19. Calculate the critical current for a wire of lead having a diameter of 1mm at 4.2 K. Critical
temperature for lead is 7.18 K and H0 = 6.5x104 A/m.

20. The critical temperature for Hg with isotopic mass 199.5 at 4.184 K. Calculate the critical
temperature when its mass changes to 203.4.
Critical temperature for isotopic mass M1 Tc1 = 4.185 K

M1 = 199.5

Critical temperature for isotopic mass M2 Tc2 = 4.133 K

M2 = ?

MTc = constant

M 1Tc1 = M 2Tc

=
=

= 14.124 x 1.01258 = 14.3016

M2 = 204.536
PART B
1. i) State the origin of magnetic moment.
Three contributions for the magnetic dipole moment of an atom.
i. Orbital magnetic moment: Orbital motion of electrons (i.e., the motion of electrons in the
Closed orbits around the nucleus). Its magnitude is always small.
ii. Spin magnetic moment: Spin motion of the electrons (i.e., due to electron spin angular in
momentum).
iii. Nuclear magnetic moment: Contribution from the nuclear spin (i.e., due to nuclear spin
angular momentum). It is nearly 103 times smaller than that of electron spin; it is not taken
into consideration.
ii) How are magnetic materials classified based on magnetic moments?

Compare their

properties. Give also their characteristics and examples.

S.No Properties

Diamagnetic

Paramagnetic

Ferromagnetic

Nopermanent
magneticmoment

Permanentmagnetic
moment

Enormousmagnetic
moment

Definition

Spinalignment Nospinalignment

Randomalignment

Parallelandorderly
alignment

Magnetised
direction

Oppositetothe
appliedfield

Samedirectionasthe
appliedexternal
magneticfield.

Samedirectionasthe
appliedexternalmagnetic
field.

Permeability

Veryless

High

Veryhigh

Relative
permeability

r<1

r>1

r>>1

Susceptibility

Negative

Positiveandsmall

Positiveandhigh

2. Explain ferromagnetic domain theory. Briefly explain different types of energy involved in
domain growth.
A ferromagnetic material is divided into a large number of small region is called
domains. (0.1 to 1 of area), each direction is spontaneously magnetized. When the magnetic
field is applied to the Ferromagnetic material, the magnetization is produced by two ways.
1. By the motion of domain walls.
2. By the rotation of domains.
Different energies involved in domain growth is
1. Exchange energy (or) Magnetic field energy.
2. Crystalline energy (or) Anisotropy energy.
3. Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy.
4. Magnetostriction energy
3. i) Draw the B-H curve (Hysteresis) for a ferromagnetic material and explain the same on the
basis of domain theory.
When a ferromagnetic material is taken through a cycle of magnetization, the variation of B
(magnetic induction) with respect to H (applied field) can be represented by a closed loop
(or) curve (hysteresis loop or curve) is called hysteresis.

OA -

Due to smaller reversible domain wall movement

AB -

Due to larger irreversible domain wall movement

BS -

Due to smaller irreversible domain wall rotation

ii) Explain how susceptibility varies with temperature for dia, para, and Ferro magnetic

materials in detail.
Material

Diamagnetic

Paramagnetic

ferromagnetic

susceptibility

Negative

Positive&small

Positive&large

A given material has a susceptibility of 900. Determine the relative permeability of the material.

4. i) Explain soft and hard magnetic materials.

Soft magnetic materials
Easily magnetised and demagnetised.
Hysteresis is very small and hysteresis loss is also small.
Coercivity and retentivity is very small.
Materials have very large values of susceptibility and permeability.
Magentostatic energy is very small.
Eddy current loss is very small.

Hard magnetic materials

Cannot be easily magnetised and demagnetised.
Hysteresis is very large and hysteresis loss is also large.
Coercivity and retentivity is very large.
Materials have very small values of susceptibility and permeability.
Magentostatic energy is very large.
Eddy current loss is very large.

ii) Iron has relative permeability of 5000. Calculate its magnetic susceptibility.

iv) Mention the properties of antiferromagnetism.

The adjacent magnetic dipoles are aligned antiparallel.

Anti ferromagnetic susceptibility mainly depends on temperature.

Its susceptibility is very small and it is positive.

The susceptibility is given by

when T > TN.

5. i) What are ferrites? Explain the structure of ferrites, properties and its applications.
These are compounds of iron oxides with oxides of other metals. Ferrites are the magnetic
compounds consisting of two or more different kinds of atoms. Generally ferrites are
expressed by the formula

where X is a divalent metal ion.

Structures of ferrites:
Regular spinel

Inverse spinel

Properties
Spin alignment is antiparallel and of different magnitude.
They have high permeability and high resistivity.
Ferromagnetic materials possess net magnetic moment.

 They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis losses.
The susceptibility of a ferromagnetic material is positive and very large.
Applications
They are used to produce ultrasonic waves.
Used in audio and video transformers.
Ferrites rods are used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity.

ii) Why are Ferrites advantages for use as transformer core?

Ferrites are used as transformer cores for frequencies upto microwaves. This is because
the eddy current problem which prevents the penetration of magnetic flux into the material is
so much less severe in ferrites than in iron.

6. Explain the different properties of superconductors in detail.

a. Zero electrical resistance: The phenomenon of exhibiting zero electrical resistance by
certain material when it is cooled below a certain temperature (critical temperature Tc).
b. Effect of magnetic field: In the superconducting state, a material possesses zero
electrical resistance and behaves as a diamagnetic material. Below Tc if sufficiently
strong magnetic field is applied, the superconducting property of the material is
destroyed and the material reverts back to its normal state. The minimum field required
to destroy the superconducting property is known as the critical magnetic field (Hc) .
c. Effect of electric current: In the superconducting state, a material possesses zero
electrical resistance and behaves as a diamagnetic material. Below Tc if sufficiently
strong magnetic field is applied, the superconducting property of the material is
destroyed and the (material reverts back to its normal state. The minimum field
required to destroy the superconducting property is known as the critical magnetic field
(Hc) .
d. Persistent current: When DC current of large magnitude is induced in a
superconducting ring, then due to the diamagnetic property of the superconductor, the
magnetic flux is trapped inside the ring and hence the current persists in the ring for a
longer time. This is called persistent current.

e. Meissner effect: When a weak magnetic field is applied to a superconducting specimen

at a temperature below transition temperature (Tc), the magnetic flux lines are expelled.
The specimen acts as an ideal diamagnet. This effect is called Meissner effect.
f. Isotope effect: In superconducting materials, the Tc varies with the average isotopic
mass of their constituents.
Tc M
MTc = constant

g. Effect of pressure: When pressure is applied to a superconducting material, transition

temperature increases. Thus it is quite possible that the Tc of a material can be made to
approach room temperature by the application of high pressures.

7. i) What is Meissner effect? Prove that all superconductors are perfect dia-magnet in
superconducting state.
Meissner effect: When a weak magnetic field is applied to a superconducting specimen at a
temperature below transition temperature (Tc), the magnetic flux lines are expelled. The
specimen acts as an ideal diamagnet. This effect is called Meissner effect.
Superconductors are perfect dia-magnet Proof
Magnetic induction is given by

For a superconductor, B = 0
Therefore, 0
Since

H+I=0
I = -H

Thus, when B = 0, magnetic susceptibility of a superconductor is found to be negative

maximum. This is referred to as perfect diamagnetism.

ii) Discuss the important features and the prediction of BCS theory.
Important features of BCS theory
Electrons form pairs which propagate through the lattice.
The cooper pairs are propagated through the lattice without resistance because the
electrons move in resonance with phonons.
Predictions
This could successfully predict the phenomenon of isotope effect.
It explains the existence of an energy gap between the ground state and first excited
state.
It explains the quantization of the magnetic flux through a superconducting ring.

8. i) Differentiate the Type I and Type II superconductors

S.No Type I Superconductors
1

2
3
4

5
6.

Type II Superconductors

Here,
the
transformation
from Here, the transformation from superconducting
superconducting to normal state takes to normal state is gradually from HC1 to HC2.
place suddenly at the critical magnetic
field (HC).
They exhibit complete Meissner effect. They do not exhibit complete Meissner effect.
They have only one critical magnetic
field
They
are
known
as
soft
superconductors because the field
required
to
destroy
the
superconducting state is small.
Examples: Al, Zn, Sn, Pb, etc.

They have two critical magnetic fields.

They are known as hard superconductors
because the field required to destroy the
superconducting state is high.
Examples: Vanadium, Niobium, etc.

ii) Explain High temperature superconductors in detail.

In a superconductor if the transition temperature is high i.e., greater than 100K, then it
is called high temperature superconductor.

9. i) Discuss the applications of superconductors in detail.

a. Superconductors are used for the production of high magnetic field magnets.
b. By using superconducting materials, it is possible to manufacture electrical generators
and transformers.
c. Superconducting materials are used in the construction of very sensitive electrical
measuring instruments such as galvanometers.
d. Superconducting materials are used for power cables, which will enable transmission of
power over very long distances without any significant power loss or drop in voltage.
e. It is used to study tiny magnetic signals from brain and heart.
ii) Superconducting tin has a critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero magnetic

field and a

critical field of 0.0306 tesla at 0 K. Find the critical field at 2 K.

10. Explain the following in detail

i)

AC and DC Josephson Effect :

AC Josephson Effect: when a Dc voltage is applied across the Josephson junction through
which super current is flowing, an AC current is noticed.

DC Josephson Effect: the tunnelling of superconducting electron pairs through Josephson

junction leads to the flow of current without the application of voltage.
ii)

Cryotron: Cryotron is a magnetically operated switch. The superconducting property

of a material disappears when the applied magnetic field is greater than the critical magnetic
field.
iii)

SQUID: SQUID is the acronym for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device. It

is a double junction quantum interferometer. Two Josephson junctions mounted on a

superconducting ring forms this interferometer. Squids are based on the flux quantization in
the superconducting ring. The total magnetic flux passing through the ring is quantized. It is a
weak ultra-sensitive measuring instrument used for detection of very weak magnetic field in
the order of 10-14 tesla.
iv)

Magnetic Levitation: The magnetic levitation is based on the diamagnetic property of

a superconductor which is rejection of magnetic flux lines. A superconductor can be

suspended in air against the repulsive force from a permanent magnet. This magnetic
levitation effect can be used for high speed transportation without frictional loss.

UNIT - IV Dielectric Materials

PART A
1. What are Dielectrics?
Dielectrics are the insulating materials having electric dipoles permanently or have an
ability to produce enormous induced dipoles by the application of external electric field.
2. Define electric polarization and electric susceptibility.
The process of producing electric dipoles inside the dielectric by an electric field is
called electric polarization in dielectrics.
The polarization vector

is proportional to the total electric field intensity

and is

in the same direction of E. therefore the polarization vector can be written as,
Where the constant

is referred as the electrical

susceptibility and is a characteristic of every dielectric.

=

3. Compare active and passive dielectrics.

S.No

Active dielectrics

Dielectrics which can easily adapt

itself to store the electrical energy in it
is called active dielectrics.
They are not pure insulating materials.

2
3
4

Passive dielectrics

Dielectrics which restrict the flow of

electrical energy in it are called passive
dielectrics.
They are pure insulating materials like
glass.
Examples : Piezo-electrics, Pyro- Examples : Ceramics, Mica, etc.
electrics, etc.
Application : they are used to generate Application : They are used to produce
ultrasonic waves
sheets, pies, etc.

4. Define dielectric constant.

It is the ratio between absolute permittivity of the medium () and the permittivity of free space
(0)
If the medium has high dielectric constant, it is easily polarized and behaves as a good electric
insulator.
5. What are the types of polarization mechanism involved in dielectric material?

Electronic polarization

ionic polarization

Orientational polarization

Space charge polarization

6. What are the differences between polar and non polar molecules?
S.No Polar molecules

Non-polar molecules

These molecules have permanent

dipole moment even in the absence of
the electric field.

These molecules do not have permanent

dipole moments.

The polarization of polar molecules is

highly temperature dependent

The polarization of this kind of molecules is

temperature independent

They do not have center of symmetry

They have centre of symmetry

Here the +ve and ve charges do not

coincide with each other

Here +ve and ve charges are coinciding

with each other.

absorption and emission is found in

infrared region

There is no absorption or emission in the

infrared region.

Examples : HCl,H2O,CHCL3 etc.

Examples :CCl4, CO2,H2 etc.

7. Define space charge polarization.

In some materials containing two or more phases, the application of an electrical field
causes the accumulation of charges at the interfaces between the phases or electrodes. As a result
of this, polarization is produced. This type of polarization is known as space charge polarization.
8. Define dielectric loss and dielectric breakdown.
Dielectric loss: When a dielectric material is subjected to an A.C voltage the electrical energy is
absorbed by the material and is dissipated in the form of heat. This dissipation of energy is called
dielectric loss.
Dielectric breakdown: When the dielectric is subjected to a heavy voltage, beyond the critical
value it loses its insulation property because electrons start jumping from valence band to the
conduction band. Hence a dielectric material loses its resistivity and permits large value of current
to flow through it. This is known as dielectric breakdown.
9. Define dielectric strength.
The magnitude of electric field strength at which dielectric breakdown occurs is called
dielectric strength. It is the breakdown voltage per unit thickness of the material.

10. What are the requirements of good insulating materials?

It should have low dielectric constant

It should possess low dielectric loss.

It must have high resistance.

It must possess high dielectric strength.

It should have adequate chemical stability.

It must have high moisture resistance.

11. Calculate the polarization produced in a dielectric medium of dielectric constant 6 and it is
subjected to an electric field of 100 V/m. Given 0 = 8.85 x 10-12F/m.

P = 4.425 X
12. A capacitor consists of two conducting plates of area 200 cm2 each separated by a dielectric
constant = 3.7 of thickness 1mm. Find the capacitance and the electric flux density when a
potential of 300 V is applied. (0 = 8.85 x 10-12F/m).
Capacitance

Electric Flux Density

13. What are the factors affecting dielectric loss.

Dielectric loss may increase due to the following factors.

high frequency of the applied voltage.

high value of the applied voltage.

14. The dielectric constant of a He gas at NTP is 1.0000684. Calculate the electronic
polarizability of He atoms if the gas contains 2.7 x 1025 atoms/m3 and hence evaluate the
radius of the He atoms. Given 0 = 8.85 x 10-12F/m.
Electronic polarizability

15. Write the Clausius Mosotti relation. What is its significance?

It relates the microscopic quantity with macroscopic quantity

It relates the dielectric constant of the material with polarisability.

16. If a NaCl crystal is subjected to an electric field of 1000V/m and the resulting polarization is
4.3x10-8 C/m2. Calculate the relative permeability of NaCl.

17. State the properties of ferroelectric materials.

The dielectric constant of these materials does not vary with respect to temperature.
The dielectric constant (r) reaches a maximum value only at a particular temperature
called Curie temperature
The polarization does not vary linearly with respect to electric field and hence these
materials are also called as non-linear dielectrics.
Ferro-electric materials exhibit hysteresis, similar to that of ferro-magnetic materials.
18. Find the capacitance of layer of Al2O3 having 0.5 m and area 2500 mm2 with r = 8.
Capacitance

19. What is Piezoelectricity?

When a dielectric material acquires electric polarization due to the external mechanical
pressure, it is called Piezo electricity and these materials are known as Piezo electrics.
20. Mention the applications of dielectrics.
Ferro-electric materials are used to produce ultrasonics.
They are used in the production of Piezo-electric materials and in turn to make microphones.
Ferro-electrics are also used in SONAR, Strain gauges, etc.
They are also used as frequency stabilizers and crystal controlled oscillators.
Electrets are also used to bond the fractured bones in the human body.
Ferro-electric semiconductors are used to make positors, which in turn are used to measure and
control the temperature.
PART B
1. Define the following. Give the necessary equations relating the above quantities.
a .Dielectric constant.
It is defined as the ratio of absolute permittivity of the medium to the
permittivity of free space.

b. Polarizability .()
The average dipole moment of a system is proportional to the applied electric field.

c. Polarization vector.
If is the average dipole moment per molecule and N is the number of
molecules per unit volume , the polarisation vector

is defined as dipole moment per unit

volume of the dielectric material.

=N
d. Electric flux density : The number of electric lines passing through unit area of
cross section.

e. Electric Susceptibility.
The polarisation vector is proportional to the applied electric field
strength.

-1

2. Discuss electronic and ionic polarizations with examples in detail.

ELECTRONIC POLARISATION
Electronic polarisation is due to the displacement of positively charged nucleus and
negatively charged electrons of an atom in opposite directions on the application of electric
field. Ex : Inert gases
Derivation for e
Without electric field:
With electric field: When the dielectric is placed in an electric field (E), two phenomenon
occur. (i) Lorentz force due to the electric field tends to separate the nucleus and the electron
cloud from their equilibrium position. FL = -ZeE
(ii) After separation, an attractive coulomb force arises between the nucleus and electron
cloud which tries to maintain the original equilibrium position.

ind = e E

where e = 4

IONIC POLARISATION
Ionic polarisation is due to the displacement of cations and anions in opposite
directions. This occurs in ionic dielectrics by the influence of external electric field. Ex: Ionic

Without electric field

Derivation for

With electric field

3. Explain the different types of polarization mechanisms involved in a dielectric material.

Electronic Polarisation: Electronic polarisation is due to the displacement of positively
charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons of an atom in opposite directions on the
application of electric field. Ex : Inert gases

Derivation for e
Without electric field
With electric field
ind = e E

where e = 4

Ionic Polarisation.
Ionic polarisation is due to the displacement of cations and anions in opposite
directions. This occurs in ionic dielectrics. by the influence of external electric field. Ex: Ionic

Derivation for
(

Orientation Polarisation.
Orientation polarisation takes place only in polar dielectrics. Polar dielectrics
have molecules with permanent dipole moments even in the absence of an electric field.

Derivation for

o =
Space charge Polarisation.
Space charge polarisation occurs due to the accumulation of charges at the electrodes
or at the interfaces of multiphase dielectric materials.

 = e+ + o + s

Total polarisation

4. Explain the frequency and temperature dependence of all type of polarization in dielectrics.
If an alternating electric field is applied across the material, polarisation occurs as a
function of time.

ie

Frequency range in Hz
~ 1015
~1013
~106 -1010
~102

P(t) = P [1 - e-t/tr ]

Type of polarisation
Electronic
Ionic + Electronic
orientation +Ionic + Electronic
Space charge + orientation +
Ionic+ Electronic

Temperature Dependence
Electronic Polarisation: Temperature independent.
Ionic Polarisation: Temperature independent.
Orientatinal Polarisation: increase in temperature decrease the polarisation.
Space charge polarisation: increase in temperature increases the polarisation.
5. What is meant by local field in a dielectric? And how it is calculated for a cubic structure?
Deduce the Clausius Mosotti relation.
When a dielectric is kept in an external electric field (E), two fields are exerted due to (i)
external Electric field (ii) dipole moment created. These long range Coulomb field which is
responsible for polarization of
field and is given by,

each atom or molecule is known as internal field or local

Eint = E1 + E2 +E3 + E4

E1 = Electric field due to charges on the plates of the capacitor.

E2 = Electric field due to polarised charges on the plane surface of the dielectric.
E3 = Electric field due to polarised charges induced on the surface of the imaginary
spherical cavity.
E4 = Electric field due to permanent dipoles of atoms inside the spherical cavity considered.
Eint = E + E3
Eint = E +

=
6. i) A solid contains 5x1028 identical atoms /m3, each with a polarizability of 2x10-40 Fm2.
Assuming that internal field is given by the Lorentz relation, calculate the ratio of internal
field to the applied field. (0 = 8.85 x 10-12F/m)

v) The dielectric constant of water is 80. Is water a good dielectric? Is it useful for energy
storage in capacitors? Justify your answer.
Though the dielectric constant of water is 80 at 20C or 293K it is not a good dielectric
material because of the following reasons.
1. At normal temperature the electrical conductivity of water is very high
2. At normal temperature current lead the voltage by a very less angle i.e., cos is
very less which leads to very high loss angle () and hence tan is very high

3. The dissipation factor and hence the power loss is very high. Thus water cannot be used
as dielectric for energy storage in capacitors.
7. What is dielectric loss? Derive the expression for dielectric power loss.
Dielectric loss: When a dielectric material is subjected to an A.C voltage the electrical energy
is absorbed by the material and is dissipated in the form of heat. This dissipation of electrical
energy is called dielectric loss.
Expression for dielectric loss
PL = VI cos
PL = VI cos 90
PL = 0
For a practical dielectric material
PL = 2 f C V2 tan
tan power factor

8. What are the different types of dielectric break down in dielectric medium? Discuss in detail
the various types of dielectric breakdown.
Dielectric breakdown: When the dielectric is subjected to a heavy voltage, beyond the critical
value it loses its insulation property because electrons start jumping from valence band to the
conduction band. Hence a dielectric material loses its resistivity and permits large value of current
to flow through it. This is known as dielectric breakdown.
Types of dielectric breakdown

Intrinsic breakdown and avalanche breakdown

Thermal breakdown

Chemical and Electrochemical breakdown

Discharge breakdown

Defect breakdown
Explanation of each breakdown and its characteristics.

9. What is ferroelectricity? Explain the properties of ferro electric material. Give examples and
mention the applications.
Ferro electric materials
Some materials which exhibit electronic polarisation even in the absence of the applied
electric field and thus they produce electricity. This electricity is known as
Ferroelectricity. Materials are called Ferroelectric materials.
Ex:
1. Barium titanate. (Ba Tio3)
2. Potassium dihydrogen phosphate(KH2PO4)
3. Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate.(NH4H2PO4)
4. Lithium Niobate(LiNbO3)
5. Rochelle salt(NaKC4H4O6, 4H2O)

10. Explain the uses of dielectrics in capacitors and in Transformers.

Insulating materials are used in power and distribution transformers and capacitors.
In Capacitors :
Explanation about the various types of dielectric materials in various capacitors like
a) Power Capacitors.
b) Electrolytic Capacitors.
c) Ceramic Capacitors.
Explanation about the Uses of insulating materials in power and distribution
transformers .

UNIT V ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS

PART A
1. Define Met glasses.
Metallic glasses are new type of engineering materials which shares the properties of
both metals and glasses. They are metal-metal or metal-metalloid alloy glasses having
amorphous nature.
2. What is meant by glass transition temperature?
The temperature at which metals in the molten form transforms into glasses ie liquid to
solid is known as glass transition temperature (Tg).
3. What do you understand by the term quenching?
Quenching is a technique used to form metallic glasses. Quenching means rapid
cooling. Actually atoms of any material move freely in a liquid state. Atoms can be arranged
regularly when a liquid is cooled slowly. Instead, when a liquid is quenched, there will be an
irregular pattern, which results in the formation of metallic glasses.
4. Mention the merits of metallic glasses as transformer core materials.
Metallic glasses are ferromagnetic.

They posses low magnetic losses, high

permeability and saturation magnetization with low coercivity. They also have extreme
mechanical hardness and excellent initial permeability.
These properties make them useful as transformer core materials. Moreover power transformers
made of metallic glasses are smaller in size and efficient in their performance.
5. Mention any four properties of met glasses.
Metallic glasses have tetrahedral closely packed (TCP) structure rather than hexagonal
closely packed structure (HCP) structure.
The metallic glasses are very strong in nature
They posses malleability, ductility, etc.
They exhibit very low hysteresis loss and hence transformer core loss is very less.
6. Write any four application of met glasses.
Metallic glasses are very strong and hard and they can be used to make different kinds of
springs.

 Metallic glasses have high resistivity and they can be used to make computer memories,
magneto-resistance sensors etc.
Since Metallic glasses can behave as superconductors, they are used in the production of
high magnetic fields.
Metallic glasses are not affected by irradiation and so they can be used in nuclear reactors.
Metallic glasses are high corrosion resistant and they can be used in reactor vessels,
surgical clips, marine cables, etc.
7. What is transformation temperature?
In SMA, the shape recovery process occurs not at a single temperature; rather it
occurs over a range of temperature. Thus the range of temperature at which the SMA switches
from new shape to its original shape is called transformation temperature or memory transfer
temperature.
8. What is meant by shape memory effect?
The ability of shape memory alloys to get severely deformed on cooling and then
regaining its original shape by heating effect is known as shape memory effect.
9. What do you understand by Martensite and Austenite phase.
Martensite and Austenite are the two solid phases which occur in SMA.
Martensite is relatively soft and it is easily deformable phase which exists at low
temperature (Monoclinic).
Austenite is a phase occurs at high temperature having crystal structure and high degree
of symmetry (Cubic).
10. What is pseudo elasticity?
The ability of the SMA to return to its original shape upon unloading after a substantial
deformation is known as super elasticity or pesudoelasticity. This is based on the stress induced
martensite transformations.
11. What is one-way and two-way shape memory alloys?
One-way shape memory alloy (SMA):
A material which exhibits shape memory effect during both heating and cooling.
Two-way shape memory alloy (SMA):
A material which exhibits shape memory effect during both heating and cooling.

12. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of shape memory alloys.

Advantages
They are simple, compact and high safe.
They have good bio-compatibility.
They have diverse applications and offer clean, silent and spark free working condition.
They have good mechanical properties and strong corrosion resistant.
Disadvantages
They have poor fatigue properties.
They are expensive.
They have low energy efficiency
13. What are nanophase materials? Give examples.
Nanophase materials or nanomaterials are newly developed materials
with grain size at the nanometer range (10-9) ie in the order of 1-100 nm.
14. Mention few techniques for synthesis of nano phased materials.
Plasma-arching
Chemical vapor deposition
Sol-gel technique
Electro-deposition
Mechanical crushing- Ball milling
Laser synthesis
Inert gas condensation
15. What is top down and bottom up approach in nano materials?
Top down process: In this process bulk materials are broken into nano sized particles. In top
down process, the buildings of nanostructures starting with small components like atoms and
molecules that are removed from a bulk material so as to obtain desired microstructure.
Examples: Nanolithography, Ball milling, etc.
Bottom up process: This process involves building larger objects from smaller building blocks.
Nanotechnology seeks to use atoms and molecules as those building blocks. This is the opposite

of top-down process. Instead of taking the material away to make structures, the bottom up
process selectively adds atoms to create structures.
Example: pulsed lased deposition, chemical vapor deposition, etc.
16. Give any four non-linear optical properties.
The few non-linear optical phenomena observed are
Higher harmonic generation
Optical mixing
Optical phase conjugation
Solition
17. What is meant by second harmonic generation?
In some non-linear crystals which lack centre of symmetry, when intense radiation is
passed through, the frequency of radiation is doubled, i.e., wavelength is halved. Such process is
known as second harmonic generation.
18. What are bio-materials?
The materials which are used for structural applications in the field of medicine are
known are known as biomaterials. They are used to make device to replace damaged or diseased
body parts in human and animal bodies.
19. What are the types of bio-materials?
They are classified s four types.
Metals and alloys biomaterials
Ceramics biomaterials
Polymer biomaterials
Composite biomaterials
20. What are the applications of biomaterials?
Applications:
Stainless steel is a predominant alloy widely used in implant and orthopedic applications.
Protosal from cast alloy of Co-Cr-Mo is used to make stem and head of implant hip
endoprosthesis.

PART B
1. What are metallic glasses? Describe the preparation and properties and applications of metallic
glasses.
Metallic Glasses
Metallic glasses are amorphous metallic solids which combines both the properties of
metals and glasses. They have high strength, good metallic and corrosion resistance
properties. Eg: Alloys of Fe, Ni, Al, Mn, Cu, etc.
Preparation Technique
Melt spinning method
Properties of Metallic Glasses
Structural properties
Mechanical properties
Electrical properties
Magnetic properties
Chemical properties
Application of Metallic Glasses
Structural application
Electrical and Electronics
Metallic glasses as transformer core material
Nuclear reactor engineering.
Bio medical application.
2. How are metallic glasses prepared? Explain how the melt spinner device can be used to
produce met glasses.
Preparation of metallic glasses
1. Twin roller
2. Melt spinning
3. Melt extraction
Melt spinning technique Extreme rapid cooling of the molten metal alloy (rapid quenching).
Due to rapid cooling atoms are arranged irregularly and form metallic glasses.

3. Explain the properties and application of metallic glasses also mentions its types with
examples.
Properties of Metallic Glasses
Structural properties
They do not have any crystal defects.
They have tetrahedral close packing structure.
Mechanical properties
They have extremely high strength.
They have high elasticity.
They have high ductility.
They are not work-harden but they are work-soften.
Electrical properties
Electrical resistivity of metallic glasses is high and it does not vary with temperature.
Eddy current loss is very small.
Temperature coefficient is zero or negative.
Magnetic properties
They have both soft and hard magnetic properties.
They exhibit high saturation magnetisation.
They have less core losses.
Metallic glasses have very narrow hysteresis loop.
Chemical properties
They are highly resistance to corrosion due to random ordering.
They are highly reactive and stable.
They act as a catalyst.
Application of Metallic Glasses
Structural application
Electrical and Electronics
Metallic glasses as transformer core material
Nuclear reactor engineering.
Bio medical application.
4. What are shape memory alloys? Describe the characteristics of SMA and its applications.
Shape Memory Alloys: The ability of metallic alloys to regain its original shape while
heating or cooling is called as shape memory alloys. Ex: Ni-Ti alloys, Cu Zn Al, Cu Al Ni, AuCd, Ni-Mn-Ga and Fe based alloys.

Phases of Shape Memory Alloys

Austenite High temperature phase having cubic structure.
Martensite Low temperature phase having monoclinic structure.
Characteristics of Shape Memory Alloys
1. Shape Memory Effect: the change of shape of a material at low temperature by loading
and regaining of original shape by heating it, is known as Shape Memory Effect.

2. Pseudo elasticity
3. Super elasticity
4. Hysteresis: It is defined as the difference between the temperatures at which a material is
50% transformed into austenite while heating and 50% transformed to martensitic while
cooling.
Advantages
1. Good bio-compatibility
2. Good mechanical properties and good corrosion resistance.
3. High power and weight ratio
Disadvantages
1. Poor fatigue properties.
2. Low energy efficiency
Applications
1. Eye glass frames
2. Toys
3. Helicopter blades
4. Coffee valves
5. Mirco- surgical instruments
6. Dental arch wires

5. i) Mention the properties of Ni Ti alloy.

Ni-Ti alloy has high shape memory alloy.
The density of Ni-Ti is 6450 Kg m-3.
It is more flexible.
It has high melting point.
The transformation temperature varies from -200 C to 110C.
It has high thermal stability and corrosion resistance.
The thermal conductivity varies from 8.5 to 18 WK-1M-1.
ii)

Explain the applications of SMA

Eye glass frames
Toys
Helicopter blades
Coffee valves
Mirco- surgical instruments
Dental arch wires

iii)

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of SMA.

Advantages
Good bio-compatibility
Good mechanical properties and good corrosion resistance.
High power and weight ratio
Disadvantages
Poor fatigue properties.
Low energy efficiency
6. What are nanomaterials? Explain the preparation, properties and applications nanomaterials.
Nanomaterials are materials having grain sizes in the order of 1 to 100nm.
Synthesis
1. Top down approach process of breaking down bulk material to nano size.
2. Bottom up approach nanomaterials are made by building atom by atom.
Synthesis of nanomaterials
1. Pulsed laser deposition
2. Chemical vapor deposition

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): Precursor gases are delivered into the reaction chamber
at elevated temperature usually under vacuum. As they pass over or come into contact with a
heated substrate, they react or decompose forming a solid phase. They are deposited onto the
substrate. The substrate temperature is critical and can influence what reactions will take
place.

Properties of Nanomaterials
1. Electrical properties
2. Optical properties
3. Chemical properties
4. Mechanical properties
5. Magnetic properties
Applications of Nanomaterials
1. Used to produce color paints
2. Used in thermal protection and current controlling devices.
3. Used in data storage
4. Used in hydrogen storage devices.
5. Used in drug delivery.
6. Used in semiconductor laser and CDs.
7. Used as sunscreens.
7. Describe the method of producing nano materials using
i)

Pulsed laser deposition: The laser pulses of high intensity and energy is used to
evaporate carbon from graphite. These evaporated carbon atoms are condensed to form

nanotubes.

ii)

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): Precursor gases are delivered into the reaction
chamber at elevated temperature usually under vacuum. As they pass over or come into
contact with a heated substrate, they react or decompose forming a solid phase. They
are deposited onto the substrate. The substrate temperature is critical and can influence
what reactions will take place.

8. i) Explain Birefringence.
The appearance of double refraction under the influence of an external agent is known
as artificial double refraction or induced birefringence. The property of double refraction
can be induced in an isotropic material by the application of (i) a mechanical strain (ii) an
electric field or (iii) a magnetic field.
ii) Explain optical Kerr effect.
Anisotropy induced in an isotropic medium under the influence of an electric field is
known as Kerr effect.
The change in refractive index is given by
iii) Explain non-linear materials. Give examples.
Non linear optics: In some materials, the intensity and frequency of the output is not
linearly proportional to the intensity and frequency of the incident light input. This effect is
called nonlinear effect.
Ex: Lithium tantalite, Lithium niobate, Barium sodium niobate, etc.
9. Explain the origin of non-linear optics? How are second harmonic wave generated.
Non linear optics: In some materials, the intensity and frequency of the output is not
linearly proportional to the intensity and frequency of the incident light input. This effect is
called nonlinear effect.
Ex: Lithium tantalite, Lithium niobate, Barium sodium niobate, etc.

Second harmonic generation: second order generation represents the generation of new
frequencies with the help of crystals such as quartz, LiO3, etc.
In nonlinear medium for higher fields i.e., higher intensities of light the nonlinear effects are
observed.

10. Explain biomaterials, classification and its modern application in field of medicine.
The materials which are used for structural applications in the field of medicine are
known as biomaterials. These materials are used to make devices to replace damaged or
diseased body parts in human and animal bodies.
Classification of biomaterials
Metals and alloys biomaterials
Ceramics biomaterials
Polymer biomaterials
Composite biomaterials
Applications
Protosal from cast alloy of Co-Cr-Mo is used to make stem and used for implant hip
endoprosthesis.
Ni-Ti shape memory alloy is used in dental arch wires, micro surgical instruments,
blood clot filters, guide wires, etc.
Ceramic implants such as Al2O3 with some SiO2 and alkali metals are used to make
femoral head.
Carbon has good biocompatibility with bone and other tissues.