Chapter

Options for Rural sanitation in different

geographical and climatic conditions of
India
Rakesh Johri, Suneel Pandey
The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi

Introduction
There are several technologies available for disposal of
human waste. Certain advance technologies are also
available which may not suit to the rural areas due to
its initial high cost, technical knowhow and operation &
maintenance issues. Solar- powered toilet and vacuum
toilets are few such examples. It is therefore very
crucial to select a technology based on socio cultural
and economic aspect of user along with hydro
geological and soil of the intended area. The twin pit
pour flush water seal individual household toilet are
successfully constructed and used in India. Bio toilet is
promoted mostly by institutions.
The cost of the individual toilet varies from Rs.1200 to
35000 and it will also depend upon the local conditions
including availability of material etc.
However, it is very critical to choose suitable
technology for disposal of Human excreta. There are
several technological options available based on the
hydro geological condition of the region. All sanitation
technologies can be described as either wet or dry. The
wet technologies require water to flush faeces. The

flush toilet is connected to a leach pit, septic tank or

sewer. The dry technologies do not require water for
flushing. The traditional pit latrines, ventilated
improved pits are few examples of dry latrines. The
factors that influence the selection of community
sanitation technology are enumerated in Table 1
below:Table 1: Factors
technology

influencing

Factors of general
relevance
1. Technical factors
Design preference

selection

of

Factors specifically
relevant to O&M
O&M requirements;

(substructure, floor slab,

Ease of access;

squatting or raised seat,

Use of decomposed

superstructure);
Technical standards and
expected lifetime of the
technology;
Availability of
construction materials;
Cost of construction.
2. Environmental factors

toilet

waste;
Pit-emptying technique.

 Soil texture, stability,

permeability;
Groundwater level;

O&M implications for

environmental
protection;

Control of environmental Protection against

pollution;
Availability of water;
Possibility of flooding.

groundwater
contamination;
Protection from flooding.

3. Institutional factors
Existing national/local
strategies;

Pit-emptying services
(municipal/private);

Roles and responsibilities Sewerage maintenance

of actors implied;
Training capacity;
Availability of subsidies
and loans;
Availability of masons,
carpenters, plumbers,
sanitary workers, pitemptier and pit-diggers.
4. Community factors

capacity;
Potential involvement of
the private sector;
National budget
allocations for sanitation;
Training and awareness
education;
Monitoring.

 Social

organization O&M costs;

factors: role of traditional O&M

leadership,
leaders,

religious

workers;
Other factors: population
densities, limited space

and

awareness for sanitation;

schoolteachers, Health

community-based health

training
awareness

and

perception of benefits;
Presence

of

environmental sanitation
committee;

for latrines, presence of Womens groups;

communal latrines.

Social

mobilization

on

hygiene and sanitation

behaviour.
Source: UNESCO adaptation of Brikk F. and Bredero
M., 2003

Every toilet has two major parts(i) Superstructure- It is basically meant to provide
privacy of the toilet. Major technical inputs are not
required for this component. There may be a wide
range of superstructures such as masonry, tin
sheets, bamboo mats or readymade fibre glass etc
for the same type of sub structure, depending on
the affordability of the beneficiaries.
(ii) Substructure (Technology)- Substructure is
technically important as it provides safe disposal
or reuse of human wastes.

In this chapter, the discussion focuses on technical

options in different climatic conditions with respect to
substructures. These options based on the hydrogeological conditions of the area and socio-cultural
behaviour of people, are presented as follows

Option 1: Dry latrine for normal soil with

low water table
VIP latrines:The ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP), is a pit latrine
with a black pipe (vent pipe) fitted to the pit, and a
screen (flyscreen) at the top outlet of the pipe. VIP
latrines are an improvement to overcome the
disadvantages of simple pit latrines, i.e. fly and
mosquito nuisance and unpleasant odours. The smell is
carried upwards by the chimney effect and flies are
prevented from leaving the pit and spreading disease.
The principal mechanism of ventilation in VIP latrines is
the action of wind blowing across the top of the vent
pipe. The wind creates a strong circulation of air
through the superstructure, down through the squat
hole, across the pit and up and out of the vent pipe.
Unpleasant faecal odours from the pit contents are thus
sucked up and exhausted out of vent pipe, leaving the
superstructure odour-free.

Figure 1: Schematic of VIP Latrine

Advantages:
o
o
o
o
o

Low cost
Easily built by household
No need of water
Easy to maintain
No smell and no flies provided all measure are
taken such fixing the mesh etc

Disadvantages:
o Darkness in the superstructure
o Only works if oriented toward the wind
o No surrounding obstacles higher than the vent
pipe

Option 2: Toilet technologies (Wet) for

normal soil with low water table
In most of the areas in India, people use water for
ablution and type of soil is normal. Under such
conditions on-site sanitation, through pit toilet is most
suited option. Various options in this category of toilet
design are:

Single pit/twin Pit Water Seal Toilet

The Twin Pit Water Seal Toilet is a complete on-site
sanitation measure at household level which, on one

hand fulfils all the sanitary requirements of a toilet and

on the other hand, provides continuous use with
minimal maintenance. The main components of such a
toilet are the two pits used alternately, a pan, water
seal/trap, squatting platform, junction chamber and a
superstructure.
Under the system, there are two pits which are used
alternately. Both the pits are connected with a junction
chamber at one end. The walls have honeycombed
structure. Bottom of the pit is not plastered and is
earthen. Depending on the number of users of toilet,
the size of the pit varies. Capacity of each pit is
normally kept for 3 years. First pit, after it gets filled up
in about 3 years is blocked at the junction chamber and
second pit is put in operation. Water part of excreta
percolates in soil through honey combs. After 2 years
of blocking of the first pit, its contents degrade
completely and turn to solid, odourless, pathogen free
manure. It is dug out by beneficiaries and used for
agriculture and horticulture purposes. After the second
pit is filled, it is similarly blocked and the first pit is put
in use again. Thus, alternate use of both the pits
continues. A diagrammatic plan two pit toilet is as
below (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Pour flush twin pit toilet design

Pan and trap/water seal:

The pan used in the pit toilet has steep slope of 2029. It may be of ceramic, mosaic or fibre glass.
People normally do not accept mosaic pan as the
surface of such pan is not smooth on which the excreta
sticks. Therefore, it requires more water for cleansing.
Fibre glass pan is cheaper, lighter and easy in handling.
However, it is not acceptable to many beneficiaries due
to its colour. After some years of operation, it develops
yellowish colour which is not aesthetically appealing to
most of the beneficiaries.
Ceramic pan is used in most of the cases where it is
available. Such rural pans are also easily available in
the markets. It is aesthetically acceptable and requires
less quantity of water (1.5 to 2 lts).
Trap/Water seal in rural pans is of 20 mm only.
Therefore, such pans require only about 1.5-5 lts of
water to flush out excreta with 20 mm water seal.
Thus, the system is also suitable for water scarce areas.

Such water seal may be ceramics, mosaic or made of

fibre. A typical drawing of water seal as given below
(Figure 3).

Figure 3: Types of water seals

A pit toilet does not require vent pipe. Gases produced
in the pit are diffused in soil through honey combs.
Such gases are mainly carbon dioxide and methane.
Thus the system also helps in reducing air pollution,
arising out of such Green House Gases.
Advantages of two pit pour flush toilets
i.
ii.
iii.

iv.

v.

It is a permanent solution for on-site household

human waste disposal
It requires only 1.5 to 2 litr of water per use of
toilet
Digested human wastes, when taken out of the pit
after 2 years, is semi solid, free from odour and
pathogens, that can be easily dug out by the
beneficiaries.
Degraded sludge has good percentage of plant
nutrients and can be used for agriculture and
horticulture purposes
It does not require scavenger to clean the pits.

vi.
vii.

It can be easily upgraded and connected to sewer

whenever such facility is available in future
Its maintenance is easy.

Limitations of two- pit pour flush toilet

a) Pit toilet (single or double pit) is not suitable for high
water table and rocky areas. In high water table
areas, there is change of ground water
contamination. It coastal areas also these toilets are
not suitable at all. Further, due to high water table,
adjoining soil of the pit becomes saturated and
further percolation from pit reduces significantly
causing frequent filling of the pits.
b)In case of rocky areas, there is no chance of
percolation of water from pits. Consequently, pit gets
filled in frequently. Due to unavailability of
mechanically devices to clean the pits, it is not
acceptable by the beneficiaries. Moreover, even
after the pit is emptied, it is quite difficult to dispose
the sludge safely.

Option 3: Toilet technology for high water

table and rocky areas
For coastal and other areas having high water table and
also for the rocky areas the following technologies are
appropriate.
A. Toilet model for high water table
B. Ecological Sanitation based toilet
C. Toilet with Biogas plant
D.Toilet with septic Tank
E. Bio Toilet (Bio digester)
A.

Toilet model for high water table

This model is more suitable for areas where people use

water for ablution. The system consists of 2 nos. of
chambers connected at the middle. It may be brickcement or Ferro-cement structure. Cost of a Ferrocement structure is cheaper than the brick-cement
structure. Bottom of both the chambers are sealed with
PCC (Plan Cement Concrete). During the use of the
toilets, human waste comes into first chamber and after
the settlement it flows to be second chamber. From this
second chamber, it flows through the covered drain to
its outlet. Toilet seat with pan and trap in the design
remains the same as discussed under two pit pour flush
toilet.
This model of toilet is useful also in low water table and
coastal areas. This is also useful in rocky areas where
water of leaching pit may not be absorbed by the
ground. The detention period of the soak will increase to
a great extent and for a family of 5 members, the
detention period will be about 20-25 days and so the
BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) of the effluent will
also be less, permissible to be discharged in drain or use
for agriculture purpose. A typical drawing of the model
for high water table is described in Figure 4)

Following provisions are made in this type of toilet

design:
a) Internal size 0.9mx1.10m
b)Height of wall is 1.82 m from front and 1.75 m at
back
c) Roof cover is of G.I Sheet/Asbestos sheet
d)Two nos. of leaching pits of internal size 1.20 m and
1.50 m depth up to ground level.
e) Doors of size 0.76x1.37 m size, 20 gauge G.I
framed with M.S thick
f) Creates no waste
g)Does not smell
h)Provides no place for mosquitoes to breed
i) Self-contained and can be totally managed by the
family.
B. Ecological Sanitation (Ecosan) toilet
Ecosan toilet is more suitable where people dont use
water for cleaning and instead, papers, napkins etc. are
used for such purpose. Ecological Sanitation is based
on the principal of minimising the loss of nutrients in
human wastes and using such waste including urine. In
the system, human excreta and urine are collected
separately in containers. Urine is used in agriculture
land directly, whereas excreta are stored for 6 months
or so, to degrade it and its use in agriculture (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Layout of ecosan toilet with provision of

separate collection of urine and night soil
In Indian conditions, due to cultural aspect Ecosan
system does not find favour in most for the
communities. Moreover, cost of the Ecosan toilet is
much higher than the pit toilets. More awareness and
motivation is required to make Ecosan toilet acceptable
at community level in rural areas
C. Toilet with Biogas plant
Generation and utilization of biogas from human
excreta and other wastes has three major advantagesit improves sanitation, gives bio energy at low cost and
provides better quality of manure for agriculture
purposes. It is suitable for all hydro geological
conditions and in areas where people use water for
ablution (Figure 6).
However, household biogas plants solely based on
human waste for a family is not economically viable as
the biogas produced per family is not adequate for any
useful purpose. In a family having 5 users of toilet, only

around 5 cubic feet (cft) of biogas would be produced

per day and minimum requirement of biogas is about
40 cft for cooking for 2 meals in a day for a small
family. Therefore, biogas cant meet cooking
requirement of a small family, if produced from human
waste of a family. However, it can be made viable,
when mixed with cattle dung along with human wastes.
Biogas from dung of at least 2 nos. of cattle when
mixed with human wastes can cater to the need for
cooking for a small family.

Figure 6: Toilet with biogas plant

Design of biogas plant
For a household level biogas plant there are basically
two designs (1) floating drum type popularly known as
KVIC model and (2) Fixed dome type, popularly known
as Deenbandhu Model.
Quantity of biogas production from different feed
materials
i.

From animal dung, around 10 kg dung is available

per animal per day. Biogas production rate from

dung is about 1.5 cft per kg, i.e. per animal per day
15 cft of biogas is produced
From human waste, per person per day, 0.35 kg of
waste is produced and gas production from per kg of
human wastes is 3.6 cft. Per day per person only one
cft biogas is produced.
A total amount of biogas of one cum can be produced
per day from a family having 5 members and 2 cattle
heads.

ii.

iii.

Utilizations of biogas
One cum of biogas per day can be utilized in a family as
follows:
i.
ii.

iii.

Cooking of 5 family members for two times a day

Mantle lamps (2 nos) can be used for 6 hours per
night. Such mantle lamps give illumination
equivalent to 40 Watt bulb at 220 volts of
electricity
Can run an engine of one Horse Power for 2 hours

Besides biogas, the manure of the plant has good plant

nutrient value. It is directly used for agriculture
purpose. Due to socio cultural issues, generation of bio
gas from human excreta is not popular option.
D.

Toilet with Septic tank

Septic tank offers a preliminary treatment of sewage

prior to final disposal. It is an underground structure
made up of bricks, cement or concrete. It has 3 or
more chambers separated by baffle wall. In different
chambers wastes as settled and degraded
anaerobically and the final effluent is discharged
through outlet pipe of Septic Tank (Figure 7). Sewage is

held in these tanks for some prescribed period during

which time the suspended solids present in the storage
settle down. The settled sludge and the supernatant
liquor undergoes anaerobic digestion. The digestion
results in appreciable reduction in the volume of sludge
and reduction organic matter in the liquid. Total
retention time is maintained for 24-48 hours only.
Septic tank has minimum width of 750 mm, minimum
depth of one metre below water level and minimum
liquid capacity of 1000 litres. For rectangular septic
tank, the length of the tank is 2 to 4 times the width.
For circular tanks the minimum diameter should not be
less than 1-35 m and operating depth should not be
less than 1 m.

Figure 6: Schematic of septic tank based toilet

Advantages
Septic system provides sanitary method of disposal of
human wastes. There is no foul smell with the system,

no chance of breeding of mosquitoes occur with a

suitable design septic tank
Disadvantages
It costs higher
Cleaning of chambers is a cumbersome process. In
rural areas mechanical device to clean septic tank
chambers is normally not available. Under such
conditions, only manual cleaning is the option.
Cleaning manually is an unhygienic and unsocial.
Even if it is cleaned mechanically, its quite difficult
to dispose it of safely, as it has bad odour and
containing lot of pathogens.
Lot of water is required to flush human wastes.
Therefore, in water scarcity areas, this system is
difficult to implement
E. Bio toilet (Biodigestor)
Bio digester popularly known as Bio toilet with the trade
name of e-Best (environment friendly bacterial efficient
system for toilets) has been developed by DRDO,
Ministry of Defence, and Government of India. The
technology was initially developed to address the
problem of human waste disposal in eco-friendly
manner at high altitude areas, including glaciers, for
the Indian Army. It is meant for onsite disposal of
human waste by anaerobic biodegradation for single
house to a colony. The simple yet unique single step
technology of a bio-digestor consists of three major
componentsspecially designed anaerobic microbial
consortium, immobilization matrix and fermentation
tank (Figure 7). The microbial consortium has been

developed by adaptation and enrichment at low

temperature and subsequent bio-augmentation by
selected anaerobes belonging to proteolytic, acetogenic
and methanogenic bacteria. The cold active consortium
works over wide temperature range 50C to 450C,
tolerate a few cycles of freezing and thawing and to an
extent detergents and antiseptics. Immobilization
matrix accounts for larger bacterial population in the
tank, prevent their washout during excess flushing and
provide resistance to adverse situations like pH and
temperature change, oxygenation, antiseptics and
detergents.

Bio matrix and Tank

BD for Rail Coach

BD for Single Latrine

BD + Reed Bed for Colony

Figure 7: Various applications for biotoilets

Advantages:
Space saving: volume is very small 600lts capacity is
sufficient for a family. The desired size is 1/3 rd for a
family and 1/10th for a colony when compared to a
septic tank.
Installation: possible by any person for installing
beneath or beside the toilet.
Adaptability: This can be used in any geo-climatic
conditions prevalent on this globe such as cold, desert,
rocky, water logged areas, hills etc.
Standalone: As entire treatment happens in situ there is
no involvement of any external process.
Customized options: The technology has various
variants for meeting a broad range of user
requirements ranging from a single household,
community to mobile and disaster management needs.
Zero maintenance: It is a fit it- shut it and forget it
technology.
Effluent reuse: The effluent discharged by bio-digestor
eliminates most of the pathogens and organic matter
and can be reused for flushing or irrigation purposes.
Energy consumption: Bio-digestor does not require any
form of external energy input for its operation. On the
contrary biogas generated, during digestion, being rich
in Methane can be used as energy source.

No human intervention: As it does not require any

cleaning and maintenance, there is any human
intervention.
Disadvantages
Biodigestor is to be installed by licensed vendors
authorised by the DRDO. The licensed vendors
have obtained formula for developing microbial
consortium from DRDO under their license. The
vendor has to ensure quality control of microbial
consortium.
The cost for individual toilet is high

High level of awareness among the user is

required.

A variant of biodigestor is available with the name

Biotank cum Reed Bed and is being used at different
places either connected to a single house hold or in a
toilet complex. The biotank is made of cement-brick/
RCC or any such material available locally underground
with top mounted reed bed system. Based on gravity
water flows into the biotank, gets treated and up-flows
into the reed bed for secondary treatment and outflows
into the environment or successive use for flushing,
floor washing or irrigation. The system is also able to
treat the grey water generated in the kitchen and
bathroom. The biotank does not have any head space
and complete capacity is utilized for fermentation of
the waste. Hence, biodigestor technology has all the
advantages available in other treatment systems and
much beyond as desired for sustainable ecological

sanitation. The most desired result being the quality of

treatment achieved.
The Table 2 below presents effluent quality achieved in
various anaerobic toilet designs.
Table2 : Comparison of Effluents
Technology/
Parameter

Septic
Tank

Biodige
stor

pH
TS

6.5-7.5
750-

6.9-7.2
440-570

Biodige
stor
with
Reed
bed
7.0-7.5
30-150

(mg/100m

1150

l)
VS

500-600

200-300

80-120

l)
COD

1200-

500-600

75-100

(mg/L)
BOD 5

2000
350-500

140-160

25-30

(mg/L)
Faecal

>3x106

3000-

100-120

(mg/100m

coliforms

3500

(MPN/100
ml)
Toilet for physically handicapped and old age
people

For physically challenged persons, squatting toilet is

not suitable. It needs a suitably modify commode toilet
to suit their needs. Such toilet is also useful to elderly
people or people having knee/joint pain. For physically
challenged people using wheel chair, they need a
proper space to move with such wheel chair inside the
toilet. A grab bar is needed to provide support to such
persons while using the toilet. Taking all these factors
in consideration following should be the elements of a
toilet for disabled persons:
i.

ii.

iii.
iv.
v.

vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.

One special W.C. should be provided for the use of

handicapped persons with essential provision of
wash basin near the entrance.
A normal toilet has an average height of around
32-40 cms while for handicapped persons toilets
have an average height of about 42-48 cms. Many
people who have no disabilities also find this toilet
more comfortable, while it is a necessity for people
with back and leg problems.
The minimum size of toilet cubicle should be 1500
mmx1750 mm
Minimum clear opening of the door shall be 900
mm and the door shall swing out
Suitable arrangement of vertical/horizontal
handrails with 50 mm clearance from wall shall be
made in the toilet.
Toilet floor shall have a non-slippery surface
Guiding block near the entry should have a textural
difference
Light-weight PVC door shutter should be provided
as a sliding door
Provision of vertical and horizontal rail as 40 mm
steel pipe

x.

xi.

The rear wall grab bar shall be 36 inches long

minimum and shall extend from the center-line of
the toilet 12 inches minimum on one side and 24
inches minimum on the other side
Additional options for toilets for handicapped
persons include adding a handicap bidet to wash
the backside. Some people are unable to reach
that area with toilet paper or have trouble in
wiping.

Operation and Maintenance of a household toilet

For proper operation and maintenance of a household
toilets the following dos and donts should be
observed:
Dos and Donts to maintain a toilet.
Dos
i.

ii.
iii.
iv.

v.
vi.
vii.

Level of slab on the pit should be 3-4 inches above

the ground level, otherwise, rainwater may enter
into the pit. Therefore, do not make pit with cover
slab below the ground level.
Both the pits should be used alternately
Keep two litters of bucket with water ready in the
toilet for flushing
Pour little quantity of water on the pan before it is
used. It helps excreta to slide down the trap and
pit easily
Use only 20 mm water seal/pit trap as it requires
only 1.5-2 litters of water to flush out excreta.
Toilet should be regularly cleaned.
Desludging of pit should be done after 2 years,
digested human waste in the pit becomes
odourless and pathogen free by that time

viii.

ix.

Manure from the pit should not be thrown, rather

used in agriculture as it contains good percentage
of plant nutrients
Such digested human waste should be handled
with care and direct hand contact should be
avoided/minimized.

Donts
i.

ii.

iii.
iv.

v.

vi.
vii.

Dont use supply water pipe inside the toilet.

It results in more use of water for flushing,
causing decrease in efficiency of pit and
high hydraulic load may cause ground water
pollution. Dont use both the pits
simultaneously.
Dont use any chemicals and detergent to
clean the pan. It causes killing of microbes
also, resulting in less degradation of wastes.
Dont allow kitchen water or bathing water
to enter into toilet
Any solid material like plastic or small ball
etc. should not be put into the pan, it blocks
the pit trap making toilet non-functional.
In case of blockage of pan due to such
objects, it should be taken out manually
from the pan, it may cause more problems,
it stuck in the trap.
Dont throw lighted cigarette butts into the
pan
Dont desludge the pit before 2 years, after
it is filled up and put out of us.

References
Hand book on technical options for onsite sanitation may 2012
Govt of India Ministry of drinking water and sanitation

Gramalaya, Tirichurapalli
Technology option s for urban sanitation in India, Water and
Sanitation programme Government of India
Bio digester , DRDO Ministry of Defence , Government of India