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A LABORATORY MANUAL
FOR
Chemical Engineering
Laboratory I
Edited By
Dr Suresh Gupta & Dr Hare Krishna Mohanta
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
CONTENTS
CYCLE - I
S. No.
Experiment
Page No.
1.
a.
b.
2.
a.
b.
c.
a.
b.
c.
a.
b.
10
5.
a.
b.
42
6.
a.
b.
c.
a.
b.
a.
b.
a.
b.
a.
b.
52
3.
4.
7.
8.
9.
10.
22
34
61
76
83
92
CYCLE - II
S. No.
Experiment
Page No.
11.
Stefan-Boltzmann Apparatus
151
12.
110
114
14.
120
15.
Batch crystallizer
125
128
17.
18.
141
19.
144
20.
148
13.
16.
a.
b.
a.
b.
136
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
high enough fluid velocity, the friction force is large enough to lift the particles. This
represents the onset of fluidization once the bed is fluidized pressure drop across the bed
remains constant, but the bed height continues to increase with increasing flow.
If the Reynolds number is less than 10 then it is laminar flow and is greater than 2000 it is
turbulent flow. The rest of the values lie in the transition regime. If the flow rate of air/water
Q is measured in litres, A is the bed cross-sectional area and U is the superficial velocity in
m/s, then
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Theoretically at incipient fluidization (the stage in the fluidized bed where the force on the
solid is enough to balance the weight of the solid material),
P is in mm of manometer
The pressure drop at fluidization can also be predicted by the equation,
Re mf d p f U mf /
Ar d 3 p f s f g / 2
For particles of dp < 100 m, Baeyens and Geldart (1977) can be used,
5.
Experimental procedure
1.
The height of the static bed Z1 i.e. when there is no flow of water/air (porosity 1) was
noted.
2.
The flow of air/water in the column is started and the flow rates from the rotameter
were noted.
3.
The corresponding bed heights and pressure drop values were noted.
4.
The flow rates were increased steadily and similar data were collected at different
intervals.
5.
6 to 8 readings of flow rates were varied and reading were taken.
6.
Steady state flow rate of water was ensured at each point.
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
8 mm
0.6
0.055m
0.002375 m
1000 kg/m3
0.798*10-3 kg/m-s
1.1687 kg/m3
1.8633x10-5 Pa.s
Velocity V (m/s) = volumetric flow rate of water / cross section area of column
Initial height of static bed in the column (Z1)
Porosity of the fluidized Bed: If Z1 and 1 are the height and porosity of the static bed and Z2
and 2 are the height and porosity of fluidized bed, the
(1 1 )
(Total volume of column equal to total volume of solid)
Z 2 Z1
(1 2 )
Z2 = 2 Z2 = Z1 (1- 1)
Z2 - Z1 (1- 1) = 2 Z2
2 = Z2 - Z1 (1- 1) / Z2
Note: Keep the observation tables for air and water separately. The sample calculations
for the same should be shown separately.
Obs No.
Volumetric
Height of Flow rate of Velocity(v) Porosity
Bed (Z2)
water/air in m/s
()
m/s
Pressure
drop (P)
NRe
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Aim
a) To plot Modified Reynoldss No. (NRe,m) vs. Modified friction factor (f) on a log-log
graph
b) To verify Erguns equation
2.
Apparatus
Stop watch, Graduated cylinder, packing as Hollow rings of Glass, Manometer, beakers etc.
3. Theory
A packed bed is a hollow tube, pipe, or other vessel that is filled with a packing material. The
packing can be randomly filled with small objects like Raschig rings, Pall rings or else it can
be a specifically designed structured packing. Packed column is a pressure vessel that has a
packed section. In general, packed towers are used for bringing two phases in contact with
one another and there will be strong interaction between the fluids in this case between solid
and fluid. As the fluid passes through the bed, it does so through the voids presents in the
bed. The voids form continuous channels throughout the bed. The flow may be laminar
through some channels and turbulent in other channels.
Just as with straight pipes, Ergun relates the flows and pressure drops to a Reynolds Number
and friction factor respectively. The Reynolds number for packed beds, Rep , depends upon
the controlled variable i.e. Superficial velocity Vo and the system parameters , , , and Dp
and is defined as (Bird et. al., 1996),
Dp is the equivalent spherical diameter of the particle, V0 is the superficial velocity defined as
the volumetric flow rate divided by the cross-sectional area of the column, is the fluid
density, is the dimensionless void fraction defined as the volume of void space over the
total volume of packing, and is the fluid viscosity.
The friction factor, fp, depends upon V0 and the pressure drop, P, and system parameters,
and is defined as (Bird et al., 1996)
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
4.
Working principle
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
50 mm
1.57x10-6 m3
0.000628 m2
0.3
750 mm
ambient
13,534 kg/m
1000 kg/m3
0.798*10-3 kg/m-s
1.1687 kg/m3
1.8633x10-5 Pa.s
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
S.
No.
Volumetric
Manometer
flow rate of reading.
water. Q
h (m) of Hg
3
m /sec
N / m2
sectional area of the
L
L
column m/s)
Note: Calculate friction factor and modified Reynolds No. and plot on a log-log graph
separately for air and water. The observation columns and sample calculations for both
of them should be shown separately.
Calculations
Certain assumptions are carried out before calculating the Friction factor and Reynolds
number. First, we assume that there is no channeling in the packed bed. Channeling occurs
when the fluid flowing through the packed bed finds a preferred path through the bed. We
also assume that the diameter of the packing is much smaller than the diameter of the column
as well. The maximum recommended particle diameter is one-fifth of the column diameter.
We assume that velocity, particle diameter and void fraction behaves as a bulk behavior and
hence we can use an average values.
Initially, we calculate diameter of the particle,
DP =
Calculate friction factor as,
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
V1
V2
4.Experimental set-up
The apparatus consist of a smooth and sharp bends and elbow, a sudden expansion from
to 1, sudden contraction from 1 to and ball valve, gate valve, tee fitting and pipe
union joint. Pressure tapings are provided at inlet and outlet of these fittings at suitable
distance. A differential manometer fitted in the line gives pressure loss due to fittings. Supply
to the pipeline is made through centrifugal pump, which deliver water from sump tank. The
flow of water in pipeline is regulated by means of Control valve & By-Pass valve. Discharge
is measured with the help of measuring tank and stop watch.
4.1 Utilities Required:
a) Power supply: Single Phase, 220 Volts, 50 Hz, 5 Amp with Earth.
b) De-mineralized Water.
c) Drain.
d) Space required: 1.6m x 0.6m
Experimental procedure:
a) Close the drain valves provided.
b) Fill Sump tank with clean water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
c) Close all flow control valves given on the water line, pressure taps of manometer
connected to different pipe -fittings and open by-pass valve.
d) Now switch on the main power supply (220 Volts AC, 50 Hz) and start the pump.
e) Operate the flow control valve to regulate the flow of water in the desired test section.
f) Open the pressure taps of manometer of related test section, very slowly to avoid the
blow of water on manometer fluid.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
g) Now open the air release valve provided on the manometer, slowly to release the air
in manometer. When there is no air in the manometer, close the air release valves.
h) Adjust water flow rate in desired section with the help of control valve and record the
manometer reading.
i) Measure the flow of water, discharged through desired test section, using stop watch
and measuring tank.
j) Repeat same procedure for different flow rates of water, operating control valve and
by-pass valve.
k) When experiment is over for one desired test section, open the By-Pass Valve fully.
Then close the flow control valve of running test section and open the Control valve
of secondly desired test section.
l) Repeat same procedure for the 9 selected test sections of the two bends, elbow,
contraction, expansion, tee and union joint and both gate and ball valves.
m) When experiment is over, close all manometers pressure taps first, switch off pump,
and switch off power supply to panel.
6 Observation & Calculations
6.1 Specification:
Sudden Enlargement :
From 16.5mm to 27mm
Sudden Contraction :
From 27mm to 16.5mm.
Bend
:
1/2"
Elbow
:
1/2"
Ball valve
:
1/2"
Gate valve
:
1/2"
Tee joint
:
1/2"
Union joint
:
1/2"
Water Circulation
:
FHP Pump.
Flow Measurement :
Using Measuring Tank with Piezometer, Capacity 40 Ltrs.
Sump Tank
:
Capacity 80 Ltrs.
Stop Watch
:
Electronic.
Control Panel Comprises of: Standard make On/Off Switch, Mains Indicator, etc.
6.2 Formulae:
(a) Discharge:
A* R
Q
t *100
(b) Velocity:
Q
(Velocity in pipe)
V1
a1
Q
(Velocity in 1 pipe)
V2
a2
(c) Loss of Head (for Contraction):
V2
hL K L 1
2g
(d) Loss of Head (for Expansion):
(V V2 ) 2
hL K L 1
K LC
2g
---------------- (1)
---------------- (2)
---------------- (2a)
---------------- (3)
---------------- (4)
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
--------------- (5)
---------------- (6)
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.1m2
13.6
9.81 m/sec2
0.0165 m
0.027m.
2.14 x 10-4 m2
5.73 x 10-4 m2
Velocity,
V2
Loss of Kinetic
Energy, C
6.6 Nomenclature:
Q
=
discharge, m3/s
V1
=
velocity of fluid in pipe of Small Diameter (m).
V2
=
velocity of fluid in pipe of Large Diameter (m).
a1
=
Cross-sectional area of Small Dia. pipe
a2
=
Cross-sectional area of Large Dia. pipe
KL
=
loss coefficient.
13
Loss of
head
hL
Loss
coefficient K L
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
h
hL
R
t
=
=
=
=
7.
Result &discussion
8.
Conclusion
9.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
pressure difference, m
head loss, m
Rise of water level in measuring tank (m).
Time taken for R (sec.).
f)
9.1 Troubleshooting:
a) If pump gets jam, open the back cover of pump and rotate the shaft manually.
b) If pump gets heat up, switch off the main power for 15 minutes, avoid closing the
flow control valve, and by pass valve simultaneously during operation.
References:
a) McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., Harriott, P., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering,
4th ed., McGraw Hill, NY, 1985.
b) Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering
Vol. - 1, 5th ed., Asian Books ltd., ND, 1996.
c) Brown, G.G., Unit Operations, 1st ed., CBS, ND, 1995.
d) Foust, A.S., et. al., Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd ed., John Wiley, NY, 1980.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
4. Experimental setup
The apparatus consist of three pipes of varying diameters and materials for which common
inlet connection is provided with control valve to regulate the flow, near the down stream end
of the pipe. Pressure tapings are taken at suitable distance apart between which a manometer
is provided to study the pressure loss due to the friction. Discharge is measured with the help
of measuring tank and stopwatch.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
m) When experiment is over, close all manometers pressure taps first, switch off pump,
and switch off power supply to panel.
6. Observation & calculation
6.1 Specification
Pipes (3 Nos.)
:
Pipe Test Section
Water Circulation
Flow Measurement
:
:
:
Sump Tank
:
Stop Watch
:
Control Panel Comprises of:
Standard make On/Off Switch, Mains Indicator, etc.
Tanks will be made of Stainless Steel.
The whole set-up is well designed and arranged in a good quality painted structure.
6.2 Formulae
1.
Head losses,
h m
hf
1 , m of water.
100 W
2.
Co-efficient of Friction:
h 2 gd
f f
4 LV 2
3.
Discharge (Q):
AxR 3
Q
m /s
t *100
4.
Velocity of Fluid:
Q
V m/ s
a
6.3 Data:
Area of measuring tank,
A
Sp. gravity of Hg
Acceleration due to gravity, g
Inside Diameter of Pipe, d
For GI pipe (1)
For GI pipe (1/2)
For SS pipe (1/2)
=
=
=
0.1m2
13.6
9.81m/sec2
=
=
=
0.027 m
0.016.5 m
0.016 m
=
=
=
=
5.70 x 10-4 m2
2.14 x 10-4 m2
2.01 x 10-4 m2
1.1 m each for all pipes
6.4 Observation Table: (for For GI pipe 1, GI pipe 1/2, and SS pipe 1/2)
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Extent
of Pressure difference Rise of water level
Valve open
h (cm)
measuring Tank R (cm)
Open
Full Open
in Time taken, t
(sec.)
Discharge,
Q
(m3/s)
Velocity
Fluid, V
(m/s)
of
Fanning
factor, f
Friction
Open
Full Open
6.6 Nomenclature:
A
=
Area of measuring tank
a
=
Cross-section area of pipe
d
=
Inside Diameter of Pipe
g
=
Acceleration due to gravity
h
=
manometer reading, cm
hf
=
Pressure head of water (m)
R
=
Rise of water level in measuring Tank (m)
t
=
Time taken for R (sec)
L
=
distance between two points
7.
8. Precautions
1. Do not run the pump at low voltage i.e. less than 180 Volts.
2. Never fully close the Delivery line and By-Pass line Valves simultaneously.
3. Always keep apparatus free from dust.
4. To prevent clogging of moving parts, Run Pump at least once in a fortnight.
5. Frequently Grease/Oil the rotating parts, once in three months.
6. Always use clean water.
7. If apparatus will not in use for more than one month, drain the apparatus completely,
and fill pump with cutting oil.
8.1 Troubleshooting:
1. If pump gets jam, open the back cover of pump and rotate the shaft manually.
2. If pump gets heat up, switch off the main power for 15 minutes and avoid closing the
flow control valve and by pass valve simultaneously during operation.
References
e) McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., Harriott, P., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering,
4th ed, McGraw Hill, NY, 1985.
f) Foust, A.S., et. al., Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd ed., John Wiley, NY, 1980.
g) Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering Vol.
- 1, 5th ed., Asian Books ltd., ND, 1996.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
DRAG COEFFICIENT
1. Aim & Apparatus
To verify Stokes law and to study the variation of the drag coefficient with Reynolds number
(Re) for sphere.
Experimental setup of 3 cylinders filled with three different liquids demineralised water,
glycerine and hydraulic oil, spherical balls, measuring scales and stopwatch.
2. Theory
When a body moves through any fluid, it experiences a resistance, which acts in a direction
opposite to that of the motion of the body. This resistance is called the drag force (FD) and it
depends on the size of the body, velocity with which it moves and the viscosity of the fluid.
According to stoke, the drag force acting on a sphere moving through a fluid due to its weight
is given by the following expression:
FD = 3UDp
(i)
Where Dp is the diameter of sphere, is the viscosity of fluid, and U is called the terminal
fall velocity. Terminal velocity is defined as the velocity attained by a body in falling through
a fluid at rest, when the drag force on the body is equal to the submerged weight of the body.
For equilibrium condition in the case of a freely falling sphere through a liquid, drag force
plus the buoyant force must be equal to the weight of the sphere and is given by the
expression
(ii)
2
Where Fg is the drag force, g is acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/sec ), p is density of
spherical particle, and f is the density of fluid stream.
The drag coefficient predicted by Stokes law is given by the expression
, where
(iii)
where is the kinematic viscosity of fluid stream (m2/sec). Thus, coefficient of drag CD varies
with Reynolds number.
Experiments have shown that Eq. (ii) holds well for Re < 0.2, and the sphere is falling in an
infinite fluid. If the fluid is not infinite in extent but is confined within a container (finite
dimensions), then the resistance to motion is increased, and in such a case the modified value
of drag coefficient, as given by the following expression, should be used:
CD = , (1+2.1 )
(vi)
Where D is the smallest lateral dimensions of the container and D is the diameter of sphere.
Also the observed fall velocity U is corrected in Eq. (iii) by using the following expression in
order to get the fall velocity corresponding to infinite fluid medium:
Corrected velocity, U = U (1+2.4 )
Where, D is the diameter of the container.
3. Experimental set-up
The set-up consists of three transparent vertical cylinders of diameter 100 mm and height 1
m. A hopper with a valve is provided at the bottom of the cylinder to collect the spheres. The
cylinder is supported by four vertical posts and fixed to a MS table. A vertical scale is fixed
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
on the surface of a cylinder. The cylinders are filled with fluids of varying viscosities such as
glycerine, hydraulic oil and water.
4. Experimental procedure
1. Measure the diameters of spheres and note down their materials.
2. Determine the mass of the spheres on electronic balance.
3. Mark two lines on the cylinder for measurement of the vertical distance (L) for the
determination of terminal velocity. The upper line should be at a depth of 100 mm or
more from the free surface so that the terminal velocity is achieved.
4. Hold the sphere with a finger and a thumb and bring it up to the fluid level. Leave the
sphere gently (wet the sphere before dropping it).
5. Note down the time taken by the sphere in falling through distance L.
6. Repeat steps (4) and (5) for other diameters of spheres (Set 1).
7. Repeat steps (4) and (6) for spheres of other material (Set 2).
Liquid 1
Liquid 2
Liquid 3
Diameter of cylinder, D
=
= 1261kg/m (glycerol),
1080kg/m (hydraulic oil),
1000kg/m (water)
= 2070 kg/m3
= 1.006x10-6 m/s (water),
1.180x10-6 m/s (glycerol)
1.25*10-4 m2/s (hydraulic oil)
= 87mm
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Distance of fall, L
=
Diameter of sphere
= 0.819cm
Time of falling for sphere (t)
= ____ sec
Terminal Velocity (U) (Length/time for fall) = ______ (m/sec)
5.2 Observation Table:
S.No
Fluid type
1.
Water
2.
Glycerol
3.
Hydraulic Oil
Reynolds
number
Discharge
coefficient
Corrected
Discharge
coefficient
Fg
FD
References:
h) McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., Harriott, P., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering,
7th ed., McGraw Hill, NY, 2005.
i) W.L Badger & J.T. Banchero., Introduction to Chemical Engineering, 26th reprint,
McGraw Hill, NY, 2011.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
BERNOULLIS THEOREM
1. Aim & Objective
To experimentally verify Bernoulli equation for fluid flow in horizontal pipe.
2. Apparatus
FHP pump run setup consisting of 4 rectangular tanks, horizontal pipe section, 8 piezometric
tubes with measuring scales, stopwatch.
3. Theory
Energy of a Liquid in Motion
The energy, in general, may be defined as the capacity to do work. Though the energy exists
in many forms, yet the following are important from the subject point of view:
a) Potential Energy
b) Kinetic Energy, and
c) Pressure Energy.
Potential Energy of a Liquid in Motion
It is the energy possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its position. If a liquid particle is Z
meters above the horizontal datum (arbitrarily chosen), the potential energy of the particle
will be Z meter-kilogram per kg of liquid. Potential head of the liquid, at that point, will be Z
meters of the liquid.
Kinetic Energy of a Liquid Particle in Motion:
It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its motion or velocity. If a liquid
particle is flowing with a mean velocity of v meter per second, then the kinetic energy of the
particle will be v2/ 2g m-kg per kg of liquid. Velocity head of the liquid, at that velocity, will
be v2/ 2g meter of the liquid.
Pressure Energy of a Liquid Particle in Motion:
It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its existing pressure. If a liquid
particle is under a pressure of p kg / m2, then the pressure energy of the particle will be p/w
m-kg per kg of liquid, where w is the specific weight of the liquid
EZ
v2 p
m-kg/ kg of liquid
2g w
BERNOULLIS EQUATION:
It states, For a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing in a continuous stream, the total
energy of a particle remains the same; while the particle moves from one point to another.
This statement is based on the assumption that there are no losses due to friction in pipe.
Mathematically,
v2
p
E Z
= Constant
2g
w
--------- (1)
Bernoulli Equation:
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
---------- (2)
This is the basic from of Bernoulli equation for steady incompressible inviscid flows. It may
be written for any two points 1 and 2 on the same streamline as
--------- (3)
The constant of Bernoulli equation, can be named as total head (ho) has different values on
different streamlines.
-------- (4)
The total head may be regarded as the sum of the piezometric head h = p/(g) + z and the
kinetic head v2/2g.
Bernoulli equation is arrived from the following assumptions:
a) Steady flow - common assumption applicable to many flows.
b) Incompressible flow - acceptable if the flow Mach number is less than 0.3.
c) Frictionless flow - very restrictive; solid walls introduce friction effects.
d) Valid for flow along a single streamline; i.e., different streamlines may have different
ho.
e) No shaft work - no pump or turbines on the streamline.
f) No transfer of heat - either added or removed.
Range of validity of the Bernoulli Equation:
Bernoulli equation is valid along any streamline in any steady, inviscid, incompressible flow.
There are no restrictions on the shape of the streamline or on the geometry of the overall
flow. The equation is valid for flow in one, two or three dimensions.
Modifications on Bernoulli equation:
Bernoulli equation can be corrected and used in the following form for real cases.
*
Where 'q' is the work done by pump and 'w' is the work done by the fluid and h is the head
loss by friction.
4. Experimental Set-up
The apparatus is made from transparent acrylic and has both the convergent and divergent
sections. Water is supplied from the constant head tank attached to the test section. Constant
level is maintained in the supply tank. Piezometric tubes are attached at different distance on
the test section. Water discharges to the discharge tank attached at the far end of the test
section and from there it goes to the measuring tank through valve. The entire setup is
mounted on a stand.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Experimental procedure
a) Fill the sump tank with water.
b) Before starting the pump, make sure that the bypass valve is fully open and the
discharge valve is closed.
c) Switch ON the Pump.
d) Flow control valve to the supply tank is opened and bypass valve is closed slowly
and simultaneously. Keep drain valve of the discharge tank fully open.
e) After we get steady height of liquid in the supply tank adjust the drain valve on
the discharge tank so as to get steady level there also.
f) Collect the predetermined quantity of water in the measuring tank and measure
the time required for the same.
g) Also record the height of liquid in each of the piezometric tube.
piezome
tric
tube
position
6. Observations
Sr. No.
H1
Height. diff. in
measuring tank H2
(m)
H
3
Volume (m )
V
Time (sec)
T
Vol. Flow rate
Q
(m3/sec)
H1=P1/w(m)
1 v1 = Q/A1
v12/ 2g (m)
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Total Head
H2=P2/w(m)
v2 = Q/A2
v22/ 2g (m)
Total Head
H3=P3/w(m)
v3 = Q/A3
v3 2/ 2g (m)
Total Head
H4=P4/w(m)
v4 = Q/A4
v42/ 2g (m)
Total Head
H5=P5/w(m)
v5 = Q/A5
v5 2/ 2g (m)
Total Head
H6=P6/w(m)
v6 = Q/A6
v6 2/ 2g (m)
Total Head
H7=P7/w(m)
v7 = Q/ A7
v7 2/ 2g (m)
Total Head
H8=P8/w(m)
v8 = Q/ A8
v82/ 2g (m)
Total Head
Calculations:
Length of the test section
= 0.4 m
Piezo tube 1 at 0.05 m
c/s area A1
= 0.000961
Piezo tube 2 at 0.085 m
c/s area A2
= 0.00053
Piezo tube 3 at 0.115 m
c/s area A3
= 0.000314
Piezo tube 4 at 0.18 m
c/s area A4
= 0.000572
Piezo tube 5 at 0.240 m
c/s area A5
= 0.000854
Piezo tube 6 at 0.300 m
c/s area A6
= 0.001256
Piezo tube 7 at 0.355 m
c/s area A7
= 0.00166
Piezo tube 8 at 0.40 m
c/s area A8
= 0.00215
Cross Sectional Area of Measuring Tank (Am) = 0.09 m2
Height Difference in measuring tank (H)
=
=
Volume Collected (V)
=
=
Volumetric Flow rate (Q)
=
=
Linear Point Velocity (vi)
=
=
25
m2
m2
m2
m2
m2
m2
m2
m2
H1- H2
m
H * Am
m3
V/T
m3/s
Q/ Ai
m/ sec
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
=
[vi2 / (2*g)]
=
m
Total Head at point 1
=
Static Head + Velocity Head
=
Hi + vi2 / (2*g)
=
m
Check for all the points that sum of velocity head and pressure head is almost constant. Here
potential energy is not being considered as the test section lies in one horizontal plane only.
Velocity head at point 1
7. Result:
Draw graph of static head, velocity head, and total head Vs distance of the piezometric tubes.
8.
Conclusions
9.
Precautions
References
(a) McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., Harriott, P., Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, 7th ed., McGraw Hill, NY, 2005.
(b) W.L Badger & J.T. Banchero., Introduction to Chemical Engineering,
26th reprint, McGraw Hill, NY, 2011.
(c) C.J. Geankoplis., Transport Processes and Separation Process
Principles, 4th ed., PHI, 2009.
26
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
2.
Theory
VENTURIMETER:
An Orificemeter consists of a flat circular plate with a circular hole called Orifice,
which is concentric with the pipe axis. An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in the
middle. It is usually placed in a pipe in which fluid flows. When the fluid reaches the orifice
plate, the fluid is forced to converge to go through the small hole; the point of maximum
convergence actually occurs shortly downstream of the physical orifice, at the so-called vena
contracta point. As it does so, the velocity and the pressure changes. Beyond the vena
contracta, the fluid expands and the velocity and pressure change once again. By measuring
the difference in fluid pressure between the normal pipe section and at the vena contracta, the
volumetric and mass flow rates can be obtained from Bernoulli's equation.
ROTAMETER:
The Rotameter is a variable area meter that consists of an enlarging transparent tube
and a metering float (actually heavier than the liquid) that is displaced upward by the
upward flow fluid through the tube. The tube is graduated to read the flow directly. Notches
in the float cause it to rotate and thus maintain a central position in the tube. The float is an
indicating element, and greater the flow rate, the higher the float rides in the tube.
3.
Experimental set up
27
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
4.
Experimental procedure
Starting Procedure:
a) Clean the apparatus and make All Tanks free from Dust.
b) Close the drain valves provided.
c) Fill Sump tank with Clean Water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
d) Close all Flow Control Valves given on the water line and open By-Pass Valve.
e) Close all Pressure Taps of Manometer connected to Venturimeter & Orificemeter.
f) Ensure that On/Off Switch given on the Panel is at OFF position.
g) Now switch on the Main Power Supply (220 Volts AC, 50 Hz).
h) Switch on the Pump.
i) Operate the Flow Control Valve to regulate the flow of water in the desired Test
Section.
j) Open the Pressure Taps of Manometer of related Test section, very slowly to avoid
the blow of water on manometer fluid.
28
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
k) Now open the Air release Valve provided on the Manometer, slowly to release the air
in manometer.
l) When there is no air in the manometer, close the Air release valves.
m) Adjust water flow rate in desired section with the help of Control Valve.
n) Record the Manometer reading.
o) Measure the flow of water, discharged through desired test section, using Stop Watch
and Measuring Tank.
p) Repeat Steps the same procedure for different flow rates of water, operating Control
Valve and By-Pass valve.
q) When experiment is over for one desired test section, open the By-Pass Valve fully.
Then close the flow control valve of running test section and open the Control valve
of secondly desired test section.
CALIBRATION OF ROTAMETER:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Close the ball valves provided in the Venturimeter and Orificemeter pipelines.
Open the ball valve provided in the Rotameter pipeline.
Now switch on the main power supply and switch on the pump.
Set the flow rate with the help of by pass and flow control valves provided in
Rotameter pipeline.
e) Measure the discharge with the help of measuring tank and stopwatch.
f) The actual discharge, verify the set value of Rotameter.
g) Repeat the same procedure for different flow rates.
Closing Procedure:
a) When experiment is over, close all Manometers Pressure Taps first.
b) Switch off Pump.
c) Switch off Power Supply to Panel.
5.
Observation
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No.
Rotameter
Reading in
LPH, Qth
29
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
FORMULAE:
For both Venturimeter & Orificemeter:
1.
Head losses,
h m
H
1 , m of water
100 W
2.
Theoretical discharge (Qt):
a a 2 gH
Qt 1 2
, m3/s
2
2
a1 a 2
3.
------------------- (1)
------------------- (2)
4.
------------------- (3)
------------------- (4)
For Rotameter:
5.
Actual discharge:
Qa
AxR
x3600 x1000 , m3/s
t *100
------------------- (5)
For Orificemeter:
d1 = Dia. at inlet of Orificemeter =
28mm. =
d2 = Dia. of Orifice Plate
=
14mm. =
a1 = d12/4
Area at inlet of Orificemeter =
a2 = d22/4 m2
Area of Orifice Plate
=
6.
0.028m
0.014m
6.157 * 10-4 m2
1.539* 10-4 m2
0.028m
0.014m
6.157 * 10-4m2
1.539* 10-4 m2
Theo. Discharge Qt ,
m3/s
30
Cd = Qa/Qt
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
For Rotameter
S. No.
Rotameter Reading in Qth, m3/s
7.
Conclusion
8.
Precaution
1. Do not run the pump at low voltage i.e. less than 180 Volts.
2. Never fully close the Delivery line and By-Pass line Valves simultaneously.
3. Always keep apparatus free from dust.
4. To prevent clogging of moving parts, Run Pump at least once in a fortnight.
31
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. No
H1
H2
V(m3)
H1-H2
32
T(sec)
Q (m3/s)
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
1
2
3
4
6. Calculation
Volume collected is calculated by measuring tank, V = l * b * height
(Units in meter)
=
m3
Flow rate Q = V/T
=
m3 /sec
Velocity v = Q/A
=
m/sec
On the basis of velocity we can find Reynolds number,
Re = * v * d
= density of water = 1000 kg/m3
v= velocity
d = inner diameter of coil
= dynamic viscosity of water
Calculation for fanning friction factor
F = (p/ g) * (D/L) * (2g/v2)
p=pressure difference in manometer
g =9.81 m/s2
D = overall diameter of coil = 0.235 m
H = overall height of coil = 0.35 m
N = No. of turns = 14
R =D/2
LENGTH OF COIL
N2 * R2
9R + 10 H
Put the value of L in the above equation and find out value of friction factor of helical coil.
L=
The critical Reynolds number of the fluid flowing through the coil was found to be
_______.
The friction factor for flow of water through helical coil was found to be ______
8. Precaution
33
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
6.
Procedure
1. Start the flow of air by switching on the blower.
2. Divide the pipe diameter in 9 equal parts to fix the radial position at which the point
velocities are to be determined.
3. Keep the pitot tube at the radial position.
4. Once the flow steadies (indicated by unchanging or slightly fluctuating level
difference in the manometer), record the level difference in the manometer.
5. Record the ambient temperature (taken same as the air temperature).
6. Repeat step 4 by moving the pitot tube at the radial determined in step 2.
Observations
34
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
7. Formula
1)Point velocity, u0
kg/m
kg/ m
r,mm
h,mm
u0 = {2gh(m-f)/f}
8.
9.
35
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
When a Pitot tube is used for measuring the velocity of flow in a pipe or other closed conduit
the Pitot tube may be inserted in the pipe as shown in figure. Since a Pitot tube measures the
stagnation pressure head (or the total head) at its dipped end. The pressure head may be
determined directly by using piezometeric readings between the Pitot tube and pressure
taping at the pipe surface. Consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that
point (2) is just at the inlet of the Pitot -tube and point (1) is far away from the tube. At point
(1) the pressure is p1 and the velocity of the stream is v1. However, at point (2), is called
stagnation point, the fluid is brought to rest and the energy has been converted to pressure
energy. Therefore the pressure at (2) is p2, the velocity v2 is zero and since (1) and (2) are in
the same horizontal plane, so z1 = z2.
Applying Bernoullis equation at points (1) and (2)
2
p1 v1
p2 v 2 2
w 2g
w 2g
v2 = 0
v 21 p2 p1
2g w w
36
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
p
p
v1 2 g 2 1
w w
v1 2 gH
This is theoretical velocity.
Actual velocity v1 act Cv 2gH
4.
Pitot tube
Requirements
:
5.
Experimental set-up
The apparatus consists of a Pitot tube made of SS and fixed below a pointer gauge. The
pointer gauge is capable to measure the position of Pitot tube in transparent test section. The
pipe has a flow control valve to regulate the flow. Piezometric tubes are provided to
determine the velocity head. A pump is provided to circulate the water. Discharge is
measured with the help of measuring tank and stopwatch
6.
Experimental procedure
Starting Procedure:
1. Clean the apparatus and make Tank free from Dust.
2. Close the drain valves provided.
3. Fill Sump tank with Clean Water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
4. Close all Flow Control Valves given on the water line and open By-Pass Valve.
5. Ensure that On/Off Switch given on the Panel is at OFF position.
6. Now switch on the Main Power Supply (220 Volts AC, 50 Hz).
7. Switch on the Pump.
8. Operate the Flow Control Valve to regulate the flow of water through orifice.
9. Adjust water flow rate to desired rate with the help of flow Control Valve.
10. Set the Pitot tube at the center of test section
11. Record the piezometric reading and measure the discharge with the help of measuring
tank and stop watch.
12. Now move the Pitot tube up and down at the same flow rate and note the piezometric
readings to find out the velocity at different points in pipe.
13. Calculate the co efficient of Pitot tube from actual and theoretical velocities and plot
the velocities at different points inside the pipe.
14. Repeat the same procedure for different flow rates of water, operating Control Valve,
and By-Pass valve.
37
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Closing Procedure:
1. When experiment is over Switch off Pump.
2. Switch off Power Supply to Panel.
3. Drain water from all tanks with the help of given drain valves.
FORMULAE
1. Discharge,
Q
A* R
t
----------------------- (1)
Q
a
----------------------- (2)
2. Actual Velocity,
v act
3. Theoretical velocity
v th 2 gh
------------------------ (3)
------------------------- (4)
Pressure
head at
center
0
Pressure
head
at R(cm)
different points on down
side
4 mm 6 mm
8 mm
t(sec)
2.
3.
CALCULATION TABLE
S.
Cv
v8
No.
1.
v6
v4
v0
2.
3.
DATA
38
v4
v6
v8
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
A
a
g
=
=
=
0.1 m2
0.0006157 m2
9.81 m/ s2
NOMENCLATURE
A
=
Area of measuring tank.
a
=
Cross section area of test section
R
=
Rise of water level in measuring tank.
h
=
Piezometric difference
CV
=
Co efficient of Pitot tube
g
=
Acceleration due to gravity
va
=
actual velocity of fluid.
Q
=
discharge at outlet.
t
=
time for R.
8.
9.
Conclusion
10.
Precautions
Do not run the pump at low voltage i.e. less than 180 Volts.
Never fully close the Delivery line and By-Pass line Valves simultaneously.
Always keep apparatus free from dust.
To prevent clogging of moving parts, Run Pump at least once in a fortnight.
Frequently Grease/Oil the rotating parts, once in three months.
Always use clean water.
If apparatus will not in use for more than one month, drain the apparatus completely,
and fill pump with cutting oil.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
39
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
PROCEDURE
1. Fill in the tank with water, and the dye- chamber with dye.
2. Note the water temperature.
3. Start the water flow and maintain a small flow rate, enough to fill the whole pipe
cross section.
4. Once the flow stabilizes, start the dye injection. The injection rate should be just
enough to give a clear visible streak of the dye.
5. Observe the pattern of the dye streak. The dye should flow in a straight line.
6. Increase the water in small and equal increments, and observe the dye streak.
7. Repeat step 6 until some undulations commence in the streak. Note the corresponding
volumetric flow rate of water, which is the critical Reynolds number. Appearance of
the undulations signifies the initiation of the intermediate or transition flow.
40
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Note At this point the undulations will be unstable so that there will be some portion
of
the dye streak which will be undulating and some portion which will
not.
8. Keep increasing the flow rate of the liquid further until at one point there is found a
complete dispersion of the dye (indicated by the liquid getting colour through the
cross section) just as it comes out of the injection needle. This point shows the
conversion to a fully turbulent regime.
9. Note the corresponding the volumetric flow rate.
6.
Observations
Temperature of the liquid
Pipe diameter
S.No
1
2
3
Flow Regime
Laminar
Transition
Fully Turbulent
=
=
Volume of water collected
Time taken
=
=
=
=
=
m/s
m/s
m/s
kg/m
kg/m.
Conclusion
41
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
42
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
P2
P4
V2
V8
V4
V5
P1
V1
C1
V3
C2
P3
V-Notch
Measuring Tank
Sump Tank
OPERATION
SINGLE PUMP
SERIES
PARALLEL
:
:
:
OPEN
CLOSE
V1, V4, V5
V1, V2, V5
V1, V3, V4, V5
5. Experimental Procedure
First, prime the pump by pouring water through valve V8. Subsequently, the following
sequence of operations are to be carried out:
5.1. Calibration of V-Notch
1. Measure the width of the V-notch at the top and depth of the V-notch.
2. Fill the storage tank with water.
3. Open valves V1, V2 and V5, and close valves V3, V4 & V9.
4. Start running the pumps.
5. Fill the channel with water until water starts spilling over the notch to the outlet.
6. Stop the water supply by closing the bench supply valve (V5) with the pump in running
condition.
7. Allow the water above the crest height to spill over the notch.
8. When the water level is at the level of the crest of the notch, bring the point gauge exactly
to the water surface, and note the reading (say R1) on the longer scale which coincides
with the zero of the shorter scale. (This is the datum level for subsequent heightmeasurements when the water flows in the channel.)
9. Open valve V5 completely and wait for the level (or head) of water in the channel to
stabilize.
10. Bring the point gauge to the surface of the water by rotating the knob attached to the
scale, and note the reading (say R2) on the longer scale that coincides with the zero of
the shorter scale.
43
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
11. Collect the water in the bucket for an arbitrary but known duration, and determine the
flow rate of water by dividing the volume (or mass) of water collected by the time of
collection.
12. The difference (R2-R1) is called the head which is related to the volumetric flow rate by
the following equation:
5
13. Adjust the water flow rate at seven different values from the maximum to zero flow rate
in the channel by manipulating valve V5 and determine the water flow rate and the
corresponding head.
14. Calculate the discharge coefficient (Cd) in each case, and take the arithmetic average of
these values as the Cd of the notch.
5.2. Pump Characteristics (Single Pump)
1. After carrying out the steps 1 to 3 mentioned in Calibration of V-Notch, open the valve
V5 fully.
2. Note the RPM of the pump from the control panel.
3. Note the gage pressure on the outlet line (P4 in the figure) and on the inlet line (P1 in the
figure). The difference of the readings in P4 and P1 is the head delivered by the pump.
4. Note the power supplied to the pump from the display on the control panel by pressing
the appropriate button (labeled W).
5. Note the head of the V-notch.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 for seven different flow rates of water spanning the whole range of
flow rate up to zero flow by manipulating V5.
5.3. Pump Characteristics (Pump in Series)
1. Fully open the valves V1, V2 and V5, and close valves V3 and V4.
2. Note the RPM of the pump from the control panel.
3. Note the gage pressure on the outlet line (P4 in the figure) and on the inlet line (P1 in the
figure).
4. Note the power supplied to the pump from the display on the control panel by pressing
the appropriate button (labeled W).
5. Note the head of the V-notch.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 for seven different flow rates of water spanning the whole range of
flow rate up to zero flow by manipulating V5.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 for three different RPMs.
5.4. Pump Characteristics (Pump in Parallel)
1. Fully open the valves V1, V3, V4 and V5, and close valve V2.
2. Note the RPM of the pump from the control panel.
3. Note the gage pressure on the outlet line (P4 in the figure) and on the inlet line (P1 in the
figure).
4. Note the power supplied to the pump from the display on the control panel by pressing
the appropriate button (labeled W).
5. Note the head of the V-notch.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 for seven different flow rates of water spanning the whole range of
flow rate up to zero flow by manipulating V5.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 for three different RPMs.
6. Observations
44
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
S No
Head of
the V-notch
(R2 R1)
Point gauge
reading, R2
=
=
=
Amount of
Water collected
Duration of
collecting water
Point gauge
Reading, R2
Head of
The V-notch
Power to the
pump
* Make separate tables for different configurations (single/series/parallel) of the pumps and for different RPMs.
7. Model Calculations
For steady incompressible flow of a liquid of density , the developed head is given as
P2 P1 V22 V12
H
( Z 2 Z1 ) h f
g
2g
(1)
where subscripts 1 and 2 signify the values at the suction and delivery ports of the pump; P
is the pressure; V is the velocity; Z is the elevation; and hf is the friction head (that is, the
frictional losses) in the line between the suction and delivery ports. hf is given by
hf 4 f
D
V
Kf
2g
(2)
where f is the friction factor, L is length of the pipe, D is the diameter of the pipe, Kf is the
loss factor for fittings. Friction factor (f) depends on roughness and type of flow
45
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
(laminar/turbulent) and read from friction factor chart. Alternatively, it can be calculated
from the equations:
f
16
;
N Re
The friction factor for turbulent flow can be calculated by using Colebrook equations (either
implicit form or explicit form) given below:
7.1. Implicit Forms of Colebrook Equation
There are at least three forms of the Colebrook Equation that can be found in current
literature on hydraulics. These are:
2.51
2 log10
3.7 D
f
N Re f
2
18.7
1.74 2 log10
D
f
N Re f
(3)
9.3
D
1.14 2 log10 2 log101
f
N Re
(4)
(5)
where,
f is the Friction Factor and is dimensionless
is the Absolute Roughness and is in units of length
D is the Inside Diameter and, as these formulas are written, is in the same units as .
NRe is the Reynolds Number and is dimensionless.
Note that /D is the Relative Roughness and is dimensionless.
These three equations are referred to as Implicit Equations. Implicit means that f, the
Friction Factor, is Implied or understood though not directly expressed2. Simply stated,
the equations ARE NOT in the form of f = . These are sometimes referred to as
equivalent but the results will vary when calculated to the fourth significant digit.
These equations can be solved for f given the Relative Roughness (/D) and the Reynolds
Number, (NRe), by iteration. Such iterations can be performed using an electronic
spreadsheet. A spreadsheet, Friction Factor Formulas for Cheresource.xls is available at
http://www.cheresources.com/colebrook1.shtml presented for demonstration.
The
spreadsheet contains four worksheets. The first Tab is labeled Iterations. The Iterative
solutions are generated by breaking the formulas in two parts, that which is left of the equal
sign and that which is right of the equal sign (See row 20 as an example). The Iteration then
tests values of f that will result in the difference between the two sides to be zero or very
close to zero. (A complete explanation was published in the ASHRAE Journal of September,
2002: see Reference 4 for details)
7.2. Explicit Forms of Colebrook Equation
46
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
There are four Explicit forms of Colebrook Equations reported in literature. (Ref: available
on internet at http://www.cheresources.com/colebrook1.shtml). Out of these the Serghides
solution is the most accurate one, which is given below:
Serghides Solution (see Reference 3 for details).
f ( A ( B A)2 /(C (2B) A))2
(6)
where
1
f
4.07 log N Re
f 0.6 ;
(7)
Eqn. 7 is the von Karman equation for turbulent flow which can be used only if the pipe is
smooth. In our case, the pipe is not smooth and hence this equation cannot be used.
Colebrook equation has to be used.
Power developed by the pump (or the power delivered to the fluid) Pf is given as
Pf QHg
(8)
Pf
(9)
PB
where PB is the total power supplied to the pump drive from an external source.
Operating (or performance) characteristics of a pump is commonly illustrated by plots of
actual head developed H, power consumption Pf, and efficiency versus the volumetric flow
rate.
8. Results & Discussion
8.1. Calibration of V-notch
S No
Volumetric flow rate
47
Cd
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Average Cd =
8.2. Pump Characteristics (RPM =
)
Volumetric flow Head developed by
S No
rate
the pump
Power delivered by
the pump
Efficiency
1. Plot head, power delivered to the pump, power delivered to the liquid, and efficiency
versus the capacity of the pump (i.e., flow rate of water).
2. Suggest the operating point from the efficiency versus flow rate plot.
9. Conclusions
10. Precautions
Do not run the pump with the delivery valve closed for a long time to avoid damage of the
pump.
References
1. Warren, L McCabe, Smith, J C , and Harriott, P, Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, 6th edition, McGraw Hill, New Delhi, India, 2000.
2. Babu, B.V.,"Pumps: Selection & Trouble Shooting", IPT (Indian Plumbing Today), Vol.
2005 (No. 6), pp. 41-49, November-December, 2005.
3. T.K.Serghides implementation of Steffensons accelerated convergence technique,
reportedly to have appeared in Chemical Engineering March 5, 1984.
4. Lester, T. Calculating Pressure Drops in Piping Systems. ASHRAE Journal Sept.
2002.
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
the pump is termed as the head developed by the pump, which is expressed in length
dimension.
4. Experimental Set up
4.1. Requirements
Reciprocating pump test rig, watch.
4.2. Experimental Setup
V1 P2
V2
Measuring
Tank
P1
LL
V3
Sump
Tank
V4
To Drain
5. Experimental Procedure
1. Fill the storage tank with water and ensure that the measuring tank is empty.
2. Open the valve on the delivery line, and allow the flow from the delivery line to drain
directly into the sump tank with the help of the drain valve.
3. Adjust the RPM of the motor to an arbitrary but known value.
4. Note the gauge pressures at the suction and delivery line of the pump.
5. Note the power to the pump from the display on the control panel by pressing appropriate
button.
6. Collect water in the measuring tank for a given duration of time and note the change in
water level in this tank during this period.
7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 for seven different flow rates of water spanning the whole range of
flow rate (excluding zero flow rate) by manipulating the delivery valve.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 for three different RPMs.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
6. Observations
Technical specifications of the pump:
Type: Double acting
Power: Connected to 1 HP, 3 phase, 440V AC motor.
Pump bore (diameter): 44.5 mm
Pump stroke: 35 mm
49
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
S No
Time of collection
of water in
measuring tank
=
=
=
=
=
=
Change in water
level in the
measuring tank
Gauge pressure
reading
Suction
Delivery
(P1)
(P2)
Power to
the pump
7. Model Calculations
For steady incompressible flow of a liquid of density , the developed head is given as
P2 P1 V22 V12
( Z 2 Z1 ) h f
g
2g
(1)
where subscripts 1 and 2 signify the values at the delivery and suction ports of the pump; P is
the pressure; V is the velocity; Z is the elevation; and hf is the friction head (that is, the
frictional losses) in the line between the suction and delivery ports. hf is to be calculated as
described in previous experiment, i.e., centrifugal pump characteristics.
Power developed by the pump (or the power delivered to the fluid) Pf is given as
Pf QHg
(2)
Pf
(3)
PB
where PB is the total power supplied to the pump drive from an external source.
Volumetric efficiency (V) of a reciprocating pump is defined as the ratio of the actual
discharge (Q) to the theoretical discharge (Qth). The theoretical discharge is the volume swept
by the piston of the pump per unit time. The difference between the theoretical and actual
discharge of the pump is called the slip.
Q
(4)
V
Qth
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
(5)
where dB and L are the bore diameter and length of the stroke of the pump, and N is the speed
of rotation of the crank (attached to the motor) in RPM.
Operating (or performance) characteristics of a pump is commonly illustrated by plots of
actual head developed H, power consumption PB and Pf and efficiency versus the capacity
of the pump (i.e., the volumetric flow rate of liquid).
8. Results & Discussion
RPM
Theoretical discharge of the pump
S No
Volumetric flow
rate
=
=
Head developed
by the pump
Power delivered
by the pump
1. Plot head, power delivered to pump, power delivered to the liquid, and mechanical
efficiency versus the capacity of the pump (flow rate of water).
2. Suggest the operating point from the efficiency versus flow rate plot.
9. Conclusions
10. Precautions
Never run the pump with the delivery valve closed.
References
3. Warren, L McCabe, Smith, J C , and Harriott, P, Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, 6th edition, McGraw Hill, New Delhi, India, 2000.
4. Babu, B.V.,"Pumps: Selection & Trouble Shooting", IPT (Indian Plumbing Today), Vol.
2005 (No. 6), pp. 41-49, November-December, 2005.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Fig. Liquid and Vapor pressure distribution along the heat pipe
4. Experimental Set up
4.1. Requirements
The apparatus consist of three different test specimen viz. stainless steel, copper & heat pipe
(Al) which is banded with water cut at the top and heaters at the bottom.
4.2. Schematic Diagram of Experimental Setup
The schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown below
5. Procedure
1. Plug-in socket of control panel & set up instrument in proper position.
2. Fill up the cup provided on each of the pipe with water.
3. Start the main switch of control panel.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
4. Increase slowly the input to heater by the dimmerstat starting from 0 volts position
and ampere I changes accordingly.
5. Adjust input so that it correspond out to certain Watts to be calculated (i.e. Q = V *
I) out as maximum by help of dimmerstat by varying Voltage.
6. See that both inputs remain constant throughout the experiment.
7. The steady state condition can be checked by rectal temperature of thermocouple of
1 to 8 zone temperature indicator provided on Control panel out of which 1 to 6
channel temperature Indicator are actually working with 1,2 Stainless Steel , 3,4
Heat Pipe (Al) and 5,6 Copper material heat pipe.
8. Note down the reading in the all the tube with Time up to which it reaches before
and after steady state as given in observation table.
6. Observations & Calculations
Data given:
1. Length of SS, Copper and Heat pipe (L) :- 300 mm
2. Diameter of pipe (Dp)
:- 250 mm
3. Area of pipe
(Ap)
:- 0.04908 m2
6.1 Observation table for S.S. pipe.
Thermocouple
No.
Thermocouple
Position (mm)
(Before Steady State)
50
200
Temperature
(K)
(Before Steady
State)
Temperature
(K)
(At Steady State)
Temperature
(K)
(Before Steady
State)
Temperature
(K)
(At Steady State)
Temperature
(K)
(Before Steady
State)
Temperature
(K)
(At Steady State)
Thermocouple
Position (mm)
(Before Steady State)
50
200
Thermocouple
Position (mm)
(Before Steady State)
50
200
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
QA = - KA * AP *
QA Power, Watts
V Voltage Potential, Volts
I Ampere Current, Ampere
QA - Heat Transfer Rate, Watts
Ap - Area of Pipe, m2
T - Change in temperature from Start to Steady state ,K
x - Change in position of Thermocouple from Start to Steady state (i.e. 50 & 200 mm)
KA - Thermal Conductivity of Material A, W / m . K
For Copper, Heat pipe and Stainless Steel pipe :
KA
W / m .K
7. Results
Thermocouple
Position
(mm)
Thermal Conductivity
( W/m K)
SS pipe
Heat pipe
Copper pipe
50
200
8. Precautions
1. Ensure that the Dimmerstat is at 0 position at before switching on and off the
equipment.
2. Increase the energy input gradually to the heater during initial set-up experimentation.
3. Never use the heater at full wattage for longer period of time.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
3. Theory
Thermal conductivity is defined as the fundamental property of material which gives the
measure of the effectivity of material in transmitting heat through it.
For the measurement of the thermal conductivity K what is required is to have one
dimensional heat flow through the flat specimen, an arrangement for maintaining its faces at
the constant temperature and metering method to measure the heat flow through a known
area.
Knowing the heat input to the central plate heater, the temperature difference across the each
specimen, its thickness and the area, one can calculate the K by the following formula.
K = q * L / [2 * A* ( - )]
Where,
K
Thermal Conductivity of the sample, W / m
q
Heat flow rate in the specimen, W
A
Area of the specimen, m
Hot side average temperature,
Cold side average temperature
L
Thickness of the specimen, m
4. Experimental Set up
4.1. Requirements
Thermal Conductivity Apparatus with composite wall (Mild steel, Hylam (Paper Grade) &
Wood), C clamps
4.2. Schematic Diagram of Experimental Setup
Two sections of composite walls are positioned on either side of the plate heater (Ni-Cr wire
packed in upper and lower mica sheets, 1000 W)
Two thermocouples (2&3) are used to measure the hot face temperature at the upper and
lower heater plate, 4 & 5 are used to measure the temperature at the other end of mild steel
plate (25mm), 6 & 7 to measure temperature at far end of hylam sheet (20 mm) and 8 & 9 for
far end of the wooden plate (12 mm). (see figure). Diameter of the plates is 300 mm
Specimens are held in position by the help of C clamps. The whole assembly is enclosed in
wooden box with one side transparent of visualization.
Voltmeter and Ammeter are used to measure the energy input to the heater. This energy input
to the heater can be varied using Dimmer stat. Digital temperature indicator with selector
switch on the control panel indicates the temperature at different positions in the composite
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
wall. Indicator lamp Indicates ON/OFF position of the heater. MCB has been provided to
switch ON/OFF the power to the equipment.
5. Procedure
The specimens are placed on either side of the heating plate assembly uniformly touching
each other. Then predetermined heat input is given to the heater using the Dimmer stat. The
input of the heater (current & voltage) and the thermocouple readings are observed every 5
minutes till a reasonably steady state condition is reached (steady temperature gradient). The
readings are recorded in the observation table. The final steady state values are taken for
calculations.
6.Observations and calculations:
6.1 Observation Table
S.No. Volt. Amp. T2
(V)
(A)
( )
T3
T4
( ) ( )
T5
( )
T6
( )
T7
( )
T8
( )
T9
( )
6.2 Calculations
Heat transfer Area Perpendicular to Heat Flow,
A = ( /4) * D = ________ m
Heat Input Q = V * I = ________ W
Thermal Conductivity for individual specimen,
= (Q * ) / [2 * * (
], W/m0C
i = 1, 2 and 3 for MS, Hylam and Wooden Plate respectively.
Where,
= ( + ) / 2 for MS plate, ( + ) / 2 for Hylam Plate, ( + ) / 2 for Wooden
Plate,
= ( + ) / 2 for MS Plate, ( + ) / 2 for Hylam Plate, ( + ) / 2 for Wooden
Plate,
Overall Thermal Conductivity,
= (Q * L) / [2 * A *((( + ) / 2) (( + ) / 2)))], W / m
Indiviual Thermal Resistance,
Ri= L/KiAi, 0C/W
In Series, Thermal Resistance Rt of the composite wall is given by
RT= Ri , i = 1, 2 and 3 for MS, Hylam and Wooden Plate respectively.
7. Results
Overall thermal conductivity of the material is. W/m0C
8. Precautions
1. Ensure that the Dimmer state is at 0 position at before switching on and off the
equipment.
2. Increase the energy input gradually to the heater during initial set-up experimentation.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
3. Never use the heater at full wattage for longer period of time.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Knowing the heat input to the central plate heater, the temperature difference across the each
specimen, its thickness and the area, one can calculate the K by the following formula.
K = q * L / [A * ( Theater avg Tsample liquid temp ) ]
where,
K
Thermal Conductivity of the sample, W / m C
q
Heat flow rate in the specimen, W
A
Area of the specimen, m2
TH,av Hot side average temperature, C
TC,av Cold side average temperature, C
L
Thickness of the test section, m
Thermal conductivity is important in building insulation and related fields. However,
materials used in such trades are rarely subjected to chemical purity standards.Several
construction materials' ''k'' values are listed below. These should be considered approximate
due to the uncertainties related to material definitions.
The following table is meant as a small sample of data to illustrate the thermal conductivity
of various types of substances.
Some typical thermal conductivity (k values)
Material
Ice
Water
Glycerol
Rubber (92%)
Alcohols OR Oils
Air
Oxygen (O2)
Nitrogen (N2)
Thermal
Conductivity
(Wm1K1)
1.6 - 2.2
0.32
0.29
0.16a
0.1- 0.21
0.024 - 0.0262
0.0238
0.0234 - 0.026
Temperature
(K)
293
293
293
303
293
273-300
293
293 - 300
4. Experimental Set up
4.1. Requirements
Thermal Conductivity Apparatus with composite wall (Mild steel, Hylam (Paper Grade) &
Wood), C clamps
.
4.2 Description
Test Section (SS 304, 5 mm width, 150 mm diameter) is resting on a heater (500 W, Ni-Cr)
.The heat passing across the test section is removed by the cooling water jacket.
The housing made of Mild Steel has been filled with glass wool to ensure minimum heat loss
to the surroundings.
The total assembly of test section, , main heater and cooling jacket are held in position by the
help of bolts.
Voltmeter and Ammeter are used to measure the energy input to the heater. This energy input
to the heater can be varied using Dimmerstat. Digital Temperature indicator with selector
switch on the control panel indicates the temperature at different positions. Indicator Lamp
indicates ON/ OFF position of the heater. MCB has been provided to switch ON/ OFF the
power to the equipment.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
5. Procedure
1. Fill the test section with the liquid whose thermal conductivity is to be measured.
2. Switch ON the Main heater and set the desired heat input through the test section
using Dimmerstat.
3. Start the cooling water supply to the cooling water jacket.
4. Now observe the temperatures T1 to T6 after 15 minutes and note down their values
once they become reasonably constant .
6. Observations and calculations
6.1 Observation Table
Sr. Volt
Amp. T1
T2
No (V)
(A)
(C)
(C)
1
2
3
4
5
T3
(C)
T4
(C)
T5
(C)
T6
(C)
W/ m C.
7. Results
Thermal conductivity of the material is. W/m0C
8. Precautions
1. Ensure that the Dimmerstat is at 0 position at before switching on and off the
equipment
2. Increase the energy input gradually to the heater during initial set-up experimentation
3. Never use the heater at full wattage for longer period of time
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
2. Apparatus:
Filmwise and Dropwise Condensers enclosed in a Borosilicate Glass Tube with flow control
valves, Steam generator with heating elements, Digital Temperature Indicator with selector
switch, Rotameter.
3. Theory:
Condensation Heat Transfer:
The process of condensation is the reverse of boiling. Whenever a saturated vapor comes in
contact with a surface at a lower temperature, condensation occurs. There are two modes of
condensation; filmwise, in which the condensate wets the surface forming a continuous film
which covers the entire surface and dropwise in which the vapor condenses into small liquid
droplets of various sizes which fall down the surface in a random fashion.
Filmwise condensation generally occurs on clean uncontaminated surfaces. In this type of
condensation the film covering the entire surface grows in thickness as it moves down the
surface by gravity. There exists a thermal gradient in the film and so it acts as a resistance to
heat transfer. In dropwise condensation a large portion of the area of the plate is directly
exposed to the vapor, making heat transfer rates much larger (5 to10 times) than those in
filmwise condensation.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
4. Experimental Setup
DROPWISE FILMWISE CONDENSATION APPARATUS
STEAM
INLET
T1
WATER
INLET
T2-3
T6
T7
T4
T5
Apparatus description:
The apparatus consist of:
Steam Generator: (8 liter capacity) equipped with 2 kW heater and Pressure Gauge, Manual
Release Valve, Feed Line and Steam Line.
Dropwise Condenser:
MOC: Copper with chrome plating
Dimensions: ID (di)
=
16 mm
OD (do)
=
19 mm
Length (L)
=
170 mm
Filmwise Condenser:
MOC: Copper with Natural finish
Dimensions:
ID (di)
=
16 mm
OD (do)
=
19 mm
Length (L)
=
170 mm
Temperature Indicator with Selector Switch measures the Temperature of :
T1
Steam Chamber Temp.
T2
Cooling Water Inet to dropwise condenser
T3
Cooling Water Inet to filmwise condenser
T4
Dropwise Condenser outlet Temp
T5
Filmwise Condenser outlet Temp
T6
Dropwise condensation surface Temp
T7
Filmwise condensation surface Temp
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
5. EXPEIRMENTAL PROCEDURE
Fill the steam generator with about 10 15 liter of water (preferably soft).
Connect supply socket to the mains and switch on the heater.
Switch on the heater while keeping the steam line and feed line valves in closed position.
Adjust the temperature of the steam near to the 105 110 OC.
Allow the steam generation to take place.
This may take 30 40 minutes depending on the initial temperature of the feed water.
The pressure of the generated steam will be indicated on the pressure gauge. Note down
the Pressure reading of the steam inlet.
h) Now select the condenser to be tested first and open the ball valve of the same for cooling
water supply.
i) Now start the supply of cooling water in the selected condenser (Dropwise or Filmwise)
j) Depending upon the type of condenser under test Dropwise or Filmwise condensation can
be visualized.
k) If water flow rate is low than steam pressure in chamber will rise and pressure gauge will
read the pressure.
l) If the water flow rate is matched than condensation will occur at more or less at
atmospheric pressure.
m) Process of Dropwise and Filmwise condensation can be easily viewed through the front
glass window of main unit.
n) Note down the inlet temperature of the cooling water, Outlet Cooling water Temperature
as indicated by the DTI.
o) Slowly open the steam line valve and allow the steam to enter the steam chamber.
p) Observe the condensation phenomena and also note down the condenser temperature,
steam inlet temperature.
q) Measure and note the cooling water flow rate through Rotameter provided.
r) Repeat the above procedure for the second type of condenser.
s) Use the wiper provided if the fog/ mist restricts the visualization of the glass vessel
t) At the time of steady state ,the outlet temperature of the water flow inside the tube
becomes constant.
PRECAUTIONS:
a) Do not start heater supply unless water is filled in the test unit.
b) Operate gently the selector switch of temperature indicator to read various temperatures.
c) Increase the temperature gradually of the heater during initial set-up experimentation.
d) Never use the heater at full wattage for longer period of time.
e) Use the proper range of Rotameter.
f) Operate the change over switch of temperature indicator gently from one position to
other, i.e. from 1 to 4 position
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
6. Observations:
Filmwise Condensation:
Cooling Water Flow Rate (mw):
LPM
Temperature:
T1
Steam Temp:
T3
Cooling Water In Filmwise Condenser:
T7
Filmwise Condenser Surface Temp:
T5
Cooling water outlet from film wise condensation
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Dropwise Condensation:
Cooling Water Flow Rate (mw):
LPM
Temperature:
T1
Steam Temp:
T2
Cooling Water in Drop wise Condenser:
T6
Drop wise Condenser Surface Temp:
T4
Cooling water outlet from drop wise condensation surface
Calculations:
Normally steam will not be pressurized, but the pressure gauge reads some pressure than
properties of steam should be taken at that pressure or otherwise atmospheric pressure will be
taken.
First calculate the heat transfer coefficient inside the condenser under test.
For this properties of water are taken at bulk mean temperature of water
i.e. for dropwise condensation mean temp =
(T2 + T4) / 2.
Film-wise condensation mean temp
=
(T3+T5)/2
Following properties are required:
Density of water kg / m3
Kinematic Viscosity m2/ sec
Thermal Conductivity k kcal / hr m C
Prandtl Number Pr
Reynolds Number NRe = v di /
Where
v = (mw*4/ * di2) = ( Flow rate/Area)
di = Inner Diameter of Condenser
If this value of NRe > 2100 then flow is turbulent, below this value flow is laminar.
Normally flow will be turbulent in the tube.
Nusselt Number NuD = 0.023 (ReD)0.8 (Pr)0.4
Inside heat transfer coefficient ( hi ) = NuD * k/ di kcal / hr m2 C
Calculate heat transfer coefficient on outer surface of the condenser HO:
For this properties of water are taken at bulk mean temperature of condensate
(Ts + Tw) / 2.
Density of water kg / m3
Kinematic Viscosity m2/ sec
Thermal Conductivity k kcal / hr m C
Prandtl Number Pr
Reynolds Number NRe = v di /
Where, Ts Temperature of steam,
T6-7 Temperature of condenser wall (DROPWISE AND FILMWISE)
do outside diameter of condenser
1. ho = 0.725 * 2 * g * k3 / ( Ts - Tw) * do
From these values overall heat transfer coefficient (U) can be calculated,
1/ U = 1 / hi + (di / do) (1 / ho)
U=
kcal / hr m2 C
The same procedure can be repeated for another condenser.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Except for some exceptional cases overall heat transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation
will be higher than that of filmwise condensation. Results may vary from theory to some
degree due to unavoidable heat losses from the glass tube walls.
7. Result:
GIVEN DATA:
First calculate the heat transfer coefficient inside the condenser under test. For this properties
of water are taken at bulk mean temperature of water
i.e. (T2 + T4) / 2. Following properties are required:
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AT WATER MEAN TEMPERATURE
Physical Properties
Dropwise Condenser
Filmwise Condenser
99.4
Steam Temperature OC
Ts
99.3
Mean Temperature oC
Tm(T2+T4 / 2)
35
993.95
0.00073
0.00073
0.732*10-6
0.732*10-6
0.000033
0.000033
0.164
0.164
0.537
0.537
CP
0.997
0.997
Viscosity
Kg/ m s
Kinematics Viscosity
m2 / s
Cooling
Water
Flowrate LPM
Vol. Flowrate
m3/s
Velocity
m/s
Thermal Conductivity
kcal / hr m C
Specific Heat
35
993.95
Now calculate the heat transfer coefficient outside the condenser under test. For this
properties of condensate are taken at bulk mean temperature of Condenser wall and the Steam
Inlet Temperature i.e. (Tw + Ts) / 2. Following properties are required:
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AT CONDENSATE MEAN TEMPERATURE
Physical Properties
Dropwise Condenser
65
Filmwise Condenser
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Steam Temperature OC
T1
99.3
99.4
Mean Tamp
0
C
Tm
78.45
82.2
971.8
971.8
Viscosity
Kg/ m s
0.000355
0.000355
0.365*10-6
0.365*10-6
Vol. Flowrate
m3/s
0.000033
Velocity
m/s
0.164
Thermal Conductivity
kcal / hr m C
0.579
CP
0.997
Kinematics
m2 / s
Cooling
Flowrate LPM
Specific Heat
Viscosity
Water
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
THEORY:
When the temperature at any given point in a system changes with time, the heat transfer is at
unsteady state. The phenomenon of unsteady state heat transfer is widely utilized in industrial
processes, such as the cooling of metal ball bearings. The calculation of heat transfer
coefficients makes it possible, among other things, to predict the amount of time a system
takes to reach steady state conditions.
In this experiment, we want to use a lumped capacity analysis to simplify our
calculations, in which only the effects of convection are significant. This occurs when the
internal resistance is negligible, and the Biot Number, Bi, is less than 0.1 as described in
Equation (1).1
Bi
hx
k
(1)
where k is the thermal conductivity and x is a characteristic dimension of the body obtained
from the volume to area ratio.
T T
T0 T
h
t
xC p
(1*)
V
A
(2*)
V is the volume of the cylinder and A is the surface area. For a long cylinder this becomes:
x
r
2
(3*)
ln
T T
2h
t
rC p
T0 T
(4*)
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
ln
T T
2h
t
rC p
T0 T
(2)
where Cp is the heat capacity and is the density of the material. T is the temperature of a
large bath, T is the center temperature of the cylinder at time, t, and T0 is the initial center
temperature.
This lumped sum model makes several approximations, including that of an infinite
tank. As discussed in previous reports, this approximation is not valid for the tank in the
Rothfus lab using materials with high internal resistance, such as Plexiglas. However, using
materials with low internal resistance such as those in this experiment, the lumped sum model
is a close approximation. In addition to the approximation of an infinite bath, the h value is
the average value over the entire surface of the cylinder. This introduces a problem of
conduction through the ends of the cylinder, which must be accounted for by using an
appropriate length (L) to diameter (D) ratio2:
L
(3)
2
D
Using Plexiglas end caps helps to eliminate heat flow through the ends of the cylinders,
making the infinite cylinder approximation more accurate. Using various L/D ratios, it is
possible to test the accuracy of this assumption, which is addressed in this experiment.
(4)
where NPr is the Prandtl number which is constant for this experiment.
The variables C and m are constants based on the Reynolds number. From all previous
reports using similar cylinders, the Reynolds number was found to be within the range of 4 x
103 to 4 x 104 corresponding to C=0.683 and m=0.6183.
N Re
Dv
(5)
where v, , and are properties of water which are constant throughout the experiment.
N Nu
hD
k
(6)
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
where k is the thermal conductivity of water, and D is the diameter of the cylinder. From
these equations it can be seen that h will decrease with increased diameter.
h
C1
D 0.382
(7)
where C1 is a proportionality constant. This relationship will hold true for infinite cylinders,
but with increasing diameter and constant, finite length, the end effects will become more
apparent, and therefore the Biot number will increase.
While equation (6) contains a relation between the k value of the surrounding water
and the convective heat transfer coefficient, it does not indicate any relationship between the
h value and the thermal conductivity of the material itself. In fact, this equation would imply
that the material has no affect on the heat transfer coefficient, as long as the lumped sum
approximation has been justified, meaning the internal resistance is relatively low. However,
in previous experiments it has been noted that the heat transfer coefficient varies with
changing material properties.4
When the effects of internal resistance are not negligible, the lumped-sum analysis
described above is invalid, and Heisler charts must be used to calculate the convective heat
transfer coefficients. To use these charts, dimensionless numbers are calculated and applied
to a chart with data for objects of varying geometry. In this case, we will use the following
described values and apply them to a Heisler chart (see figure A 4.1 below) to determine the
heat transfer coefficient of a long cylinder.5
X t
x2
1
Y
T T
T T0
m
n
(8)
(9)
k
hx
(10)
x
x1
(11)
k
Cp
(12)
X is a dimensionless number which accounts for the effects of the shape and material, where
k is the solid thermal conductivity, and x1 is the radius of the cylinder. Y is a dimensionless
temperature constant, m is the inverse of the Biot number, relating conductive effects and
convective effects, and n is a relative radius, in which x is the location of the thermocouple.
The results gathered from Heisler charts will be accurate even with significant internal
resistance and are recommended anytime the Biot number is greater than 0.1.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Experimental setup:
In this experiment, the effects of material selection and radius on the heat transfer coefficient,
h, of a solid cylinder were measured.
For this experiment the materials were ordered and were prepared by cutting the appropriate
material into its desired length. Then Sphere & Cylinder were drilled in the centre to a depth
that corresponded to half its length (See Figure A2.1 for an example of how this was done).
A Type J, iron/ constantan, thermocouple was glued into the centre of each cylinder using an
epoxy with a high thermal conductivity. This particular epoxy was chosen because it would
not have any affect on the temperature readings that were obtained from the thermocouple.
In essence, the presence of the epoxy could be ignored. (For more accurate results, the ends
of the cylinders would be sealed with Plexiglas end caps and a two-part epoxy. The epoxy
and Plexiglas acted as an insulator to prevent heat loss from the ends of the cylinders.)
The apparatus consist of a 20 litre SS 304 tank equipped with 1.5 kW heater and a drain
valve. The tank is well insulated from outside to prevent heat losses to the surroundings. The
temperature of the fluid inside the tank can be controlled by the regulator provided on the
tank and is measured using the digital temperature indicator. Two shapes of known geometry
and metals are provided with thermocouples to study the unsteady state heat transfer.
T1
Hot Oil/ Water Bath Temperature
T2
Mild Steel Sphere
T3
Copper Cylinder
Test Body Shape 1:
Geometry
MOC
= Cylinder
= Copper
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Diameter
= 50 mm
Length
= 150 mm
Density ()
= 8900 kg/m3
Specific Heat (Cp)
= 0.38 kJ/ kg oC
Test Body Shape 2:
Geometry
MOC
Diameter
Density ()
Specific Heat (Cp)
= Sphere
= Mild Steel
= 50 mm
=
=
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3.
Schematic diagram:
Stirrer
Reference
Thermocouple
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VI.
After the temperature reaches the steady state take the body out of the heating
tank and note down the unsteady state temperature response of the body while
cooling .Or dip the body into the cold water bath and note down the unsteady
state temperature response (T) for a regular time interval for cooling.
Time
(sec)
(t)
Temperature
Response
(C)
T = T3
Unit
Surface
(T - Ta/
Biot
Conductance
Ti Ta)
Number
2 o
(w/ m * C)
h
Bi
Fourier
Number
Fo
GRAPHS: Plot [(T-Ta)/ (Ti-Ta)] vs. t for heating as well as cooling cycle.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Body Shape
Diameter
Volume
Surface Area
Thermal Conductivity
Density
Specific Heat
Cycle
Surrounding Temperature (Ta)
Initial body Temperature (Ti)
Sr.
No.
Time
(sec)
(t)
Temperature
Response
(C)
T = T3
: MS Sphere
: 50 MM
:2.9437 * 10-4 MM2
:0.0235 M
: 206 w/m.k
:8900 kg/m3
: 0.38 kJ/ kg oC
: Heating / Cooling
:
C
:
C
Unit
Surface
(T - Ta/
Biot
Conductance
Ti Ta)
Number
(w/ m2* oC)
h
Bi
73
Fourier
Number
Fo
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
GRAPHS: Plot [(T-Ta)/ (Ti-Ta)] vs. t for heating as well as cooling cycle.
SAMPLE CALCULATION:
Sample calculation of h using lumped-sum model
(For Aluminium D=0.05 M, L=0.150 M)
First, obtain the equation of the line.where x=(v/As),X=
Next, use the slope of that equation in the following equation:
h slope
r Cp
2
X
Y
x2
1
T T
T T0
k
m
h x1
Using the Heisler chart, find the point, which corresponds to a value for m. Rearranging the
equation for m yields the following:
m x1
h = 1335
W in
m2 K
D = 3.0 in.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
C1
D0.382
Therefore, C1 = 2031
(equation (9))
W in
m2 K
L/D trials:
Radius Trials:
copper1
copper2
copper3
AVERAGE
stdev
2136.796
2042.045
1979.967
2052.936
78.97970765
L=6 in. 1
1943.6467
1474
L=6 in. 2
1919.0046
1622
L=6 in. 3
1885.1217
1622
AVERAGE 1915.924333
1573
stdev
29.38383805 85.44783984
D=1.5 in 1
D=1.5 in 2
D=1.5 in 3
AVERAGE
stdev
brass1
brass2
brass3
AVERAGE
stdev
1809.447
1365
1753.195
1365
1906.326
1560
1822.989333
1430
77.45851718 112.5833025
L=7.5 in. 1
2008.3322
1622
L=7.5 in. 2
1959.048
1707
L=7.5 in. 3
1949.8072
1622
AVERAGE
1972.3958
1650
stdev
31.46294217 49.07477288
D=2 in 1
1697.273
D=2 in 2
1152.051
D=2 in 3
1497.05
AVERAGE 1448.791333
stdev
275.7959962
aluminum1
aluminum2
aluminum3
AVERAGE
stdev
1266.024
1520.152
1240.691
1342.289
154.5537942
L=9 in. 1
1774.232
L=9 in. 2
1811.1953
L=9 in. 3
1801.9545
AVERAGE 1795.793933
stdev
19.23631521
D=2.5 in 1
1478.568
1298
D=2.5 in 2
1259.093
1442
D=2.5 in 3
1517.072
1442
AVERAGE 1418.244333
1394
stdev
139.1671645 83.13843876
1622
1622
1622
1622
0
1266.024
1520.152
1240.691
1342.289
154.5537942
D=3 in 1
1270.644
1298
D=3 in 2
1270.644
1298
D=3 in 3
1464.706
1442
AVERAGE 1335.331333
1346
stdev
112.0417479 83.13843876
6.
Results
7.
Discussion
8.
Conclusion
9.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Wait till steady state is achieved.
2. Use stabilized power supply.
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= 16.86 W/ m.K
= 0.73 m
= 0.265 m
= 0.11m
= 5.115 m
984.1 Kg/cm3
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
4187 J/Kg.K
Viscosity of water
T2
( C)
T2
( C)
T3
( C)
T5
( C)
T4
( C)
T6
( C)
6.3 Calculations:
6.3.1 Experimental Value calculations:
For hot water in coil:
Heat Gained by the Cooling Water (Q)
= mw Cp (T4 T3)/60
= .................J/ sec
= Uexpt Acoil [ T2 - ( T3 + T4 ) / 2 ]
= mw Cp (T6 T5)/60
= .................. J/ sec
= Uexpt Ajacket [ T2 - ( T5 + T6) / 2 ]
Calculate the value of Uexpt from the above equations for both jacket and coil.
Where,
QC = Cold water flow rate, LPM.
QH = Hot water flow rate, LPM.
T1 = Bulk water inlet temperature of vessel.
T2 = Bulk water outlet temperature of vessel.
T3 = Coil inlet temperature, oC.
T4 = Coil outlet temperature, oC.
T5 = Jacket inlet temperature, oC.
T6 = Jacket outlet temperature, oC.
Ajacket = 0.11 m2
7. Results & Conclusions
Experimental heat transfer coefficients for hot water flow through coil are _______ W/m2 C
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Experimental heat transfer coefficients for hot water flow through jacket are _______ W/m2
C
8. PRECAUTIONS:
Make sure during the test period Hot Water Tank should not be emptied totally and the heater
must not be exposed to air if the Heater is ON, otherwise it will be damaged.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Observe the inlet and outlet temperature of both cold and hot water streams and note
down them after they achieve steady state.
Also note down the Flow rates of hot water and cold water with the help of
Rotameters.
Repeat the above procedure either by changing the Flow rates or by changing the
inlet temperature of the hot water.
Inlet
Flow Rate
Temp.
mh
T1
LPM
(C)
Flow Rate
mc
LPM
Outlet
Temp.
T2
(C)
Inlet
Temp.
T3
(C)
mH = mh * / 60
=____________ kg/ s
mC = mc * / 60
= ___________ kg/ s
Q = (QH + QC) / 2
= ____________ W
A = * do * L
= ____________ m2
LMTD
--------------------------------
ln ( ( T1 T3 ) / ( T2 T4 ) )
= _____________ 0C
Overall Heat transfer coefficient can be calculated using,
81
Outlet
Temp.
T4
(C)
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
U = Q / (A * LMTD)
= ____________ W/ m2 C
6. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS:
FOR PARALLEL FLOW
OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT = ---------------- W/ m2.C
7. PRECAUTIONS:
Make sure during the test period Hot Water Tank should not be emptied totally and the
heater must not be exposed to air if the Heater is ON, otherwise it will be damaged.
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4. Calculation
Assumption
Steady state conditions exist.
Fluid properties remain constant and are evaluated at a temperature of fluid.
Nomenclature
T refers to the temperature of the warmer fluid.
t refers to the temperature of the cooler fluid.
w subscript refers to the warmer fluid.
h subscript refers to hydraulic diameter
c subscript refers to the cooler fluid.
a subscript refers to the annular flow area or dimension.
p subscript refers to the tubular flow area or dimension.
1 subscript refers to an inlet condition.
2 subscript refers to an outlet condition.
e subscript refers to equivalent diameter.
Fluid Properties
Counter current:
Flow rate Flow rate
mh
S.no
mc
(Kg/m)
(Kg/m)
Hot water in
(C)
85
Cold water in
(C)
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Co-current:
Tubing Sizes
IDa =
IDp =
ODp =
Flow Area
Flow rate
Flow rate
mh
S.no
mc
(Kg/m)
(Kg/m)
Hot water in
(C)
Cold water in
(C)
E
EXPERIMENT NO. 9 (b)
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
3. Theory
Heat Exchanger is device in which heat is transferred from one fluid to another. The
necessity for doing this arises in a multitude of industrial applications. Common examples of
heat exchangers are the radiator of a car, the condenser at the back of a domestic refrigerator
and the steam boiler of a thermal power plant.
Heat Exchangers are classified in three categories:
1) Transfer Type.
2) Storage Type.
3) Direct Contact Type.
A transfer type of heat exchanger is one on which both fluids pass simultaneously through the
device and heat is transferred through separating walls. In practice, most of the heat
exchangers used are transfer type ones.
Shell and tube heat exchangers are the most widely used in chemical process industries. A
shell and tube exchanger consists of a bundle of tubes enclosed in a cylindrical shell. The
ends of the tubes are fitted into tube sheets, which separate the shell-side and tube-side fluids.
Baffles are provided in the shell to direct the fluid flow and support the tubes. The tubes are
arranged in triangular or square pitch. One fluid flows inside the tube and is called the tube
side fluid, the other fluid flows outside the tubes and is called the shell side fluid.
The shell and tube heat exchangers are further classified according to flow arrangement as 1. Single Pass
2. Multiple Pass
The simplest shell and tube heat exchanger is 1-1 heat exchanger (one shell pass and one tube
pass), the other types are 1-2 heat exchangers and 2-4 heat exchanger.
The transfer of heat from the hot fluid to the wall or tube surface is accompanied by
convection through the tube wall or plate by conduction, and then by convection to the cold
fluid. The flow arrangement in a shell and tube heat exchanger could either be co-current or
countercurrent. The heat transfer coefficients outside the tube bundles are referred as shell
side coefficients. Baffles also increase the convection coefficient of the shell side fluid by
inducing turbulence and a cross flow velocity component.
Any heat exchanger design requires rigorous analysis. One of the most essential parts of the
heat exchanger analysis is determination of the overall heat transfer coefficient. The overall
heat transfer coefficient is defined in terms of the total thermal resistance to heat transfer
between two fluids.
The heat lost by the hot fluid can be calculated
=
Heat Transfer rate to the hot water.
qh
q h m h C Ph Thi Tho KCal/hr
Heat taken by the cold fluid can also be calculated
qc
=
Heat Transfer rate to the cold water.
q c m c CPc Tco Tci KCal/hr
Qavg
Uo
qc q h
2
Qavg
Ao Tm
4. Experimental setup
4.1. DESCRIPTION
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
The apparatus consists of 1-2 Pass Shell and Tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid is hot
water, which is attained from an insulating water bath using a magnetic drive pump and it
flow through the inner tube while the cold water flowing through the annuals. For flow
measurement rotameters are provided at inlet of cold water and outlet of hot water line.
The hot water bath is of recycled type with Digital Temperature Controller 0 to 100 oC.
4.2. REQUIREMENTS
Water supply 20 lit/min (approx.), Drain, Electricity Supply: 1 Phase, 220 V AC, and 4 kW,
Floor area of 1.5 m x 0.75 m
4.3. SPECIFICATIONS
1. Shell
Material
=
S.S.
Dia.
=
220 mm
Length
=
500 mm
25% cut baffles at 100 mm distance 4 Nos.
2. Tube
Material
=
S.S
OD
=
16 mm
ID
=
13 mm
Length of tubes
=
500 mm
Nos. of tubes
=
24
3. Temperature Controller =
Digital 0 199.9oC
4. Temperature Sensors
=
RTD PT-100 type (5 nos.)
5. Temperature Indicator
=
Digital 0 to 200oC with multi-channel switch.
6. Electric Heater
=
230 V AC 2 kW (2 Nos.)
7. Flow measurement
=
Rotameter (2 No.)
8. Water Bath
=
Material: SS insulated with ceramic wool and powder
coated MS outer Shell fitted with heating elements.
9. Pump
=
FHP magnetic drive pump (max. operating temp
85oC).
5. Experimental procedure:
Starting Procedure:
1. Clean the apparatus and make Water Bath free from Dust.
2. Close all the drain valves provided.
3. Fill Water Bath with Clean Water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
4. Connect Cold water supply to the inlet of Cold water Rotameter Line.
5. Connect Outlet of Cold water from Shell to Drain.
6. Ensure that all On/Off Switches given on the Panel are at OFF position.
7. Now switch on the Main Power Supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz).
8. Switch on Heater by operating Rotary Switch given on the Panel.
9. Set Temperature of the Water Bath with the help of Digital Temperature Controller.
10.
Open Flow Control Valve and By-Pass Valve for Hot Water Supply.
11.
Switch on Magnetic Pump for Hot Water supply.
12.
Adjust Hot water flow rate with the help of Flow Control Valve and Rotameter.
13.
Record the temperatures of Hot and Cold water Inlet & Outlet when steady state is
achieved.
Closing Procedure:
1. When experiment is over, Switch off heater first.
2. Switch of Magnetic Pump for Hot Water supply.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
=
=
Thi C
Tho C
3.187 x 10-3 m2
4.827 x 10-3 m2
Tci oC
Tco oC
CALCULATIONS:
1. Rate of heat transfer from hot water,
Qh M h C ph Thi Tho , Watt
2. Rate of heat transfer to cold water,
Qc M c C pc Tco Tci , Watt
3. Average heat transfer,
Q Qc
Q h
, Watt
2
4. LMTD,
T T1
Tm 2
T
ln 2
T1
Where:
T1 =
Thi - TCi (for parallel flow)
=
Thi - TCo (for counter flow)
and
T2 =
Tho - TCo (for parallel flow)
=
Tho- TCi (for counter flow)
Note that in a special case of Counter Flow Exchanger exists when the heat capacity rates
Cc & Ch are equal, then Th i - Tc o = T h o - T c i thereby making Ti =
To . In this case
LMTD is of the form 0/0 and so undefined. But it is obvious that since T is constant
throughout the exchanger, hence
Tm =
Ti
=
To
(acc. to ref. Fundamental of Engineering Heat & Mass Transfer by R.C. Sachdeva, Pg. 499)
5. Overall heat transfer coefficient,
Q
, W/m2-OC
Ui
Ai FTm
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Q
, W/m2-OC
AO FTm
Heat Transfer rate, is calculated as
Qh
=
-------- W
Qc
=
-------- W
Qh Qc
Q
=
W
2
(Assume Cph = Cpc = 4.176 J /kg- C)
LMTD - logarithmic mean temperature difference that can be calculated as per the following
formula:
Ti To
LMTD
=
Tm =
lnTi To
UO
Where
Ti
=
T h i - T c i (for parallel flow)
=
T h i - Tc o (for counter flow)
and
To =
T ho -T c o (for parallel flow)
=
T ho - T c i (for counter flow)
Note that in a special case of Counter Flow Exchanger exists when the heat capacity rates C c
& Ch are equal, then Th i - Tc o = T h o - T c i thereby making Ti = To. In this case, LMTD is
of the form 0/0 and so undefined. But it is obvious that since T is constant throughout the
exchanger, hence
Tm = Ti = To
Overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated by using.
Q =
U ATm
Ui =
Q/(Ai Tm) W/m C
Uo =
Q/(Ao Tm) W/m C
NOMENCLATURE:
Mc
=
Cold water flow rate, Kg/s
Mh
=
Hot water flow rate, Kg/s
Tci
=
Cold water inlet temp.
Thi
=
Hot water inlet temp.
Tco
=
Cold water outlet temp.
Tho
=
Hot water outlet temp.
Tc
=
Mean temp. of cold water
Th
=
Mean temp. of hot water ,
c
=
Density of Cold fluid, kg/m3
Cpc
=
Specific heat of cold fluid, J/kg-C
pc
=
Thermal Conductivity of cold fluid, W/mC
h
=
Density of Hot fluid, kg/m3
Cph
=
Specific heat of Hot fluid, J/kg oC
Ph
=
Thermal Conductivity of Hot fluid, W/mC
Qh
=
Heat lost by hot water, W
Qc
=
Heat gained by cold water, W
Q
=
Average heat transfer, W
LMTD
=
Logarithm mean temp. difference
A
=
Area of Heat Transfer, m2
Do
=
Outer dia of S.S tube, m
L
=
length of the tube, m
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and carrying bar provide support for the plate pack and the follower runs along these bars.
The clamping bolts secure the stacked structure.
Fig 3 above shows the two main types of plates. The first employs the intermitting
corrugations. These corrugations are at right angles with the fluid flows. The fluid goes down
the plate and hits the corrugation line, runs to the other end of the plate, and goes down
through the slit at the end of the line, after which, the fluid hits another corrugation plate and
continues this pattern throughout the plate. The maximum gap size between the corrugations
is 3 to 5 mm maximum. With this style of plate, turbulence in the flow is increased by
constantly hitting the plate. The size of the corrugation gaps is directly proportional to the
amount of turbulent increase in the fluid.
The chevron corrugations are slanted downward at an angle of beta. The fluid flows steadily
down the plate crisscrossing back forth. The plate in FIG 3(b) has the troughs going in the
opposite direction for the other fluids. This maximizes the crossing points of the two fluids,
thus, increasing the heat transfer. If the angle is about 80 degrees, the heat transfer increases
due to the swirling flow of the two fluids in opposite directions in opposing plates.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Flexibility in the efficiency: The number of plates can be adjusted for more or less
heat transfer
Compactness: The numerous amounts of little corrugations increase the surface area
for heat transfer in a small volume.
Low Cost: The plates are inexpensive and easy to produce
Less Corrosion: the plates are typically made of stainless steel
Low Maintenance: very easy to clean
Temperature Control: can maintain a relatively low temperature difference in fluid
because of the small diameters inside the corrugations.
High thermal efficiency
Reduced Liquid Volume: due to narrow flow channels
Due to their efficiency, they can be selected to use less coolant
3.2. Disadvantages:
Temperature and Pressure Limitations: Temperature cannot go above 250 degrees
Celsius and pressure cannot go exceed 25 atmospheres.
Leakage: Corrosive materials can cause leakage
Pressure Increase: The small diameter of the corrugations can cause a heavy
increase in the pressure, so pumping costs must to taken into account.
3.3. Applications:
Some Plate Heat Exchangers are designed specifically for use in the food, dairy and brewing
industries. A major feature of Plate and frame heat exchangers used for this process is a
sanitary plate designed to achieve optimum distribution of the product over the entire plate
surface. These liquid food plants are designed for the concentration of malt, beer, yeast, fruit
juices, pulp and other liquid food products to remove water and stabilize enzymes, prior to
product storage.
The Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger, can also be used in the cooling and heating of fibrous
materials, such as, fruit juices and fluids containing pulp, fruit purees, turbid fruit juices,
dairy mixes, citrus pulp, and highly viscous liquids.
The unique capabilities of the PHE makes it suitable for a wide range of applications that
extend beyond refrigeration such as: refrigerant evaporating & condensing, heat pumps,
steam heating, engine or hydraulic oil cooling, swimming pool heating, and heat recovery for
industrial applications e.g. waste water, dye works, paper manufacture etc.
When choosing a heat exchanger, the design engineer has to take into account many factors.
Some of these factors include, fluid characteristics, operating pressure, operating temperature
and the range of possible flow rates.
4. Experimental Setup:
The miniature exchanger supplied for the Lab project consists of a pack of 11 plates, 9 of
which have water on both sides that contributes to heat transfer. The plates have sealing
gaskets and are held together in a frame between a fixed end plate and moving end plate. Two
nuts/bolts passing through the end plates compress the plates and gaskets together. Hot and
cold fluids flow between channels on alternate sides of the plates to promote heat transfer.
The plate heat exchanger with 11 plates is configured for 5 passes in series. Although the
overall flow arrangement may be either countercurrent or Co-current, the flow arrangements
on either side of each individual plate alternates between countercurrent and Co-current
patterns.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Each end plate of the heat exchanger incorporates tapings for the hot and cold fluids to
enter/leave the exchanger, and thermocouples in each of the tapings allow the temperatures of
the fluids to be measured. The four type K thermocouple temperature sensors are labeled T1
to T4 for identification and each lead is terminated with a miniature thermocouple plug for
connection to the appropriate socket on the service unit. Flexible tubing attached to each fluid
inlet/outlet is terminated with a ferrule to allow rapid connection to the appropriate quick
release fittings on the HT30X service unit.
In normal countercurrent operation the flexible connections are hot water inlet adjacent to
temperature sensor T1, hot water outlet adjacent to temperature sensor T2, cold-water inlet
adjacent to temperature sensor T3, and cold-water outlet adjacent to temperature sensor T4.
The pattern of holes in the plates and the shape of the gaskets determine the direction of low
through the exchanger. The pates are made of SS-316 and incorporate a locating groove for
the gasket. Each plate has a pressed chevron pattern to promote turbulence and provide
multiple support points. As a result of the turbulence promoters, which cause flow separation
around protuberances, turbulent-like behavior can begin at Reynolds numbers as low as
several hundred, thereby enhancing heat transfer performance.
Silicone rubber gasket on each plate ensures that the adjacent flow channels are sealed from
each other.
5. Experimental Procedure:
1. Fill the thermic fluid tank with about 75 liter of thermic fluid (say water - here).
2. Switch on the immersion type heater (6 kW) provided in the thermic fluid tank and heat
the thermic fluid to the desired temperature (about 50-60 C). Intermittently switch ON
the pump with bypass line valve fully open and supply valve fully closed to ensure
through mixing of thermic fluid in the tank to ensure uniform temperature.
3. After achieving the desired temperature of thermic fluid in the thermic fluid tank, switch
ON the pump (0.5 HP) and allow the hot thermic fluid to flow through plates and adjust
the flow rate to the desired value using the valve for about five minutes. Recycle the exit
of the hot thermic fluid to the thermic fluid tank.
4. Start the cold water supply into plates and adjust the flow rate to the desired value.
5. Monitor the hot thermic fluid inlet temperature and maintain it at the constant value by
switching the heater either on/ off with the help of thermostat provided on the control
panel of the tank.
6. Observe the inlet and outlet temperature of both cold water and hot thermic fluid streams
and note down them after they achieve steady state.
7. Also note down the flow rates of hot thermic fluid and cold water with the help of
Rotameters.
8. Repeat the above procedure either by changing the flow rates or by changing the inlet
temperature of the hot thermic fluid.
6. Observations:
S. No.
Hot Water
Flow rate
mh
(LPM)
Cold Water
Inlet
Temp
T1
(C)
Outlet
Temp
T2
(C)
96
Flow rate
mc
(LPM)
Inlet
Temp.
T3
(C)
Outlet
Temp.
T4
(C)
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
7. Calculations:
The actual area of heat transfer is computed using the following equation:
A = N*a = N * L * W
Where,
N= number of plates
a= projected area of a single plate
L= the length component of the projected area of the plate
W= the width component of the projected area of the plate
Flow rate of hot water in kg/ s
mH = mh * / 60
= __________ kg/ s
Heat Transferred by the Hot Water to the Cold Water
QH = mH * CpH * (T1 T2)
= ___________ W
Flow rate of cold water in kg/ s
mC = mc * / 60
= __________ kg/ s
Heat Gained by the Cold Water from the Hot Water
QC = mC * CpC * (T4 T3)
= ___________ W
True Temperature Difference
T
T11 T3 3 (T 22 T4 4)
T11 T3 3
ln
T 22 T 444
= ______________0C
Now, average heat transfer
Q = (QH + QC )/ 2
= ______________ W
Designed Overall Heat Transfer Co-efficient
Q
A * Tm
= __________ W/m2 0C
Uc =
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
1
2
3
4
5
(LPM)
2
4
6
8
4
Cold Water
Inlet
Temp
T1
(C)
41
42
47
48
48
Outlet
Temp
T2
(C)
32
36
40
44
43
Flow rate
mc
(LPM)
3
6
6
4
8
Inlet
Temp.
T3
(C)
32
34
35
38
42
The actual area of heat transfer is computed using the following equation:
A = N*a = N * L * W
Where,
N= number of plates =8
L= the length component of the projected area of the plate = 550 mm
W= the width component of the projected area of the plate = 125 mm
A = N*a = N * L * W
= 8 * 0.550 * 0.125
= 0.55 m2
Sample calculations for reading no -2:
98
Outlet
Temp.
T4
(C)
36
37
42
46
44
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
mC = mc * / 60
= 6 * 1000/(1000*60)
= 0.1 kg/sec
Heat Gained by the Cold Water from the Hot Water
QC = mC * CpC * (T4 T3)
= 0.1 * 4.187 * (37 34)
= 1.2561 W(J/SEC)
True Temperature Difference
Tlm
T1 T 4 (T 2 T 3)
T1 T 4
ln
T 2 T 3
=3/(ln 2.5)
= 3.27 0C
Now, average heat transfer
Q = (QH + QC )/ 2
= 2.9141 W
Designed Overall Heat Transfer Co-efficient
Q
A * Tm
= 2.9141/(0.55 * 3.27)
= 1.6202 W/m2 0C
Effectiveness of heat exchanger:
=MCp)cold/(MCp)min * Tcold / Thot
= Tcold / Thot
= (3734 )/ (42 36)
= 3/6 * 100
=50 %
where,
Tcold= the change in temperature of the cold fluid
Thot= the change in temperature of the hot fluid
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
9. Conclusions:
10. Precautions:
1. Make sure during the test period Hot Thermic Tank should not be emptied totally and the
heater must not be exposed to air if the Heater is ON, otherwise it will be damaged.
2. Take all observations within 5 to 10 minitues before cold water temperaturrises
significantly.
11. References:
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_heat_exchanger
2. Lawry, F.J., Plate type heat exchangers, chem. Eng., June 29, 1959, 89-94.
3. www.tv-me.com/download.php?a=apv.pdf
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
=
(b / w )0.14
For liquids
0.5
=
(Tb / Tw)
For gases (heating Tb/Tw < 1 for cooling =1, Tb /Tw>1)
For laminar flow
: (Re < 2100)
Nu
=
1.86 (Re Pr D/L )0.33
For Gz > 100
0.33
Nu
=
1.86 (Re Pr D/L )
+ 0.87 [1 + 0.015 Gr0.33]
0.14
For liquids = (b / w )
For gases = (Tb / Tw)n
For temperature ratio of 0.5 - 2, n=0, =1
For transition flow:
Nu
= 0.116 (Re0.67 - 125) Pr0..33 [1+ (D/L)0.67]
Fin Performance
Fin Effectiveness (f) is defined as the actual heat transferred by the fin divided by the heat
that ideally would be transferred if the entire fin were at base temperature.
tanh(mY)
f
=
mY
m
=
(hfPf / hfaf)1/2
=
(2hf / kf X)0.5
for rectangular fin
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
af
= 2(L + X) 2L
Fin effectiveness f is defined as the ratio of heat transferred through the fin to heat
transferred through the same bare surface having no fins.
f
=
f (surface area of fin / cross sectional area of fin)
Efficiency of the total heat transfer surface is expressed as weighted for efficiency:
(f)wtd =
f (Af /At) + Ao /At
Over all heat transfer coefficient - U,
Q
=
U A (LMTD)
4. Experimental Setup:
Fins increase heat transfer surface per unit length and reduce the size of heat exchanger
required for a given service. Fins are usually welded to the tube but may also be integrally
formed. Heat exchangers with fins are made up of copper. Consider a horizontal finned tube
(Longitudinal) double pipe heat exchanger (water to air). Water flow rate can be measured by
rotameter and air flow rate can be measured by using orifice provided.
5. Procedure:
a) Clean the apparatus and make water bath free from dust.
b) Close all the drain valves provided.
c) Fill water bath with clean water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
d) Ensure that all ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
e) Select the parallel or counter flow of air and operate the ball valves given on the air
stream line.
f) Now switch on the main power supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz).
g) Switch on heater by operating switch given on the panel.
h) Set temperature of the water bath with the help of digital temperature controller.
i) Open flow control valve for hot water supply.
j) Switch on magnetic pump for hot water supply.
k) Adjust hot water flow rate with the help of flow control valve provided before
rotameter.
l) Record the hot water flow rate with the help of rotameter and cold air flow rate with
the help of orifice-meter provided.
m) Record the temperatures of hot and cold fluid inlet & outlet when steady state is
achieved.
n) Take readings at different flow rates of hot water and cold air.
o) For second run again fix the valve position for parallel or counter flow of air stream.
p) Repeat the steps 8 to 14 of experiment for different flow rates of fluids.
q) Repeat the steps 5 to 16 for another flow of air stream into the heat exchanger.
6. Observations:
Flow arrangement
System given
Tube side fluid
Annular fluid
Inner Tube
Longitudinal Fins
Outer tube
Water Flow Measurement
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Heaters
Orifice-meter
made of Stainless steel, Double Wall, insulated
with ceramic wool
Magnetic Pump made of Polypropylene to circulate Hot
Water. Maximum working temperature is 85C.
2 kW Nichrome wire heater (1 Nos.)
Data:
Copper tube outside dia ,do
Copper tube inner dia, di
Fin length or tube length, L
Fin height, Y
Fin thickness, X
No. of fins, Nf
I D of outer shell, Ds
I D of orificemeter
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Observation Table:
Water flow rate Ww
Sr no.
Thi oC
(kg/h)
12mm
9 mm
1000 mm
12 mm
2 mm
04
42 mm
6.25mm
ThooC
TcioC
Thi
Tho
Tci
TCo
TCo
TCO TCi
2
Th i
ThO
103
C
C
TcooC
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
= 386.0 W/m-oC
= ------- oC
= 1000 kg/m3
= -------J/kgoC
= ------- W/m -oC
7. Calculations:
Total heat transfer area
At
=
At
=
2L (do + 2NFY)
=
---------- m2
Thi
Qc
=
Wc Cpc ( Tco Tci)
Qh
=
Wh Cph (Tho - Thi)
Tco
Qavg =
( Qh + Qc) /2
Logarithmic Mean Temp Difference (LMTD)
T2 T1
LMTD
=
T
ln( 2 )
0
T1
Over all Heat Transfer Coefficient
Q
U
=
AxLMTD
Use NTU method to determine the effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
For shell side fluid (air)
Cs
=
Wc Cpc
For tube side fluid (hot water)
CT
=
Wh Cph
Identify the minimum either Cmin = Cs
& Cmax = CT
Or
Cmin = CT & Cmax = Cs
Cmin =
-------Cmax =
----------C
CR
= min
C max
UA
NTU =
C min
%
For counter flow:
Effectiveness,
Tci
CR
CR
1 exp[NTU(1 C R )]
1 C R exp[NTU(1 C R )]
NTU = UA/Cmin
Tho
1 exp[NTU(1 C R )]
1 CR
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Ds
do
de
NF
X
Y
L
ANF
Qf
Cp
G
h
k
W
U
Q
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
EXPERIMENT NO. 11
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN APPARATUS
1. AIM
To find out the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
2. Objective
To study radiation heat transfer of black body.
3. Theory
All substances at all temperature (above absolute Kelvin) emit thermal radiation. Thermal
radiation is an electromagnetic wave and does not require any material medium for
propagation. All bodies can emit radiation and have also the capacity to absorb all of a part
of the radiation coming from the surrounding towards it.
The most commonly used law of thermal radiation is the Stefan Boltzmann law which states
that thermal radiation heat flux or emissive power of a black surface is proportional to the
fourth power of absolute temperature of the surface and is given by,
The constant of proportionally is called the Stefan Boltzmann constant and has the value of
5.67 x 10-8 W/m K4. The Stefan Boltzmann law can be derived by integrating the Plancks
law over the entire spectrum of wavelength from 0 to infinity. The objective of this
experimental set up is to measure the value of this constant fairly closely, by an easy
experimental arrangement.
4. Experimental Description
The apparatus is centered on a flanged copper hemisphere B fixed on a flat non-conducting
plate A. The outer surface of B is enclosed in a metal water jacket used to heat B to some
suitable constant temperature.
One RTD PT-100 type temperature sensor is attached to the inner wall of hemisphere B to
measure its temperature and to be read by a temperature indicator.
The disc D, which is mounted in an insulating Bakelite sleeve is fitted in a hole drilled in the
center of the base plate A. An RTD PT-100 temperature sensor is used to measure the
temperature of D i.e. TD. The Temperature Sensor is mounted on the disc to study the rise of
its temperature.
5. Utilities Required
Electricity Supply: 1 Phase, 220 V AC, 2 kW.
Table for set-up support
6. Experimental Procedure
a) Heat the water in the tank by the immersion heater up to a temperature of about below
90 C.
b) The disc D is removed before pouring the hot water in the jacket.
c) The hot water is poured in the water jacket.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
=
=
=
=
=
=
200 mm
250 mm.
1
1
0-199.90C
1.5 KW
The surface of B and A forming the enclosure are black to make their absorptivity to be
approximately unity. The copper surface of the disc D is also blacked.
8. Observations & Calculations
8.1 Data
Mass of water in the hemispherical tank
Specific heat of water
Area of the disc, AD
8.2 Observation Table
Time t (second)
: 5.1x10-3 kg
: 4180 J/kg K
: 3.14x10-3 m2
Temperature TD in C
5
10
15
20
25
30
8.3 Calculation
The radiation energy falling on D from the enclosure is given by
The emissivity of the disc D is taken as unity, (assuming black disc). The radiant energy disc
D is emitting into enclosure will be
Net heat input to disc D per unit time is given by subtracting both the equations,
If the disc D has a mass m and specific heat s then a short time after D is inserted in A,
107
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
In this equation
when its temperature is TD and will vary with time. It is clearly measured at time t = 0
before heat conducted from A to D begins to have any significant effect. This is obtained
from plot of temperature rise of D with respect to time and obtaining its slope at t = 0 when
temperature is TD. The temperature sensor mounted on disc is to be used for this purpose.
Note that the disc D with its sleeve is placed quickly in position and start recording the
temperature at fixed time intervals. The whole process must be completed in 30 seconds of
time. Longer disc D is left in position the greater is the probability of errors due to heat
convection from A to D.
Temperature of water
Temperature of hemispherical enclosure at A, T
Temperature of disc at the instant when it is inserted at D, TD
: ____0C
: ____ 0C
: ____ 0C
Temperature time response of the disc. Note down the temperature TD at the time interval of
5 second. Plot the graph of TD and time (in seconds).
Obtain from the graph,
Value of can be obtained by using,
Nomenclature:
AD
T
TD
m
s
=
=
=
=
=
Area of disc D.
Temperature of enclosure
Temperature of disc
mass of disc
specific heat of the disc material.
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
j) Dont switch ON the heater before filling the water into the bath.
10. Troubleshooting
1. If electric panel is not showing the input on the mains light. Check the fuse and also
check the main supply.
2. If digital temperature indicator displays 1 on the screen check the computer socket
if loose tight it.
3. If temperature of any sensor is not displayed in digital temperature indicator check the
connection and rectify that.
References
5. Holman, J.P., Heat Transfer, 8th ed., pp. 396, McGraw Hill, NY, 1976.
6. Kern, D.Q., Process Heat Transfer, 1st ed., pp. 69, 74, McGraw Hill, NY, 1965.
7. Perry, R.H., Green, D.(editors), Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6th ed., pp.
10/53, McGraw Hill, NY, 1985.
8. Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering
Vol. - 1, 5th ed., pp. 390, Asian Books ltd., ND, 1996.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
EXPERIMENT NO. 12
CROSS-CIRCULATION DRYING
1. Aim
Study of drying characteristics of porous and non-porous solids under forced draft condition
with cross flow of air.
2. Objectives
1. To determine the critical moisture content.
2. To calculate the total drying time.
3. To calculate the humidity of inlet and outlet air with respect to drying time.
3. Theory
Drying of solid generally means the removal of relatively small amounts of a liquid from the
solid material to reduce the liquid content to an acceptably low value. There are various
modes of drying a material in various types of dryers. In the present experiment, we study the
cross-circulation drying in an adiabatic or direct dryer. In this case, hot gas (air) is blown over
a bed of wet solids (brick particles wetted with water) under constant drying conditions by
maintaining the temperature, humidity and the velocity of the air across the drying surface
constant. A drying curve is then obtained by plotting drying rate against moisture content of
the solid. In drying, it is necessary to remove free moisture from the surface and also
moisture from the interior of the material. Thus there is interplay of the surface evaporation,
inter-particle and intra-particle diffusion processes during the drying of a material. This gives
rise to several distinct periods in the drying curve as the moisture content of the solid is
reduced from the high initial value to its final value, as explained below in terms of different
periods:
I0 (Initial Period): An initial period during which the drying rate may increase or decrease
rapidly from an initial value and the drying conditions are adjusting themselves to the steady
state condition, which is the next period. This period is of relatively short duration and in
some experiments may be unobservable. Therefore, this period is neglected in the
mathematical analysis of the process.
I (Constant Rate Period): An early stage of drying during which the drying rate remains at a
constant value, that is, is independent of the moisture content. During the constant rate
period, it is assumed that drying takes place from a saturated surface of the material by
diffusion of the water vapor through a stationary air film into the air stream. This period may
be absent if the initial moisture content of the solid is less than a certain minimum.
II (Falling Rate Period 1): During this period, there is insufficient water on the surface to
maintain a continuous film of water. The entire surface is no longer wetted, and wetted area
continually decreases in this first falling-rate period until the surface is completely dry.
During this period, the drying rate decreases more or less linearly with continued decrease of
water content.
III (Falling Rate Period 2): This second falling-rate period begins when it may be assumed
that the surface is dry. In this period evaporation will be taking place from within the solid
and the vapor reaches the surface by molecular diffusion through the material. The drying
rate in this zone decreases further, but generally in a non-linear fashion with the moisture
content.
The moisture content at which the drying rate falls for the first time is the first critical
moisture content, and the moisture content at which the drying rate falls for the second time
is the second critical moisture content. In case of non-porous solids, due to the absence of
intra-particle moisture and hence intra-particle diffusion, the constant-rate period is followed
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
by only one falling rate-period so that there is only one critical moisture content (see McCabe
et al., 2001, for detail).
Drying continues until equilibrium moisture content in the solid is attained. Nature of the
drying curve depends on the nature of the solid (porous or non-porous), and the temperature,
humidity and flow rate of the drying medium.
The total time of drying, tT, is determined from the following equation (the derivation is
given in McCabe et al., 2001)
tT
ms
Xc
( X 1 X c ) X c ln
ARc
X2
(1)
Where,
ms
A
Rc
X
Xc
X1
X2
X XT X
(2)
Where,
XT = total free-moisture content
X* = equilibrium free-moisture content
The equilibrium moisture content of a non-porous insoluble material is practically zero so
that the whole moisture content is free moisture.
4. Experimental Setup
4.1. Requirements
Dryer assembly, blower, beaker, water, brick particles (porous), glass beads (non-porous),
heater, physical balance, digital anemometer, thermometers (4 in number).
4.2. Schematic Diagram of Experimental Setup
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Anemometer
Measurement
space
Dryer
Wet bulb
temperature
thermometer
Dry bulb
temperature
thermometer
Inlet of air
Outlet of air
Blower
Valve
Heater
5. Experimental Procedure
1. Weigh the empty pan of the dryer.
2. Take out the pan from the dryer, and after filling it with about 250 gm of brick particles
place it back in the drying chamber. Note the weight of the pan with its contents.
3. Take out the water-cups for wet-bulb temperature (WBT) thermometer from the dryer and
keep them aside. Inject water in the water-cups using a 5 ml-pipette after every 30
minute.
4. Switch on the heater and the blower. Adjust the valve on the inlet line to give a constant
air velocity at about 4 m/s. Measure the air velocity with the digital anemometer.
5. Keep blowing the air for about 30 minutes for the system to reach a steady state, which is
indicated by an insignificant change in the weight of the filled pan. Note the dry-bulb
temperature and the weight of the pan at this state.
6. Take out the pan from the dryer and soak the brick particles in water for about 10 minutes
in a beaker. Then spread the wet brick particles over the pan uniformly. Fill the cups of
the WBT thermometers with water and wrap wet cotton around the bulb of these
thermometers.
7. Put one cup in the cup-holder and one WBT thermometer each at the inlet and outlet ports
of the dryer. Ensure that the bulb of the thermometer remains dipped in the cup.
8. Place the pan back in the drying chamber.
9. Note: Step 8 should follow step 7 with very little time gap.
10. Record the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures at the inlet and the outlet of the dryer, and
weight of the pan. These are the reading at time t = 0.
11. Record the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures at the inlet and the outlet of the dryer and
the weight of the pan, initially at intervals of about 2 minutes, and later at intervals of
about 5 minutes as the rate of drying (indicated by the rate of change of the weight of the
pan) decreases.
12. Continue the run until there is no significant change in the weight of the pan (and so the
temperatures; also the pan plus solid would weigh almost the same as the one noted in
step 5 before wetting the particles).
13. Repeat the experiment with the glass beads at the two air velocities of about 2 and 4 m/s.
6. Observations
1. Surface area of pan
2. Air velocity
3. Weight of pan, w1
= 0.0245 m2
=
=
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Time
Inlet temperature
Dry-bulb Wet-bulb
Outlet Temperature
Dry-bulb
Wet-bulb
7. Model Calculations
1. Calculate the total moisture content (XT) as (w3 w2)/(w2 - w1), and plot it with time.
2. Determine the rate of drying by finding the slope of the XT vs. t curve at different times.
(Truly speaking, in case of porous brick particles, one should find the equilibrium
moisture content and then determine the rate of drying using the free moisture content;
since it is difficult to find the equilibrium moisture content [why?], we are working with
the total moisture content).
3. Make the drying-curve by plotting rate of drying vs. moisture content.
4. Find the critical moisture content(s) and the corresponding drying rate(s) from the drying
curve.
5. Check the equilibrium moisture content of glass beads.
6. Using Eq. 1 calculate the total time of drying.
7. Compute the humidity of the air at the inlet and the outlet of the dryer at 5 minutes
interval and plot it against time at inlet and outlet.
8. Results & Discussion
(Tables, Graphs, Comparison with those reported in literature)
9. Conclusions
10. Precautions
Reference
1. Warren, L McCabe, Smith, J C , and Harriott, P, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering,
6th edition, McGraw Hill, New Delhi, India, 2000.
2. Richardson, J F, Harker, J H and Backhurst, J R, Coulson and Richardson's Chemical
Engineering, 5th edition, Vol-2, Asian Books Private Limited, New Delhi, India, 2002.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
4.1 Observations:
114
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Initial weight of saturated sodium chloride brine (20% w/w) taken = 11.6 kg
Final weight of saturated sodium chloride brine
= ------kg
Time of operation ()
= 1hr
Pressure of the steam supplied to the steam jacket (P)
= 0.5 kg/ cm2
Temperature of boiling liquid (T2)
= -------- C
Temp. of steam inlet (T1)
= --------C
Temp. of condensate (T3)
= --------C
Amount of condensate collected (w)
= ------kg
Latent heat of vaporization of steam at the given pressure from steam table ()
=-------- kcal/ kg
4.2 Calculations
1) Amount of water evaporated (m)
= (Initial wt. of satd. NaCl brine (20% w/w) taken
Final weight of satd. NaCl brine)
= -------- kg
2) Total energy given up by the steam to the brine solution (Q)
=*w
= -------kcal
3) Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U):
Q/ = U * A * (T1 T2)
Where, Q/ = heat transferred, kcal/ hr
A= area of heat transfer surface, m2
t2 = temperature of condensing steam, C
t1 = temperature of boiling liquor, C
U = ----------- Kcal / Hr m2 OC
4) Economy, kg of water evaporated per kg steam
= (m/ w)* 100
5.
Result
1) Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) =--------- Kcal / Hr m2 OC
2) Economy, kg of water evaporated per kg steam =---------
6.
Conclusion
7.
Precaution
Keep partially open the steam trap valve during the performance of an experiment for
keeping the flow of steam continuous.
Do not increase the pressure above 1.5 kg/cm2 in steam generator.
Circulate the water in pipes after completion of an experiment to avoid the chocking
of solids inside the pipeline.
Drain the water from steam generator and condensate collector after completion of an
experiment.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
116
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
A, Z
AB
P
1
RT P
PA1 PA2
B ,lm
---------- (1)
The molar flux at any instant in the gas phase
Where Z=z1-z2 = the length of the diffusion path in time t.
P
D AB
RT
1
PA1 PA2 t A,L 1 zt2 z12
M 2
PB ,lm
3. Experimental Setup
3.1 Apparatus: Arnold's cell, Thermometer, Scale
3.2 Chemicals: Acetone.
4. Experimental Procedure
a) Acetone is filled in capillary tube and air bubble, if present, is removed from the tube
carefully.
b) Note down the initial height (H0) of the acetone level in the tube.
c) The tube is placed in a water bath to maintain the constant temperature. Note down
the temperature of the water by thermometer.
d) Switch on blower, which blown air across the opening of capillary tube continuously
to remove the vapors evaporated that rises from the surface of the liquid.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
e) At regular interval of time note down the drop in the level of acetone.
f) Do necessary calculations and find out the diffusivity (D) from the equation.
g) Also calculate the diffusivity from the GILLILANDS equation (as shown below) at
the same temperature using standard data and compare the result with the
experimental one.
h) Repeat the same procedure for two-three different temperatures by increasing and
maintaining constant temperature of the water bath and calculate the diffusivity by
both the methods. State your conclusion precisely at the end.
9.
Observation Table
S.No
Temp
c
Initial ht. of
liquid (mm)
Final ht. of
liquid(mm)
Time
(sec.)
1
2
3
6. Calculation
a) Vapor pressure of acetone at given temp. (Calculate by Antoine Equation)
b) PA1 = ______ mm hg (Convert to N/m2, 1mmhg=133.2 N/m2 )
c) PB1 = P-PA1
d) PA2 = 0 ( Pure B(air) is flowing)
e) PB2 = P-PA2
PB , lm
PB 2 PB 1
P
ln B 2
PB1
f) Z1
= ____________ m , Zt =_______ m
g) Diffusivity is given by,
P 1
PA1 PA2 t A,L 1 zt2 z12
D AB
M 2
RT PB ,lm
2
= __________ m /sec
DAB
4.3 *10 T 1 / M
4
3/ 2
P * VA
1/ 3
1/ M B
1/ 2
VB
1/ 3 2
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
8. Data Given
a)
P= 1 Std.atm. = 760 mm hg = 101325 N/m2
b)
R = 8314 N.m/Kmol. K
c)
Room Temp = ______ C
d)
Density of acetone = 1540 Kg/m3
e)
Mol. of acetone
= 58 Kg/Kmol.
Antoine Constant For acetone
f)
g)
h)
A = 16.6513
B = 2940.46
C = - 35.93
9. Result
Temperature (K)
DAB
DTheo.
10. Conclusion
Observe and state the effect of Temperature on Diffusion.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
EXPERIMENT NO. 14
DIFFERENTIAL DISTILLATION
1. Aim
To verify the Raleighs equation for a differential distillation in a binary system and to
estimate relative volatility of the binary system
2. Introduction
Differential distillation is also known as simple distillation. Usually it is operated in a batch
mode. It is used to separate a liquid mixture whose components have fairly large difference in
their boiling points. In this mode of distillation a charge of liquid is placed in the still and it is
distilled off until the liquid charged is all gone or until the operation is no longer doing any
beneficial separating. In batch distillation operations, the liquid in the original charge is
constantly being depleted of its more volatile components. This mode of distillation may also
be used for analytical evaluation of boiling ranges and vaporization characteristics if mixtures
in laboratories.
3. Theory
Differential distillation refers to a batch distillation in which only one vaporization sate is
involved. Lard Rayleigh developed a mathematical equation which represents differential
distillation. The following are the major assumptions in deriving Rayleighs equation
1. Still liquid composition is uniform.
2. The distillation process is carried out slowly so that the vapour leaving the still is in
equilibrium with the liquid in still.
3. There is no entrainment of the liquid during the distillation
4. There is no condensation of the vapour evolved before it reaches the condenser.
3.1 Rayleighs equation derivation
Let L be the number of moles of the mixture at a given instant. Let x be the mole fraction of
more volatile component in liquid mixture. Let y be the mole fraction of more volatile
component in vapour that is in equilibrium with liquid that is in still. If dL is the differential
amount of liquid vaporized then by applying the material balance with respect to the more
volatile component we get
Input = Lx
(1.1)
Output = y dL
(1.2)
Accumulation = L dLx dx
(1.3)
Therefore Lx L dLx dx y dL
Neglecting dLdx , we get
y dL xdL Ldx
dL
dx
Therefore,
L y x
The boundary conditions are:
Initially, L = F and x x F ; F : moles of feed mixture
Finally, L = W and x x W ; W : moles of with drawn or bottom mixture
W
dL
L
F
xW
xF
dx
x
(1.4)
(1.5)
(1.6)
(1.7)
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
x
T
dx
F
ln
W xW y x
(1.8)
Using the vapour liquid equilibrium data for the binary mixture system, the plot is made of
1
vs x .Area under the curve between the ordinate at x F and x W gives the values of
y x
the integral on the R.H.S of Eq.(1.8). From this we obtain the value of W, the amount of with
drawn (or) bottoms, to be left to attain the given composition x W of the liquid. Alternatively,
if we want to calculate the composition of with drawn, when W is known, then L.H.S of
Eq.(1.8) can be found and value of x W adjusted to obtain the area under the curve equal to the
W .
value of ln F
ln
(1.10)
Wx W
W1 x W
Eqs.(1.8) and (1.10) are known as Rayleighs equations for differential distillation.
4. Experimental setup
The experimental setup to study differential distillation is shown in Figure P1.1. The
distillation still may be fabricated from steel with substantial thickness recommended. The
vapors of the chemical distilled are collected as distillate is shown in the Figure P1.1.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
2. Using total material balance and more volatile component balances to calculate
amount of residue (bottom),W and composition of the residue, x W
1
3. Plot
vs. and measure the area between the curve and x-axis to the left of
y x x
the ordinate x x F ,when the area = ln F/W , final x W
ln F/W
4. Calculate
Fx F
5. Using ln
Wx W
xF
dx y
W
xW
ln F
100
F1 x F
aveln
estimate ave
W1 x W
8. Presentation of results
1. Mole fraction of mole volatile component in the feed; mole fraction of more volatile
component in the distillate; mole fraction of more volatile component in the bottoms
2. Amounts of distillate and bottoms and their compositions
3. ave = average relative volatility of the system between x W and x F
4. Report % errors
5. One can also compare estimated ave value with the value obtain with the help of
y
1 y
equilibrium data. Make use the definition of as
and then calculate ave
x1 x
.
Fx F
F1 x F
aveln
estimate ave
6. Using ln
Wx W
W1 x W
y*
y*
0.0
1.9
7.21
9.66
12.38
16.61
23.37
26.08
0.0
17
38.91
43.75
47.04
50.89
54.45
55.8
32.73
39.65
50.79
51.98
57.32
67.63
74.72
89.43
58.26
61.22
65.64
65.99
68.41
73.85
78.15
89.43
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
CALIBRATION CHART
1.36
1.355
Refractive Index
1.35
1.345
1.34
1.335
1.33
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
References:
1. Max Peters, Elementary Chemical Engineering, 2nd ed, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1984, pp. 203-204.
2. V.G.Pangarkar and R.R.bhave, Mass transfer Operations: A laboratory manual in
Chemical Engineering, Chemical Engineering Education Development Centre,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Madras, 1981, pp.20-26.
3. R..E.Treybal, Mass Transfer Operations, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 3rd ed, New
York, 1984, pp. 367-370.
4. F.Molyneux, Laboratory exercises in Chemical Engineering, Leonard Hill Books,
London, 1967, p.137.
5. Chemical Engineering Laboratory Manual published by IIT Bombay, obtained on
the Webpage http://www.che.iitb.ac.in/courses/uglab/uglabs.html accessed on
25.08.2011
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
EXPERIMENT NO. 15
BATCH CRYSTALLIZATION
1. Aim
Determine the yield of crystals using agitated batch crystallizer.
2. Objective
To study the yield of crystals of Sodium Sulfate (Na2SO4) or Sodium Chloride (NaCl) from
its saturated solution using open tank type agitated batch crystallizer.
3. Theory
Crystallization is an important operation in processing as a method of both purification and of
providing crystalline materials in a desired size range. In a crystal, the constituent molecules,
ions or atoms are arranged in a regular manner with the result that the crystal shape is
independent of size and, if a crystal grows, each of the faces develops in regular manner. The
presence of impurities will, however, usually result in the formation of an irregular crystal.
Generally large regular crystals are a guarantee of the purity of the material, though a number
of pairs of materials form mixed crystals. In recent years, techniques have been developed
for growing perfect crystals, which are used in the production of semiconductor devices, laser
beams, and artificial gems.
The crystallization process consists essentially of two stages which generally proceed
simultaneously, but which can to some extent be independently controlled. The first stage is
the formation of small particles or nuclei, which must exist in the solution before
crystallization can start, and the second stage is the growth of nuclei. If the number of nuclei
can be controlled, the size of the crystals ultimately formed may be regulated, and this forms
one of the most important features of the crystallization process.
Yield of crystals: The yield of crystals produced by a given cooling may be estimated from
the concentration of the initial solution and the solubility at the final temperature, allowing
for any evaporation, by making solvent and solute balances as follows:
For the solvent, usually water, the initial solvent present is equal to the sum of the final
solvent in the mother liquor, the water of crystallization within the crystals and any water
evaporated or:
w1 = w2 + y(R-1)/ R + w1E
------------------- (i)
Where,
w1 and w2 are the initial and final masses of solvent in the liquor
y is the yield of crystals
R is the ratio (molecular weight of hydrate/ molecular weight of anhydrous salt)
And E is the ratio (mass of solvent evaporated/ mass of solvent in the initial solution)
For the solute:
w1c1 = w2c2 + y/ R
---------------------- (ii)
Where,
c1 and c2 are the initial and final concentrations of the solution in the terms of mass of
anhydrous salt per unit mass of solvent.
From equation (1):
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
---------------------- (iii)
----------------------- (iv)
------------------------ (v)
Broadly, crystallizers may be classified according to whether they are batch or continuous in
operation, and continuous crystallizers may be divided into linear and stirred types which are
referred to later. Crystallizers may also be classified according to which the super saturation
is achieved. In evaporative crystallizers conditions are approximately isothermal, and super
saturation is achieved as a result of the removal of solvent. In cooling crystallizers, super
saturation results from lowering of the temperature of the solution, and this can be effected
either by means of exchange of sensible heat or by evaporative cooling; in the latter case,
there is a small loss of solvent. Evaporative crystallization must of course be used where the
solubility shows little variation with temperature.
The simplest and cheapest type of crystallizer consists of an open tank, which can be used
either as an evaporative or as a cooling crystallizer. In small scale of batch processing, such
crystallizers are quire convenient because of their low first cost, simplicity of operation and
flexibility. They are too wasteful of labor and give too uneven product to be attractive for
large scale continuous processing
4. Experimental Set-up
The experimental setup has a 5 liter capacity jacketed vessel made of SS 304, 1.6 mm thick,
provided with a FHP variable speed std. make stirrer (Gear Motor, 150 RPM max., for better
control of stirring and revolving the stirrer at low RPM during crystallization).
5. Experimental Procedure
a) Take about 3-4 liter of water in the unit. Switch ON the power supply and pump and
start circulating the water from the tank in to the jacket at fixed value using the
rotameter. The exit water from the jacket shall be recycled back to the water supply
tank.
b) Set the temperature of the crystallizer content using the front panel of the
Temperature Indicator-Controller (TIC) to the desired value and slowly start adding
the solid to be crystallized and allow it to dissolve completely.
c) Now set the temperature value of the crystallizer on the TIC to the value
corresponding to the value at which the crystallization is to be carried out.
d) Reduce the rate of circulation of hot water in the jacket and maintain it in the range of
about 1.5-2.0 LPM and start draining the water coming out of the jacket.
e) Add the cooling water available in the laboratory at the same rate to the water supply
tank to make up the loss of water in the water supply tank and start recycling the exit
water from the jacket back to the water supply tank.
f) If ice addition is required to bring down the temperature of the Crystallizer obtained
by the cooling water alone, slowly add finely crushed ice to the water supply tank so
that the temperature of the crystallizer do not go below the set value.
g) After 10-15 minutes stop circulation of the cold water and drain the water from the
crystallizer using drain valve.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
h) Filter and then weigh the water and crystals collected. Collect the crystals from the
crystallizer. Dry them and weigh.
6. Observations and Calculations
T1 = hot water inlet temperature / cold water inlet temperature
T2= hot water outlet temperature / cold water outlet temperature
T3=sample liquid inner temperature
T4=sample liquid outlet temperature (if required)
Initial weight of water taken (w1)
Initial weight of Na2so4 added (m1)
Temperature at which dissolution takes place(t3)
Final weight of Na2so4 collected (m2)
Final Cooling Temperature
=
=
=
=
=
9. Precautions
127
gm
gm
C
gm
C
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Vapour
Pressure
Figure 1: Plot of
(101.3 - PB) Vs
PA Vs T and
T.
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Distillation Temp.
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
4. Experimental Setup
4.1 Description
The apparatus consists of simple batch distillation using steam as a source of heat. The feed
stock used is turpentine oil. Distillate is collected in a separating funnel for the formation of
organic layer and an aqueous layer. Experimental Setup is shown in Fig 3.
Cooling Water In
Cooling Water Out
Condenser
Turpentine oil In
Live
Steam
Distillate
(Turpentine Oil + Water)
Residue Out
Water In
Jacket
Steam
PG
Heater
4.2.
Requirements
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Steam supply, electricity, turpentine oil, demineralized water and separating funnel
5. Experimental Procedure
1. Charge the distillation still with 2kg of turpentine oil.
2. Adjust the jacket steam pressure to 170 kN/m2 (Pg,)/1.73 kg/cm and start the cooling
water supply to the condenser. Record the still temp. Collect the steam condensed in
the jacket.
3. When the temperature in the still reaches 2C below the distillation temp. (Td), the
jacket steam is stopped and the flow of live steam is started through the steam sparger.
4. The live steam pressure is adjusted around 150 kN/m2 (Ps) /1.52 kg/cm.
5. Weigh the steam condensed in the jacket (WS), kg.
6. Continue the distillation process for sufficient time so that about 50-70% turpentine
charged is distilled (around 1 hr).
7. Stop the steam supply and collect the distillate in the 2L separating funnel. Allow the
formation of organic layer and an aqueous layer. Separate the two phases and weigh
them, (WAD, WBD), kg.
8. Collect the residue, separate the two layers and weigh WAB, WBB (kg).
9. Stop the water supply to the condenser.
6. Observations and Calculation
Mol. Wt. of turpentine oil MA
=136.22
Normal boiling point of turpentine oil
= 160oC
Sp. heat of turpentine oil at 20C
= CpA = 1.8 kJ/kg C
Sp. heat of turpentine oil at 50C
= CpA =1.926 kJ/kg C
Sp. heat of turpentine oil at 100C
= CpA = 2.093 kJ/kg C
Latent heat of vaporization of turpentine oil, A = 74 kcal/kg = 309.84 kJ/kg
Mol. wt. of Water
= MB = 18
System Pressure, P
= 101.3 KN/m2 /1.03kg/cm
Wt. of turpentine (feed)
= 2 kg.
Distillation temp., TD
= 95 C
Wt. of Steam Condensed in jacket
= WS, kg
Steam pressure in the jacket, Pg
= 170 KN/m2
Pressure of live steam, PS
= 150 KN/m2
Steam pressure in the jacket
= 172.21 kg/m2 = Pg
Live pressure in the still
= 151.95 kg/m2 = Ps
Mass of steam condensed during pre-heating (feed change from 23oC to 95oC) WS = 410 g
Distillation time
=
Initial temperature of feed charge, TR
=
C
Observed distillation temp.,
=
C
Distillate readings (Turpentine oil + water):
Wt. of turpentine oil in distillate WAD =
Wt. of water in distillate WBD=
Residue collected (Turpentine oil + water):
Wt. of turpentine oil in residue WAB =
Wt. of water in residue WBB =
Ambient temperature Tr = 23C
Distillation time = 15 min approximately
Observed distillation temperature =
Converting Weights to moles:
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
MA
where PA is the pressure of turpentine oil and water system at 95 C from Hausbrand
diagram.
WBD / WAD in distillate =
% Recovery =
Calculation of Thermal efficiency: T
Total heat output
T = --------------------------------- x 100
Total heat input
Heat Output:
QO
= WAF (TD TR) CpA + A WAD = WS + A WAD
TR
= ambient temp
TD
= distillation temp. =92oC
Heat Input: Qi
Qi = Heat given by condensing steam in the jacket + Heat given by the condensing live steam
during distillation.
Qi = WSJ + (WBD + WBB) [S + Cp (TS TD)]
Jacket steam pressure = PJ (KN/m2)
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
J
PS
TS
Cp
PJ
J
PS
S
Cp
=
NOMENCLATURE
WAF
=
Wt. of turpentine in feed (kg)
TD
=
Distillation temp. C
TR
=
Reference temp. (Ambient temp) C
Cp
=
Specific heat of turpentine oil (kJ/kgoC)
A
=
Latent heat of evaporation of turpentine (kJ/kg)
WAD
=
Wt. of turpentine in distillate, (kg)
WS
=
Wt. of Steam Condensed in the jacket during pre-heating
or charge (kg)
=
Latent heat of steam corresponding to jacket steam
pressure P (kN/m2)
WBD
=
Wt. of water in distillate (kg)
WBB
=
Wt. of water in residue, kg
S
=
Latent heat of steam at live steam pressure PS (kN/m2)
TS
=
saturation temperature of steam at PS
Cp
=
Specific heat of steam (kJ/kgoC)
7. Results and Discussion
Vaporization efficiency=
Recovery=
Thermal efficiency=
8. Conclusion
References
1. McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., Harriott, P., Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, 7th ed.McGraw Hill, NY, 2005.
2. Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering
Vol. - 1, 5th ed., Asian Books ltd., ND, 1996.
3. Treybal, R.E., Mass Transfer Operations, 3rd ed., McGraw Hill, NY, 1981.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
3. The heating is stopped and the feed liquid is replaced by another feed mixture
(increasing gradually the amount of high boiling liquid), the liquid and vapor are once
more allowed to come to equilibrium (indicated by constant temperature) and
collecting the samples of liquid from the still and the condensate. The still liquid
being hot, should be collected in an ice cooled test tube to avoid any change in
composition due to vaporization. The above procedure should be repeated for at least
six feed compositions.
4. The samples are viewed under a high precision refractometer, and their composition
determined from the pre-determined calibration chart for CCl4 - toluene mixture,
which converts refractive index to mole fractions. This way T-x-y and x-y diagrams
can be plotted.
5. The calibration curve (nD vs. mole fraction of more volatile component, x) should be
generated at a specific temperature (say 250C) by taking different mixtures of CCl4 toluene of known molar composition and recording the refractive index of the
mixture. The samples collected should also be evaluated at the same temperature.
6. Observation & Calculation
Correlation for CCl4 Toluene system w.r.t refractive index is given by the equation
y = -27.757*x + 41.529
------------- (7)
For VLE curve data
S.No
Liquid
Mole
Vapor
Mole
Temperature
refractive
fraction
refractive fraction
(C)
index
(x)
index
(y)
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
135
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
EXPERIMENT NO. 17
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Slug flow can cause severe and sometimes dangerous vibrations in equipment because of
impact of the high-velocity slugs against bends or other fittings. Slugs may also flood
gas/liquid separation equipment.
In annular flow, liquid flows as a thin film along the pipe wall and gas flows in the core.
Some liquid is entrained as droplets in the gas core. At very high gas velocities, nearly all the
liquid is entrained as small droplets. This pattern is called spray, dispersed, or mist flow
When a liquid and gas flows through a horizontal pipe, the following types of flow may
occur.
1.
Both the phases may be in viscous region.
2.
Both the phases may be in turbulent region.
3.
One of the phases may be in turbulent region and the other in viscous region.
The type of flow of each phase is determined by the Reynolds number calculated on the basis
of superficial velocity (superficial velocity = total flow rate of single phase/ total cross
sectional area of flow)
The pressure drop in a two-phase flow is the sum of the pressure drops due to friction and
pressure drop due to acceleration. In a two phase flow, where gas is one of the phases, the
pressure drop due to acceleration is important because the gas normally flows faster than the
liquid phases and thus accelerates the liquid phase resulting in transfer of energy. The
estimation the pressure drop is not possible analytically. The most common method to
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
estimate the pressure drop for two-phase flow is the one proposed by Lockhart and Martinelli
(Page 6-26, fluid and particle dynamics, Perrys chemical engineering). In this, each phase is
considered separately and the combined effect is determined.
Lockhart and Martinelli (ibid.) correlated pressure drop data from pipes 25 mm (1 in) in
diameter or less within about 50 percent.
In general, the predictions are high for stratified, wavy, and slug flows and low for annular
flow. The correlation can be applied to pipe diameters up to about 0.1 m (4 in) with about the
same accuracy.
The pressure drop due to two-phase flow is the pressure drop of either of the two phases if it
alone were present, multiplied by a factor.
(P/Z)tp
=
YL (P/Z)L
(P/Z)tp
=
Yg (P/Z)g
where YL and Yg are the functions of dimension less parameter X defined as:
X
=
[(P/Z)L/(P/Z)g]0.5
The two-phase flow analysis can also be expressed in terms of friction factors.
By definition of pressure drop,
P/Z
=
(2fV2/(gcD))
Friction factor, f
=
(P/Z) .g. D/2*V2)
where,
v is the superficial fluid velocity, D is pipe I.D, is the fluid density and P/Z is the
pressure drop per unit length
Thus for gas only:
fg
=
(P/Z)g .g. D/(2*Vg2g)
for liquid only
fl
=
(P/Z)l .g. D/(2*Vl2l)
for two phase flow
flpl
=
(P/Z)tp .g. D/(2*Vl2l)
(based on superficial velocity of liquid)
2
flpg
=
(P/Z)lp .g. D/(2*Vg g)
(based on superficial velocity of gas)
Defining
g
flpg/fg
=
l
flpl/fl
=
X2
=
[(P/Z)L / (P/Z)g] =
[g / l]2
Two phase pressure drop is then expressed as:
(P/Z)tp
=
g2 (P/Z)g
(P/Z)tp
=
g2 (P/Z)l
Friction factors for single component flow (gas or liquid) can be easily estimated from:
f = 16/Re
(for Re < 2000)
f = 0.079 (Re)-0.25
(for Re > 3000)
Recently empirical co-relations have been derived from a large data bank for void fraction ()
and g and are given below:
=__________1_______________
(1+0.0904 X 0.548)2.82
g
= (1+ X 2ln) n/2
and, n is obtained from the table given below:-
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
N
4.12
3.61
3.56
2.68
3.27
Liquid Flow
Turbulent
Viscous
Turbulent
Viscous
Viscous
Gas Flow
Turbulent
Turbulent
Viscous
Viscous
Viscous
If X < 1
If X > 1
m
l
a
Air-water
1000mm
=
1Z, m
mercury
T ambient
T ambient
kg/cm
=
1660 kg/m3
=
1000 kg/m3
=
1.205 kg/m3
l
= 0.00089
N-s/m2
g
= 0.0000192 N-s/m2
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Run No
6. Calculations
I.D. of pipe
0.0254 D, m
------- D, =
4
5.0670 x 10 m
=
=
=
=
=
=
Qg LPM
Ql , LPM
((Qg/60) *10-03)/A, m/s
((Ql/60) *10-03)/A, m/s
DVg g / g
DVl l / l
=
=
=
ftpl
ftpg
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
EXPERIMENT NO. 18
B B Product
Where, A is the solid and B is the liquid phase reactant, assuming the reaction to be
instantaneous so that A and B dont coexist. The mechanism of solid dissolution involves
dissolution of A in liquid followed by its reaction with species B diffusing from the bull
liquid phase at a reaction plane.
If the film model is applied to this situation, the enhancement factor, defined as the ratio of
the solid-liquid mass transfer coefficient with reaction, kr to the mass transfer coefficient
without reaction, k, given by:
film
kr
k
B0
DA
DB
DB
DA
B A
--------- (1)
D
k
r A
k
DB
1/ 3
D
B
DA
2/3
Bo
B A
---------- (2)
3. Experimental Set-up
The Set-up consists of a cylinder of benzoic acid mounted on a SS rod and driven by a D.C.
motor. The operational range of rotation is between 10 to 30 rpm. The cylinder is immersed
in an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide of known concentration in a 500 ml vessel filled
to 2/3rd its capacity. The position of the benzoic acid cylinder is so adjusted that the liquid
level rises above the top surface by about 3 cm. The dimensions of the benzoic acid cylinder
may be fixed at diameter: 2 to 3 cm, length: 5 to 7 cm. The cylinder can be prepared by
pouring molten benzoic acid in the mould of desired dimensions with 4 to 5 mm SS rod
located in the center of the mould in a vertical position. User can also use the cylinder
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
C6H5COONa + H2O
142
= T1 (m3).
= T2 (m3).
= T3 (m3).
= t (sec)
= T oC
= (T1/10) [HCL]
= (T2/10) [HCL]
= (T3/5) [NaOH]
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
exp
R
A
k
Where,
A is the solubility of benzoic acid in water (0.0276 kmol/m3)
k is obtained from physical dissolution run (i.e. with plain water)
After integrating the material balance equation for a species, we have:
A
As
t In 1 b
V
A
Where,
[Ab] is the bulk liquid cone of benzoic acid at time, t, in kmol/m3 and
[A] is the solubility of benzoic acid in water, kmol/m3.
After plotting t vs. ln [1 - Ab / A], we record the slope of the line given by:
Slope = kAs / V; knowing As and V, we get k.
The theoretical values for enhancement factor, for the film model and boundary layer
model is obtained from Eq.1 and Eq.2 respectively.
The diffusivity of benzoic acid, DA, may be obtained from the literature = 1.04 x 10-9 m2/ at
30 oC.
Value of DB may be taken as = 4.1 x 10-9 m2/ at 30 oC.
Compare the theoretical values for with the experimental values and observe that
boundary layer model is more close to the experimental value.
7. Conclusion
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
EXPERIMENT NO. 19
The surface of the adsorbent is uniform, that is, all the adsorption sites are equal.
Adsorbed molecules do not interact.
All adsorption occurs through the same mechanism.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
iv.
For liquids (adsorbate) adsorbed on solids (adsorbent), the Langmuir isotherm (Fig. 1) can
be expressed by
------------------------ (1)
Where m is the substance amount of adsorbate adsorbed per gram of adsorbent (or kg) of the
unit of m is mol.g-1.resp. mol. kg-1
Amax is the maximal substance amount per gram (or kg) of the adsorbent.
The unit of Amax is mol.g-1, resp. mol.kg -1 k is the adsorption constant (mol-1.dm3), c is the
concentration of adsorbate in liquid (mol.dm-3).
In practice, activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for the adsorption of mainly organic
compounds along with some larger molecular weight inorganic compounds such as iodine
and mercury.
Activated Carbon - Activated carbon can be manufactured from carbonaceous material,
including coal (bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite), peat, wood, or nutshells (i.e.,
coconut).The manufacturing process consists of two phases, carbonization and activation.
The carbonization process includes drying and then heating to separate by-products,
including tars and other hydrocarbons, from the raw material, as well as to drive off any gases
generated. The carbonization process is completed by heating the material at 400600C in
an oxygen-deficient atmosphere that cannot support combustion.
4. Experimental Setup
The experimental set up consists of a three Glass Columns having different diameter and
height, filled with activated carbon. A common feed inlet (manifold) is provided at the
bottom of each column. Feed is supplied from feed tank by means of pump and rotameter.
Flow rate can be varied by rotameter. A bye-pass arrangement is also provided to maintain
level in feed tank (optional). Adsorption process can be studied by varying bed height and
feed flow rate in each of the three columns turn-wise. The whole set-up is mounted on a
powder coated sturdy MS frame.
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Glass Column Borosilicate - ID 28mm height 500 mm, ID 38mm height 500mm and ID
52mm and height 750mm, Rotameter Make Eureka 2-20LPH. Pump make Promivac Model
PMP-15, Max head 2.5 mtrs, RPM 2800, single phase 220 Volts @ 50 Hz, sump tank
capacity 20 ltrs apprx.
Chemicals Required (Not in supply scope):
Acetic acid, NaOH, phenolphthalein indicator, activated charcoal granular form (supplied
with set-up).
5.
Experimental Procedure
First prepare the aqueous solution of acetic acid and water.
Switch ON the set up and ensure pump discharge.
Set the desired flow rate in Rotameter.
Open the feed valve provided at the back of column 1 (a common manifold has been
provided for feed routing to all the three columns).
e) Maintain constant flow rate in Rota meter (in case of fluctuation adjust with valve) after
feed starts to come out from top of column, collect the sample in flask.
f) Add 4-5 drops of phenolphthalein indicator in added in each flask and titrate by
standard NaOH solution.
0
g) Once the endpoint has been reached, read the burette. The volume of the base X i (ml)
a)
b)
c)
d)
Table 1
Flask
No.
X i0 (ml)
Xi
c i0
3
(mol/dm ) (ml)
ci
(mol/dm3)
1
2
3
4
5
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mi
1/ci
l/mi
(mmol/g) (dm3 /mol) (g/mmol)
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
6
Determination of the concentration of acetic acid before (ci0) and after (ci) Adsorption:
X i0 cT
0
------------------------- (2)
ci
,
V
Where X i0 is the volume of the titrant (NaOH), cT is the concentration of the titrant, V is the
volume of the analytic (acetic acid according to Tab. 2), i=1-6 is the number of flask.
Calculate the concentration of acetic acid after adsorption (ci), using the Eq. 2 and data form
Tab. 3 after adsorption.
Determination of the substance amount of acetic acid adsorbed per gram of charcoal (mol.g1) in individual flask:
(c 0 ci )V A
--------------------------- (3)
mi i
,
g
Where ci0 , ci are the concentrations of acetic acid before and after adsorption, respectively. VA
is the volume of the liquid phase in the mixture charcoal acetic Acid, g is the mass of the
adsorbent charcoal (in grams), i=1-6 is the number of flask.
Eq. 3 supposes that VA is the same for i=1-6, and also the mass of the charcoal (g). Write
down
the obtained values of mi to the Tab. 3.
Determination of k and Amax: The Eq. 1 one can rearrange into a form:
1
1 1
1
,
m Amax k c Amax
Thus,
------------------------ (4)
1
1
f should be a straight line.
m
c
1
1
f , where c is the concentration of acetic acid
m
c
after adsorption. Fit the experimental points with a linear function. The slope represents the
1
1
value of
, and the intercept corresponds to
Amax
Amax k
Calculate Amax and k from the slope and the intercept.
7.
Precautions
i. Do not run the pump at low voltage i.e. less than 180 Volts.
ii. Never fully close the Delivery line fully.
iii. Always keep apparatus free from dust.
iv. To prevent clogging of moving parts, Run Pump at least once in a fortnight.
v. Always use clean water (use distill water if available in lab).
vi. If apparatus will not in use for more than one month, drain the apparatus completely.
vii. If pump gets jam, open the back cover of pump and rotate the shaft manually.
147
Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
EXPERIMENT NO. 20
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
5. Experimental Procedure
b) Feed water to the column from top at a rate at which complete wetting with
minimum ripple formation takes place.
c) Commence and operation with minimum air flow (H =3 cm) and after 10-15 minute
the wet bulb and dry bulb temperature of the inlet air and outlet air at this flow rate
is noted.
d) Read the corresponding humidity (from psychometric chart) and vapor pressure of
water corresponding to the entry and exit temperatures.
e) Repeat step 2 and 3 for 3-4 air flow rates.
f) Calculate experimental value of KG
6. Observations
1. Column diameter,
2. Column effective length,
3. Column pressure,
4. Area for mass transfer
D
L
P
A
= 2.54 cm
= 1.04 m
= 760 mmHg/ 1 atm
= Dl
= 3.14 2.54 104 = 829.9 cm2
Column Bottom
Column Top
A. HB
A.HT
Dry bulb
Wet bulb
Air humidity(Kg water/kg dry air)
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
Water temperature, C
7. Calculations:
Air temperature, C
Column Bottom
Column Top
Dry bulb
Wet bulb
Air humidity(Kg water/kg dry air)
Water temperature, C
Molar fraction of water in air at bottom, y1 = (A. H.B / 18) / (A. H.B /18 + 1/29)
y1 =
Molar fraction of water in air at top, y2 = (A. H.T / 18) / (A. H.T/18 + 1/29)
y2 =
Vapour pressure of water at inlet temperature, (P2) T = 0.0508 atm (Bhatt & Vora-343 pp.)
Vapour pressure of water at outlet temperature, (P1) B =
(P)m = [( P1sat-P1)-( P2sat-P2)]/[ln(P1sat-P1/P2sat-P2)
yi= (y1+y2) / 2
yi= (0.02+0.026) / 2= 0.023
KG (P)m *A / V = [1 / (1-yi)]. In [{(yi-y1)/y2-yi)} {(1-y2) / (1-y1)}]
KG(P)m *A/V= X
H = Head of water
P = H (water - air) g=
V = molar flow rate of gas = 0.65. [(2 P)0.5/ ] =
Where;
m = Vo /4 (do)2 =
V = molar flow rate of gas
V=mass flow rate of air / mol. Wt. of air
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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
KG = (X * V) / (P)m * A =
Where,
A. H.B= air humidity at bottom
A. H.T= air humidity at top
V = molar flow rate of gas
V0 = mass flow rate of gas
Molar fraction of water in air at bottom=y1, and at top =y2
8. Result & discussions
Hence, the performance of the wetted wall column has been analysed and mass transfer
coefficient is calculated.
Mass Transfer Coefficient of the wetted wall column at flow rate----- is =
9. Conclusion
10. Precautions
1. Do not run the pump with the delivery valve closed for a long time to avoid damage of the
pump.
2. Make sure during the experiment water tank should not be emptied totally.
3. Uniform wetting of the inner surface of the column ensures more valid data.
4. The column will require several minutes to come to steady state, especially with low water
flow rate. Be sure to verify the actual attainment of this condition.
References:
1. Bird R. Stewart W. and Lightfoot E., Transport Phenomena, Wiley (2004)
2. Treybal, R. E., Mass Transfer Operations, McGraw Hill Company, New York, 1980
3. McCabe, W. L., Smith J. C., and Harriott, P., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 6th
ed., McGraw Hill Company, New York, 2001
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