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EDITORIAL
The explicit provision of damages payable to the Contractors on account of non-availability of the
stipulated clearances, etc. clearly reflects towards the transformation of role of the government
moving away from the command and control economy/development of earlier days towards ensuring
good governance and an effective system to incentivize innovation(s) and removal of inefficiency. This
is also reflected in provisions related to payment of bonus for early completion of the project(s).
The EPC mode in highway sector also throws open more opportunities for job creation and
employment in the road sector including entrepreneurship in the domain areas of consultancy services
in project preparation, survey & investigations, road safety, quality control, etc. This is adequately
reflected in the enabling provision of 70% of work which can be outsourced by the EPC Contractor.
Possibly EPC may prove to be a game changer in road sector in the coming years.
Perceptible benefits of the EPC in road sector may be many but of course best practices suiting
different category of projects needs to be evolved, which may get evolved over a time period and
feedback based there on from different implementing agencies. In the process of transition to new
concepts and systems, it is always preferable to remember the wise words of Osho:- Knowledge
makes you learned, but wisdom makes you innocent. Knowledge is ego fulfilling but wisdom kills ego.
Wisdom is simply wisdom. It is truth. Wisdom cannot be true or untrue.
Highlights
GLIMPSES OF FIRST COLLABORATIVE
ENDEAVOUR OF
IRC WITH EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
As a new initiative of widening the reach of IRC,
a collaborative approach with technical institutions
has been initiated by IRC. In the first of the series,
a National Event Transport Infrastructure Congress
and Expo-2013 (TICE-2013) has been organized as
joint endeavour by the Malaviya National Institute
of Technology (MNIT) Jaipur & IRC from March 7,
2013 to March 9, 2013 as a part of Golden Jubilee
Celebrations of MNIT Jaipur.
2.
3.
Student
Research
Competition.
4.
Model
Exhibition/
Highlights
View of Audience
2. Transit
Oriented
Sustainable
Urban
Development by S.L. Dhingra, Professor IIT
Bombay.
Highlights
6. Review of Bituminous Mixes Used in India
by Prof. P.S. Kandhal, Associate Director
Emeritus, National Center for Asphalt
Technology, USA
7. Remote Sensing & GIS application for Route
Alignment by P K Garg, Professor IIT
Roorkee
8. Traffic Infrastructure Projects for Jaipur city
by Shri Kuldeep Ranka, Jaipur Development
Commissioner
Highlights
Aayojan School of Architecture, Jaipur
P. I. E. T. Jaipur
University,
Poornima Institute
Technology, Jaipur
of
Engineer
and
JECRC, Jaipur
Kautilya Institute of Technology
Engineering, Sitapura, Jaipur
L. D. College of Engineering, Ahemdabad
NIET (NIMS University), Jaipur
&
The
new
materials/equipment/instruments
accredited by IRC were also displayed in the
Technical Exhibition. It helped the students
to get an exposure of the emerging materials/
technology/techniques in the road sector.
Winner Civil Category (Modified Cone Penetrometer (DCPM) and Modified Static Cone Penetrometer (SCPM)
Highlights
Winner Electronics Category (Tracking and Positioning of any vehicle by using GPS & GSM)
Highlights
Product Profile
POT CUM PTFE BEARINGS
PIN AND GUIDE BEARINGS
PTFE-CUM-STAINLESS STEEL SLIDING BEARINGS
KNUCKLE BEARINGS
ROLLER AND ROCKER BEARINGS
CENTRAL HINGE BEARINGS
PTFE-CUM-STAINLESS STEEL SLIDING BEARINGS WITH
SPHERICAL KNUCKLE WITH UPLIFT ARRESTERS
STAINLESS STEEL SUPPORT BEARINGS WITH LOAD
BEARING THERMAL INSULATION BLOCK FOR INDUSTRIAL
APPLICATIONS (VIZ., ESP, BAG FILTERS, MULTI FLUE CANS
FOR CONCRETE CHIMNEY)
ELASTOMERIC NEOPRENE BEARINGS
ELASTOMERIC NEOPRENE BEARINGS WITH SEISMIC
ARRESTER
SHOCK TRANSMISSION UNITS (WITH TECHSTAR, USA)
DISC BEARINGS
HINGE BEARINGS
STRIP SEAL EXPANSION JOINTS
MODULAR STRIP SEAL EXPANSION JOINTS
(WITH TECHSTAR, USA)
SLAB SEAL & GLAND SEAL EXPANSION JOINT
AND
ALL TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT, MATERIAL
HANDLING EQUIPMENT, EQUIPMENT AND PLANTS FOR
RAILWAYS, DEFENCE AND IRON & STEEL INDUSTRIES
10
11
12
13
14
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16
TECHNICAL PAPERS
INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS ON
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL IN HIGH PERFORMANCE
CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
K.S. Suresh Kumar*, M.S.Amarnath** and G.B. Avinash***
Abstract
Daily and seasonal variations in temperature and moisture
are important factors influencing the functioning of concrete
pavements. In addition to temperature, other environmental
factors that affect rigid pavement performance include humidity,
precipitation, amount of solar radiation etc. This paper is part of
a comprehensive study on High Performance Cement Concrete
Pavements (HPCCPs) conducted at Bangalore University.
Amongst the HPCs, an approach is made in this paper to
determine the realistic temperature differential in High Volume
Fly Ash Concrete (HVFAC). Durability tests such as abrasion,
water absorption and flexural fatigue were conducted on HVFAC
in addition to compressive and static flexural strength tests. The
test results show that the HVFAC is a high performance concrete.
A HVFAC concrete slab is instrumented with thermocouples, for
monitoring temperature at three regions, interior, edge and corner.
Thermocouples are inserted at top, middle and bottom of the slab.
The variation in pavement temperature is recorded every hour for
seven days. The influence of climatic conditions such as humidity
and number of solar radiation hours on daily and seasonal variations
(summer, winter and monsoon) of temperature differential through
the slab thickness is investigated. The minimum top temperatures
during summer, winter and monsoon seasons were 22.8C, 21.30C
and 21.10C respectively. The maximum top temperatures during
summer, winter and monsoon seasons were 53.9C, 42.30C and
38.60C respectively. The maximum temperature differentials
observed during summer, winter and monsoon season were 13.5C,
13C and 8.80C respectively. Taking into account the local
environmental factors and the material properties, temperature
differential prediction models for HVFAC slabs are suggested
in this paper. The temperature differential at any location in
India can be obtained by developing similar prediction models
and substituting values of the environmental parameters in the
prediction models. The values of these parameters are available
from Indian Meteorological Department. Temperature stresses are
evaluated by using the classic Westergaard equations.
Introduction
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Bangalore University, Bangalore, E-mail: sknitt@gmail.com.
**
17
TECHNICAL PAPERS
is more accurate than empirical method because the
empirical method only relies on the field performance,
while the Mechanistic-empirical method combines
both field performance and theoretical prediction
models. A Mechanistic Empirical design approach is
made in this study by considering the environmental
factors, solar radiation and humidity in addition to
air temperature to determine the realistic temperature
differentials in HVFAC.
2 Experimental Investigations
The present study is part of a comprehensive study
on High Performance Cement Concrete Pavements
(HPCCPs) conducted at Bangalore University.
Amongst the HPCs an approach is made in this paper
to determine the realistic temperature differential in
High Volume Fly Ash Concrete (HVFAC) only. An
existing HVFAC pavement slab free from vehicular
movement is identified for conducting temperature
studies. The study area is located in the southern part
of India at Bangalore City, Karnataka, geographically
located at latitude 12 95`N and longitude 7754
E. Dimensions of the HVFAC pavement slab are
4400 mm x 3300 mm and thickness 300 mm. The
shoulders have a minimum CBR value of 10% and
compacted with vibratory roller at OMC to achieve
density of 97% MDD. M40 Grade concrete having
mix proportions 1:1.22:1.78 consisting of Binder
50:50 (53 Grade cement confirming to IS12269:1987
and Fly Ash- Pulverized Fuel Ash confirming to
IS3812:2003), water binder ratio 0.38 is used to
cast the slab. To determine the compressive strength
of HVFAC pavement under study, cylindrical core
samples were taken two years after the pavement
was laid. The cylindrical compressive strength was
44.35MPa. The equivalent cube compressive strength
(calculated as per IS: 516-1999 Clause 5.6.1) was
55.44MPa.
3 Slab Instrumentation
To record the temperature at different depths of the
concrete slab temperature sensors called thermocouples
are used. A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring
temperature. It consists of two dissimilar metals,
joined together at one end, which produces a small
unique voltage at a given temperature. This voltage is
18
Data Acquisition
TECHNICAL PAPERS
thermocouples fixed to wooden bead at three levels
and digital temperature indicator connected to leads
for recording temperature. Temperatures at top,
middle and bottom of the slab and air temperature at
about 300 mm from slab top are recorded every hour
for seven days during each season. The temperature
data are manually recorded. Environmental data such
as solar radiation hours and humidity are taken from
the Indian Meteorological Department for Bangalore
region.
5 Monitoring
Analysis
Results
and
Data
Winter season
Monsoon season
Data
Position
Min.
28.90
28.80
28.40
19.50
22.30
19.60
22.80
21.10
24.20
Temp.
30.10
29.90
29.40
18.60
23.60
24.30
20.10
25.60
Max.
53.90
52.00
51.80
42.30
39.20
37.70
33.90
33.00
38.60
Temp.
49.80
44.30
50.40
32.00
31.10
33.80
29.70
34.80
T Diff
Night
-8.00
-6.80
-8.00
-6.10
-6.00
-8.80
-6.10
-8.30
T Diff
Day
11.40
13.50
13.40
13.00
10.30
5.20
5.90
5.00
I is the Interior region, E the edge region and C the corner region. T is top and B is bottom of slab.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, May 2013
19
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Note :
1.
2.
Development
of
Prediction
Model
for
Temperature
Differential in HVFAC Slab
b)
20
c)
6.1
Pavement
Model
Top
Temperature
Prediction
pavement
top
temperature
prediction
TTOP=16.25+0.21*AAIRT+1.91*SRH+0.01*H (1)
(n = 7, R2 = 0.92)
Summer pavement top temperature prediction
model
TTOP=51.51+1.11AAIRT-4.88SRH+0.14*H
(2)
(n = 7, R2 = 0.75)
Monsoon pavement top temperature prediction
model
TTOP=16.69+0.42*AAIRT+1.53*SRH0.41*H (3)
(n = 7, R2 = 0.76)
Combined pavement top temperature prediction
model (summer, winter and monsoon season)
TTOP=32.180.03*AAIRT+1.48*SRH0.15*H (4)
(n = 14, R2 = 0.73)
Where; TTOP is the maximum pavement top
temperature and AAIRT is the average air temperature
in degree Celsius, SRH is the solar radiation period in
hours and H = Humidity in percent.
6.2
(5)
TECHNICAL PAPERS
top temperature in degree Celsius and D is the
thickness of the concrete slab.
The maximum temperature differentials actually
recorded during each season are shown in Table 2. The
temperature differentials arrived at using temperature
Day
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
SUMMER SEASON
I
E
C
4.9
8.8
8.5
4.9
8.8
8.5
1.1
6.6
7.6
4.7
8.6
8.3
1.7
7.1
8
4.7
8.6
8.3
4.7
8.6
8.3
WINTER SEASON
I
E
C
11.4
9
13
8.93
10.4
10.3
10.2
8.8
8.8
9
11.3
8.8
10.6
6.6
MONSOON SEASON
I
E
C
5.2
5.9
4.2
3.2
3.3
2.4
2.5
3.1
2.3
0.8
2.8
1.4
3.2
2.7
1
3.2
5.2
3.5
5.1
3.1
4.7
Day
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
SUMMER SEASON
I
E
C
4.52
7.36
7.44
4.06
7.28
7.56
4.01
7.25
7.57
4.54
7.36
7.47
3.65
7.16
7.69
3.97
7.23
7.57
4.11
7.25
7.56
WINTER SEASON
I
E
C
12.38
12.46
13.82
12.11
12.62
12.83
10.77
11.75
10.98
11.05
12.13
11.68
11.04
10.92
MONSOON SEASON
I
E
C
7.99
9.8
4.71
6.33
9.3
3.74
7.11
8.25
3.52
3.8
7.23
2.05
7.13
6.82
2.54
6.83
8.39
3.18
7.79
8.43
3.34
21
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 4 Comparison Between Actual and Predicted Temperature Stresses
Day
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
SUMMER SEASON
I
E
C
0.51
0.82
0.41
0.51
0.82
0.41
0.12
0.61
0.36
0.49
0.80
0.40
0.18
0.66
0.38
0.49
0.80
0.40
0.49
0.80
0.40
0.47
0.68
0.36
0.42
0.68
0.36
0.42
0.67
0.36
0.48
0.68
0.36
0.38
0.67
0.37
0.42
0.67
0.36
0.43
0.67
0.36
WINTER SEASON
I
E
C
1.06
0.43
1.21
0.43
0.97
0.49
0.95
0.42
0.82
0.43
1.05
0.42
0.99
0.32
1.15
0.60
1.29
0.58
1.17
0.61
1.00
0.56
1.02
0.53
1.13
0.56
1.03
0.52
MONSOON SEASON
I
E
C
0.54
0.55
0.20
0.33
0.31
0.11
0.26
0.29
0.11
0.08
0.26
0.07
0.33
0.25
0.05
0.33
0.48
0.17
0.53
0.29
0.22
0.84
0.91
0.22
0.66
0.86
0.18
0.74
0.77
0.17
0.40
0.67
0.10
0.75
0.63
0.12
0.71
0.78
0.15
0.82
0.78
0.16
ACTUAL
TEMPERATURE
STRESSES
CALCULATED
TEMPERATURE
STRESSES
22
TECHNICAL PAPERS
7
Conclusions
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
23
24
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.1
25
TECHNICAL PAPERS
particle can be transported) and the size of particle
dragged by the stream. This is given by d = 36.15 Vb2
where d is in mm and Vb is in m/sec.
The diameter of particles flown by current for various
velocities will be
ii.
iii.
26
Velocity m/sec
Diameter mm
1.5
80
3.0
330
4.5
730
6.0
1300
7.5
2030
9.0
2930
TECHNICAL PAPERS
1.3
e)
v2
H = Z + W + 2g
M 20 Concrete
Erosion
Erosion
Resistance Resistance per
Rupee.
100
25
27
M 35 concrete
300
43
400
40
48
27
TECHNICAL PAPERS
by high stream velocity and further that the concrete
was not suitable to withstand the fury of water currents.
The plain concrete piers of Railway Bridge on d/s of
this road bridge also showed surface erosion. The
old railway bridge was provided with stone masonry
piers. The bridge was deserted. However, one pier
is standing. The stones of the masonry have large
bushes. The bushes show seriations along bedding
plane of the stone due to erosion. The case shows that
circular columns with diaphragms are not suitable for
high stream velocity. Detailed investigation of this
case brought out that specifications of concrete piers
must be compatible with stream velocity. Colcrete is
not suitable for well steining. It is not being used now
a day.
1.6
Fig. 1.3
1.5
28
TECHNICAL PAPERS
at high velocity as explained in previous paragraph.
Fall of piers was not along the direction of river. Piers
fell in various directions and this shows turbulent flow
having deviations angles larger than 200. Inadequate
assessment of velocity, bad seating and foundations
Photo.1.2
29
TECHNICAL PAPERS
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.2
Photo 2.1 RCC Box Type Deck in an Area Which Contains Sand
with Ferruginous Compounds
Nature of Crack:-
1.
2.
3.
3.1 Background
Cracks in the deck slabs of bridges were observed in the
longitudinal and lateral direction of three Bridges.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, May 2013
TECHNICAL PAPERS
For RCC bridges & buildings grade 33 or grade 43 are
preferable. However there is no codal ban on using
53 Grade cement for RCC work. 20% Fly ash if added
in the cement, this should in fact reduce shrinkage.
The above information reveals that there is no fault
in the material used or in the procedure of concreting.
It is therefore necessary to examine the procedure
adopted for curing of concrete.
3.5
3.7
Rehabilitations Measures
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Photo 3.1, Photo 3.2, Photo 3.3 and Photo 3.4
4
Photo 3.1 Plastic Shrinkage
INAPPROPRIATE
METHODS
CONSTRUCTION
TECHNICAL PAPERS
rock. However, this data was not collected
during geotechnical investigation.
ii.
iii.
iv.
a.
b.
v.
34
TECHNICAL PAPERS
5.2 Observations
5.2.1 The conventional copper expansion joint are
provided on the inner side of the duct. There is a gap
of 50mm on the inner side of the aqueduct wall. This
is filled up by Shalitex board to make it water tight.
While finalizing the estimate there was a proposal to
provide 25mm water proof coat on the inside of the
duct. It was however proposed to do after observing
the performance of the aqueduct during its operation.
966 meters
Span arrangement
33 m
Duct size
35
TECHNICAL PAPERS
sprouted on the pier cap and at the expansion joints
outside. It was suggested that this should be removed
and the roots filled with lime powder and Asafoetida.
Generally these are Pipal trees. It appears that this has
not been done; more such plants are supported on pier
cap.
5.3
TECHNICAL PAPERS
6 AUTOGENEOUS
HEALING
CONCRETE (Figs. 6.1 and 6.2)
OF
37
TECHNICAL PAPERS
before lifting. 4 girders showed cracks at mid span.
Investigation showed that only half length of the
girder was supported on bed and the remaining half
was overhanging. These girders were not designed
for such a cantilever profile. Vertical cracks occurred
at the mid span. When the girders were placed on
level supports on both ends cracks closed. Water was
sprayed for 24 hours on the girders. Cracks healed up.
This is called autogenous healing of cracks. One girder
was then tested for full design load and it behaved as
expected like an un-cracked girder. Four such girders
are used in the bridge two girders at each end and
bridge is serving the traffic since 1964 without any
trouble.
6.3
38
CONCLUSIONS
2.
3.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
References
1.
2.
39
40
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
41
TECHNICAL PAPERS
paradoxically, the developed Western and European
world are in the phase of their infra structure
maintenance as such have to find market in developing
countries for their growth.
Table 1
42
TECHNICAL PAPERS
the minimum cost and maximum endurance from the
conception to destruction, consuming least energy,
emitting least GHG, including during construction
encompassing the energy of in gradients and their
emissions through out its life time, there by conserving
energy ecologically, economically and socially. As
a connotation to this Sustainability is a condition of
existence which enables the present generation of
humans and other species to enjoy social well being,
a vibrant economy, and a healthy environment, and
to experience fulfillment, beauty and joy, without
compromising the ability of future generations of
humans and other species to enjoy the same. Way
back in 1864, the great Abraham Lincoln fore saw
the challenge and averred that Achieving sustainable
development is perhaps one of the most difficult and
one of the most pressing goals we face. It requires on
the part of all of us commitment, action, partnerships
and, sometimes, sacrifices of our traditional life
pattern and personal interests.
3 SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY
Despite the remarkable growth nearly half the
worlds six billion people live on less than $2 per
day. Peculiarly, for the fast developing country like
India where 25% of its population is falling below the
poverty line, there is a lurking jeopardy of widening
the rift between haves and have nots.These poverty
figures are not mere indicators of wealth, but a strong
pointer towards the abjuration of freedom, dignity,
knowledge, respect and healthy long life, burgeoning
out of inaccessibility to safe water, sanitation, health
care, education, nutrition, transportation, power
supply and employment.
With the fast growing economy, the developing
countries will aim at alleviating the above by creation
of facilities to provide housing, sanitation and water
supply, public transportation facilities, reach-ability
to education and adequate employment opportunities
which demands mammoth materials and energy
consumption.
ECONOMICAL
TECHNICAL PAPERS
The India has recorded around 0.5 Kw consumption
which is likely to increase with the growth potential.
(Fig.3). The United States accounts for highest
energy consumption and 20% of energy related
CO2 emissions followed closely by other developed
Value Engineering
Rationalization of Codes
44
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.1 Sustainable Construction Practices
The least consumption of energy during construction
as well as the energy for the production of construction
ingradients such as cement, steel and aggregates
ecologically protects eco system, health and natural
resources; on the other hand the erosion of the same
accentuates poverty.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
CO2 emissions to environment out of the same 88%
is due to cement alone (Table 2)8. In RCC generally,
59% emissions are due to cement and 22% due to
reinforcement steel.
391
87%
2%
27
6%
Concrete production
2%
Concrete transportation
1%
Concrete losses
10
2%
448
100%
Cement
46
TECHNICAL PAPERS
TECHNICAL PAPERS
an alternative to sand. Although the coarser particles
above 600 are absent, it is possible to overcome this
problem by re-proportioning of coarse and fine.
4.2
TECHNICAL PAPERS
the option of value engineering to reduce the cost is
lost and the Nation loses. Therefore, for sustenance
of sustainable construction the organization structure
to facilitate Value Engineering gains paramount
importance. By the same account, the sustainability by
Value Engineering is enabled by design build contracts
4.3
49
TECHNICAL PAPERS
of design and codemaking is illustrated by some of the
following pioneer works in India indicate otherwise4.
The design and construction of first cablestayed bridge in India in eighties, where cables
were manufactured at Site itself. (Fig.14).
TECHNICAL PAPERS
TECHNICAL PAPERS
18 years with the continuous efforts culminating in
enormous emissions and energy consumptions apart
from scouring of valuable resources in terms of Men,
Materials, Machines, Money and Methods. Finally
the founding levels had to be raised by around 22 m
(Fig.17)12 to enable the completion of the project.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Manmade hazards consists of mistakes like improper
estimation of loading, improper geotechnical
assessment, improper planning, accidents fire,
collision and fatigues, choice of the contractor,
extended duration of construction, new methods of
construction/erection, removal of support and collapse,
defective workmanship and material, mechanical and
electrical breakdown, inadequate site management
and defective temporary works and design.
The manmade hazards can be classified into (a) those
during the implementation of already experienced
or known tasks such as design and construction (b)
and those that are not experienced previously. It is
interesting to note that the former occurs much more
frequently than latter and also the latter is not totally
unforeseeable and could be attributed to carelessness or
deliberate oversight. Under both these classifications,
the application of HIRA can lead to durable and mishaps free sustainable construction.
In Europe many long span bridges like Cantilever
bridges, Cable supported bridges etc were built by
cantilever construction methods emphasising on fast
track construction concept during 1950s to 1990s.
During the construction, many mishaps took place
like failure of prestressing, toppling of cranes during
construction, failure of form travellers leading to
accidents causing fatalities, huge financial losses and
delays. The creep and shrinkage models adopted in
prestressed concrete bridges have led to excessive
deflections at mid point of the long spans of hundreds
of bridges. In fact, the KB bridge at Palau 241.0 m
span bridge constructed in 1977 collapsed in 1996
due to excessive deflection of 1.61m and excessive
prestressing loss of 49%. It is interesting that during
this period in Europe, the measures taken in Design
& Construction for economisation and also enabling
fast track construction from political onsiderations
had given rise to many mishaps during construction
and presently affecting seriviceability of bridges.
The developing countries like India are following
the same in the recent past and witnessing number
of mishaps during bridges and flyover constructions
(Fig.19) and also distress in bridges built in the past by
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, May 2013
53
TECHNICAL PAPERS
beams at casting yards, accident during launching,
tower crane collapse during erection, damage due to
staging failure, etc. aid only in accentuating poverty
by pushing the project back by years and causing
additional expenditure.
All the above hazards are manmade and can be
mitigated by deciding location and layout based on
expert advice, evolving design criteria and loading to
suit specific case, opting for design build contracts,
designing and detailing to suit constructability,
prequalifying bidders with apt background and
carrying soil investigation in advance.
Most of the mishaps during construction either in the
past in Europe or presently in India is the consequence
of thrust on economisation in design and construction
or emphasise on fast track construction driven by
political considerations. In the present environment,
there is a strong need of HIRA to be adopted at every
stage of design and construction not only for safety
during construction but also for enhncing serviceability
of bridges.
4.5
New Technologies
Sustainability
&
Materials
for
54
TECHNICAL PAPERS
55
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Pre stressing is another highly efficient structural
system that offers many sustainable benefits which
enhance basic concrete construction.
The PSC improves serviceability and durability by
minimizing cracking and deflections. By adopting
suitably designed monolithic connections of castin-situ construction, the maintenance intense joints
between the elements and also structure supporting
bearings can be eliminated as in case of integral
bridges.
The use of pre stressing enables the cycle time of 2
to 3 days a floor in building construction and also
facilitates early removal of forms which can be
re shored for further construction. The segmental
construction in bridges has minimum impact on
site and traffic disruptions (Fig.21), particularly for
long spans improve lighting and visibility leading to
enhanced security and public safety.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
5
CONCLUSIONS
Sustainability in Bridge building can not be confined
to partial replacement of Ordinary Portland Cement
with GGBFS, flyash and other mineral admixtures.
While the same is one of the means of sustainability,
other measures like Value Engineering, Rationalisation
of codes, hazard identification and Risk Analysis,
appropriate adoption of structural systems and forms
and construction methodologies, materials,etc, play
very important roles in achieving preservation of
fossilised energy and reduction in CO2 emissions.
Thus in the paper sustainability has been looked in
to in a wider perspective than normally discussed in
various forums.
56
ABSTRACT
In highway bridges the major challenge is to maintain the
geometry, in order to supply a greater speed and safety, which
indeed increases the demand of skewed bridge. The presence of
skew angle makes the design very complicated and vague. In this
paper the response of skew angle on the bending moments, torsion
moments, stiffness and aspect ratio of bridge is being highlighted.
And the design aspects are also discussed. Finite Element (FE)
analysis was carried out based on beams grillage model under
IRC-Class AA loading. This provides additional information about
the response of the parameters for skew angles between 0 and
45. The responses of the parameters with reference to skew angle
are discussed elaborately for the four different loading position
considered in the analysis, such as Bending-Bending, TorsionTorsion, Bending-Torsion, and Torsion-Bending.
INTRODUCTION
PG Student
**
Associate Professor
*** Professor
57
TECHNICAL PAPERS
combinations were also considered for analysis.
Wheel loads is placed such that one design vehicle
on each lane. Then these wheel loads are transformed
into equivalent joint load as shown in Fig.1. In
Fig.1 Schematic Diagram Showing the Load Positions Considered in the Analysis
58
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.1 Bridge Description
A typical skew bridge as shown in Fig.2 is considered
for the present study. The skew angle () denotes the
angle between the axes of support abutment or pier
relative to a line normal to the longitudinal axis of
the bridge. Based on this notation, a straight bridge is
therefore, defined as having a 0 skew angle. Typical
simply supported, single span, two lane RCC bridges
were considered in this investigation. The bridge
considered can be concrete or steel bridge with full
composite action.
3.4
Configurations
Design Basis
4.1
TECHNICAL PAPERS
and forces and plotted. So that system response and
design implications could be studied elaborately.
4.1.1 Deflection Response
The central deflection and maximum deflection values
are plotted in Fig.4. It may be seen that a shift in values
and location for the four load cases are clearly seen. As
the skew angle increases, the span increases and at the
same time cross beams which were not participating
well in the straight spans come into system response
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.1.3 Torsion Moments
The maximum torsion moment are plotted as shown
in Fig 4. It may be noted that shift in the maximum
torsional moment is found with respect to loading
position. The maximum torsion moment is found
increasing up to 25 as skew angle irrespective of
loading position and then it decreases. The maximum
torsion moment was found drastically increasing with
increase in skew angle. The variation of a maximum
torsional moment increases by 600% for 25 skew
angle and then it get reduces to around 300% for 45
skew angle. This is because of the interaction of the
main beams and cross beams, which gets even higher
after 20 skew angle.
4.1.4 Stiffness
From above discussions the stiffness imposes a greater
impact on the parameters considered. The interaction
between both the main beams and cross beams is
more influencing on the stiffness. The responses of
the stiffness are plotted for four different loading
positions considered as shown in Fig.4. The stiffening
of the member was found with the increase in the skew
4.2.1 Deflections
The maximum deflection values for various skew
angle are plotted as shown in Fig.5. It may be noted
that there is no major shift in values and location
for the four load cases considered. The effect of the
aspect ratio is not well pronounced in the deflection.
The variation pattern confirms the discussion given in
4.1.1 and it found similar for all loading positions.
4.2.2 Bending Moments
The maximum bending moment values for various
skew angle are plotted as shown in Fig.5. It may be
noted that there is meager variation in values and
location for the four load cases considered. The
effect of the aspect ratio is not well pronounced in
the bending moment. The variation pattern confirms
the discussion given in 4.1.2 and found similar for all
loading position considered.
61
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.2.3 Torsion Moments
The maximum torsion moment values for various
skew angle are plotted as shown in Fig.5. It may be
seen that there is shift in the values and location for
the four load cases considered. The effect of the aspect
ratio is well pronounced in the torsion moment. The
effect of aspect ratio of 1:1 is found minimum when
compared with that of the bridge with aspect ratio of
1:1.5. The interaction of the grids with the aspect ratio
of 1:1.5 is more when compared with other aspect
ratios considered. The variation pattern confirms the
discussion given in 4.1.3 and found similar for all
loading position considered.
4.3
4.3.1 Deflections
The maximum deflection values for various skew
angles are plotted as shown in Fig.6. It may be noted
that there is variation in the pattern and shift in the
values with respect to configuration. The effect of the
configuration of the bridge is well pronounced on the
parameter. The 5x5 configuration shows the reduction
of the deflection, whereas the 3x3 configuration
62
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.3.3 Torsion Moments
The maximum torsion moment for various skew
angle are plotted as shown in Fig.6. It may be noted
that there is a variation in the pattern and shift in the
values with respect to configuration. The effect of the
configuration of the bridge is well pronounced on the
parameter. The 5x5 configuration shows the drastic
increase in the torsion moment and whereas the other
configuration does not shows the wide variation. The
5x3 reduces by 60% and for 3x3 it increases by 40%.
The presence of the central beams along the span
increases the torsion moment and hence it needs to be
taken care while designing.
4.4 Design Implications
4.4.1 Design Basis on Individual and Interaction
Effects
The bending moment, torsion moment, deflection
was found for various skew angles. These values
63
TECHNICAL PAPERS
10% and the 50% decrease for moments. Whereas
for greater skew angles beyond 20 and up to 35
the design changes are needed. This change can be
done by revising steel or section. Most of these design
changes are needed for load cases of torsion-torsion
with bridge aspect ratio of 1:1.
4.4.3 Design Variations Needed for Skew Angle
In case bending moment the torsion-torsion load
position shows higher values than other load position
and the ratio is found always higher than the capacity
which calls for redesign of the section. But the bridge
remains safe because of the factors considered during
the design. The maximum value obtained for the
moment never lies same as normal bridge and there is
always shift in the location.
Torsion moment is never been the less than the
capacity when skew comes in to the picture. The
torsion moment is safe and under limiting value for
0 skew when skew increases they differ drastically.
The skew bridge always needs to be checked for the
torsion design as torsion moment involved increases
approximately four times the value of the normal
bridge. The element which yields maximum value for
normal bridge does not remain same for the skewed
bridge, it get shifted when skew angle increases.
When skew angle is included, minimum depth of
span/30 needs to be provided for the section. Say
skew angle of 15 the forces always on the higher
side, therefore needs a revision of the design. If initial
design is span/30 for both main beam and cross beam
then 14% increase required for bending moment
in main beam and 0% for cross beam, 7% decrease
for main beam and 1% decrease in cross beam for
torsional moment and 6% increase for stiffness. The
bridges with skew angle between 20 and 30 are very
critical as the all design forces are very high when
compared to other skew angle.
5
CONCLUSIONS
1.
64
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
2.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Estd. 1990
* Geotech Investigation
* Material Testing
* Bituminous Mix Proportioning
* Concrete Mix Proportioning
* Topographical Survey
www.arunsoillab.com
Major Laboratory: 636/110, Budh Vihar, Takrohi, Indira Nagar, Lucknow
Field T&P Store: Azad Nagar, Chinhat, Lucknow - 227105
65
66
INTRODUCTION
**
67
TECHNICAL PAPERS
the above in view, this paper attempts to educate the
engineers about various issues related to investigation,
repair and replacement of expansion joints and
bearings in concrete bridges.
2 ASSESSMENT OF CONDITION
BRIDGE EXPANSION JOINTS
OF
Field Investigations
68
TECHNICAL PAPERS
69
TECHNICAL PAPERS
through the dial gauge/LVDT as shown in Fig.7 or any
other suitable mechanism. If it exhibits translational
movement as anticipated in design, it can be presumed
that the bearings are functioning properly.
3 ASSESSMENT OF
BRIDGE BEARINGS
CONDITION
OF
TECHNICAL PAPERS
In case of steel bearings, during inspection, it shall
be looked for heavy rust which can occur due to
the leakage of water from the expansion joints. The
longitudinal movement (in mm) due to thermal
changes can be measured and shall be compared
with the design values and over run if any, shall be
recorded. Similarly, the vertical displacement i.e., out
of plumb line of bearing as shown in Fig.9 shall be
measured in terms of angle in radian corresponding
to temperature and shall be correlated with the design
requirements. In case of over run of the roller, the base
plate of the steel roller bearing of same thickness and
compatible material can be extended by fillet welding
to accommodate the movement.
Decision on repair/replacement
of expansion joints and bearings
71
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.2
Pouring of Concrete
for
Wearing
TECHNICAL PAPERS
and also creates undulations on the road surface. The
overlaying of the additional mastic layer over the
existing mastic layer also leads to the formation of
trough shaped profile at the expansion joint and this
depression becomes another cause of nuisance to the
road users as shown in Fig. 12 (a). Similar condition
is also noticed, when the mastic often laid over the
expansion gap in an attempt to achieve smooth riding
quality as shown in Fig.12 (b & c). This leads to
the clogging of the expansion gap, thereby causing
restriction to the movement of expansion joint. The
mastic covering over the expansion gap shall be
removed for the proper functioning of expansion joint.
Such situations should be avoided and the normal
codal procedures need to be adopted[1].
The condition of the road surface shown in Fig.4
(b&c) is bad and needs replacement of old mastic with
a new layer of mastic after crack repair and profile
correction.
(c ) Clogged Joint
Fig.12 Different Situations of Mastic Overlay
TECHNICAL PAPERS
room is high, they use animal like elephant/camel or
small wooden ladder to fulfill their purpose. The steel
roller bearings (about 80 odd numbers) were either
partially (roller) or completely stolen from a bridge
in Delhi as shown in Fig. 14. The girders remained in
hanging state, without any support (refer Fig.14b) until
it was noticed by the concerned authority. On noticing
the theft, the concerned authority put wooden blocks
under the longitudinal girders (Fig. 14c). During the
rehabilitation of this bridge, new steel bearings have
been installed with anti-theft arrangement which has
CONCLUSIONS
74
TECHNICAL PAPERS
REFERENCES
1.
IRC:SP:69-2005 Guidelines
Expansion Joints.
2.
3.
4.
5.
9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are thankful to Director, CSIR-Central Road
Research Institute, New Delhi for granting permission
&
Specifications
for
B.
**Retired/Retiring Officers from Govt. bodies, having sound health &relevant experience are also encouraged to apply.
****Solid Waste Management, Water Treatment Experts, Public Health Engineers, Architects, Urban Planners, Landscape
Planners, Horticulturists are also required.
*****
for
Developers/Concessionaires
for
all
types
of
Interested candidates may apply (indicating the relevant post) with their recent CV, copies of testimonials and photograph to
redecon1@gmail.com
75
204.1.1 For bridges classified under Clause 201.1, the design live load shall consist of standard wheeled or
204.1
Details of I.R.C Loadings
tracked vehicles or trains of vehicles as illustrated in Figs. 1, 2 & 3 and Annex A. The trailers attached to the
204.1.1
classifiedasunder
Clause 201.1, the design live load shall consist of standard wheeled
driving unit are
not toFor
bebridges
considered
detachable.
or tracked vehicles or trains of vehicles as illustrated in Figs. 1, 2 & 3 and Annex A. The trailers attached
204.1.3 For each standard vehicle or train, all the axles of a unit of vehicles shall be considered as acting
For each causing
standard vehicle
or train,
all the axles of a unit of vehicles shall be considered as
simultaneously204.1.3
in a position
maximum
stresses.
acting simultaneously in a position causing maximum stresses.
76
Amendment to IRC:6-2010
Notes Under Fig. 1:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
The nose to tail spacing between two successive vehicles shall not be less than 90m for tracked vehicle
and 30m for wheeled vehicle.
For multi-lane bridges and culverts, each Class 70R loading shall be considered to occupy two lanes and
no other vehicle shall be allowed in these two lanes. The passing/crossing vehicle can only be allowed on
lanes other than these two lanes. Load combination is as shown in Table 2.
The maximum loads for the wheeled vehicle shall be 20 tonne for a single axle or 40 tonne for a bogie of
two axles spaced not more than 1.22m centres.
Class 70R loading is applicable only for bridges having carriageway width of 5.3m and above
(i.e. 1.2 x 2 + 2.9 = 5.3). The minimum clearance between the road face of the kerb and the outer edge of
the wheel or track, C, shall be 1.2m.
The minimum clearance between the outer edge of wheel or track of passing or crossing vehicles for
multilane bridge shall be 1.2m. Vehicles passing or crossing can be either same class or different class,
Tracked or Wheeled.
Axle load in tonnes, linear dimension in meters.
For tyre tread width deductions and other important notes, refer NOTES given in Annex A.
77
Amendment to IRC:6-2010
NOTES UNDER FIG. 2:
1)
The nose to tail distance between successive trains shall not be less than 18.5m.
2)
For single lane bridges having carriageway width less than 5.3m, one lane of Class A shall be considered
to occupy 2.3m. Remaining width of carriageway shall be loaded with 500 Kg/m2, as shown in Table 2.
3)
For multi-lane bridges each Class A loading shall be considered to occupy single lane for design purpose.
Live load combinations as shown in Table 2 shall be followed.
4)
11.4
6.5
2.7
5)
B (mm)
W (mm)
250
200
150
500
380
200
The minimum clearance, f, between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway face of the kerb and the
minimum clearance, g, between the outer edges of passing or crossing vehicles on multi-lane bridges shall
be as given below:
Above 6.1m
1.2m
f
150mm for all carriageway widths
(*) = [2x(1.8+0.5)+0.4+2x0.15]
(**) = [2x(1.8+0.5)+1.2+2x0.15]
6)
78
Amendment to IRC:6-2010
79
Amendment to IRC:6-2010
IRC: 6-2010
6.8
4.1
1.6
B (mm)
W (mm)
200
150
125
380
300
175
4) For bridges having carriageway width less than 5.06m, only single lane of Class B loading shall
be considered.
5) The minimum clearances, f, between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway face of the kerb
and the minimum clearance, g, between the outer edges of passing or crossing vehicles on multilane bridges shall be as given below:
6) Axle loads in tonne. Linear dimensions in metre.
Clear carriageway width
5.06m(*) to 5.86m(**)
Above 5.86m
1.2m
f
150mm for all
carriageway widths
(*)= [2x(1.8+0.38)+0.4+2x0.15]
(**)= [2x(1.8+0.38)+1.2+2x0.15]
80
IRC: 6-2010
Amendment to IRC:6-2010
204.1.4 Vehicles in adjacent lanes shall be taken as headed in the direction producing maximum
stresses.
204.1.5 The spaces on the carriageway left uncovered by the standard train of vehicles shall not
be assumed as subject to any additional live load unless otherwise shown in Table 2.
204.2
The dispersion of loads through the fills above the arch shall be assumed at 45 degrees both along and
perpendicular to the span in the case of arch bridges.
204.3
This clause shall be read in conjunction with Clause 112.1 of IRC: 5.The carriageway live load
combination shall be considered for the design as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Live Load Combination
Sl.
No.
1)
Carriageway Width
(CW)
Less than 5.3
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Load Combination
One lane of Class A considered to
occupy 2.3m. The remaining width of
carriageway shall be loaded with 500
kg/m2
5
6
NOTES:
1)
The minimum width of the two-lane carriageway shall be 7.5m as per Clause 112.1 of IRC: 5.
2)
See Note No. 2 below Fig. 1A of Annex A regarding use of 70R loading in place of Class AA
Loading and vice-versa.
81
Amendment to IRC:6-2010
IRC: 6-2010
1 LANE
CLASS A
2.
2 LANES
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS A
CLASS A
3.
3 LANES
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS A
82
IRC: 6-2010
Amendment to IRC:6-2010
TABLE 2 : LIVE LOAD COMBINATIONS
S.NO. NO. OF LANES
FOR DESIGN
PURPOSE
4.
CONTD......
4 LANES
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS 70R(W)
5.
5 LANES
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
83
IRC: 6-2010
Amendment to IRC:6-2010
TABLE 2 : LIVE LOAD COMBINATIONS
S.NO. NO. OF LANES
FOR DESIGN
PURPOSE
5.
5 LANES
CONTD.....
CONTD.....
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
6.
6 LANES
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
84
10
Amendment to IRC:6-2010
TABLE 2 : LIVE LOAD COMBINATIONS
S.NO. NO. OF LANES
FOR DESIGN
PURPOSE
6.
IRC: 6-2010
CONTD.....
6 LANES
CONTD.....
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
85
11
Amendment to IRC:6-2010
(To be inserted below the existing NOTES FOR LOAD CLASSIFICATION CHART of IRC:6 )
WHEELED VEHICLE
Fig. 1A Class AA Tracked and Wheeled Vehicles (Clause 204.1)
The nose to tail spacing between two successive vehicles shall not be less than 90m.
2)
For multi-lane bridges and culverts, each Class AA loading shall be considered to occupy two lanes and
no other vehicle shall be allowed in these two lanes. The passing/crossing vehicle can only be allowed on
lanes other than these two lanes. Load combination is as shown in Table 2.
3)
The maximum loads for the wheeled vehicle shall be 20 tonne for a single axle or 40 tonne for a bridge
of two axles spaced not more than 1.2m centres.
4)
Class AA loading is applicable only for bridges having carriageway width of 5.3m and above
(i.e. 1.2 x 2 + 2.9 = 5.3). The minimum clearance between the road face of the kerb and the outer edge of
the wheel or track, C, shall be 1.2m.
5)
86
Amendment to Clause No. 209.3.3 and new notes below Table Nos. 3.1, 3.2 & 3.4
of IRC: 6-2010 Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road
Bridges, Section II Loads and Stresses (Fifth Revision)
{As approved by IRC Council during in its 198th meeting held on 8.1.2013 at Coimbatore
(Tamil Nadu)}
These amendments were prepared and recommended by Load & Stresses Committee (B-2) of IRC and
placed before the BSS Committee. The BSS Committee in its meeting held on 12th December, 2012
approved these amendments. The Council in its 198th meeting held on 8th January, 2013 approved these
amendments.
These amendments are also available on IRC Website for wider circulation and benefit of the Highways
professionals.
Sub Clause No.
209.3.3
Para (iv)
Existing
For bridge decks supported by single
beam or box girder CD shall be taken
as 1.5 for b/d ratio of 2 and as 1.3 if
b/d 6. For intermediate b/d ratios
CD shall be interpolated. For deck
supported by two or more beams or
box girder it shall be taken as 1.5
times C D for the single beam or box,
however the value shall not be less
than 1.3.
Nil
Nil
Nil
Proposed
For bridge decks supported by single beam or
box girder CD shall be taken as 1.5 for b/d
ratio of 2 and as 1.3 if b/d 6. For intermediate
b/d ratios CD shall be interpolated. For deck
supported by two or more beams or box girders,
where the ratio of clear distance between the
beams or boxes to the depth does not exceed 7,
CD for the combined structure shall be taken
as 1.5 times C D for the single beam or box.
For calculation of time period and seismic
force, dead load, SIDL and appropriate
live load as defined in 219.5.2, shall not be
enhanced by corresponding partial safety
factor as given in Table 3.1 and shall be
calculated using unfactored loads.
For calculation of time period and seismic
force, dead load, SIDL and appropriate live load
as defined in 219.5.2, shall not be enhanced
by corresponding partial safety factor as given
in Table 3.2 and shall be calculated using
unfactored loads.
For calculation of time period and seismic
force, dead load, SIDL and appropriate live load
as defined in 219.5.2, shall not be enhanced
by corresponding partial safety factor as given
in Table 3.4 and shall be calculated using
unfactored loads.
87
(b)
0.6 m
1.5 m
Embedment depth
a)
b)
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
The IRC has recently brought out the following publications, which will be
quite beneficial to the highway professionals:
a) New Publications:
i)
b) Revised Publications:
i)
* Copies of these publications can be obtained from IRC Office
against cash payment or can be purchased online through IRC
website: www.irc.org.in. For more details please contact + 91 11 2338 7759 or
E-mail: sale@irc.org.in
* Students pursuing BTech/MTech/Phd courses can avail 25% discount on purchase
of IRC publications.
96