Assessment to be handed in as a Power Point Presentation

Student Name: Sutthisrisaarng Pholpark

Student Number: 17682974
Date submitted: 9 October 20 14

Geophysics for defining the saline

water interface
Theoretical background
Saline water is defined by a concentration of chloride
exceeding 250 mg/l (Grube et al. 2000, quote in Kirsch
2006, 423).
The main source of saline groundwater are seawater
intrusion in coastal areas (the problem of this study) ,
salt domes, high concentration of minerals in ground
water under arid conditions (Kirsch 2006, 423).
When aquifers have hydraulic contact with seawater,
seawater intrusions happen as a consequence of higher
density of saltwater (Kirsch 2006, 423).

 Theoretical background (continue)

Balanced (top) and disturbed (below) salt/freshwater interface in a

coastal area (after Keller 1988, quoted in Kirsch 2006, 424 )

Disturbing the equilibrium between freshwater and saltwater by high pumping

rate for water supple decreases depth of salt/freshwater interface and
influences saltwater intrusion (Kirsch 2006, 424).

 Petrophysics
Radar and moisture content
The propagation speed of magnetic wave used for timedepth calculation in GPR can be calculated from:

C is a speed of light in vacuum C = 3 x 10^8 m/s

Electric permittivity depends on polarisation properties

of material (Kirsch 2006, 16).

Typical values for are: water = 80, saturated sand = 20
30, and air = 1 (Kirsch 2006, 16).
of material increases with water (moisture) content in a
material because of water is as high as 80.
From GPR travel time equation, increasing moisture
content -> increases ->reduces speed of GRP propagation.

Petrophysics

Water content
Electric permittivity
GPR velocity

Permittivity of glacial sediments from Finland and Wisconsin (USA) in

relation to water content (after Sutinen 1992, quoted in Kirsch 2006, 17 )

Petrophysics

Radar and moisture content (continue)

Topps relationship
Topps relationship is a relationship between apparent

electrical permittivity and volumetric soil water content

(m^3 m^(-3)) proposed by Topp et al. 1980 (Huisman et
al. 2003, 478).
=-5.3 102 +2.92 102 5.5 104 2 + 4.3 106 3
The apparent permittivity used in the equation obtained

from measurement of electromagnetic propagation

velocity in the soil.
We can use GPR apparent velocity from GPR data
processing to calculate apparent permittivity from the
velocity equation and then use the calculated apparent
permittivity to obtain soil water content in Topps
equation.

 Radar and water chemistry: Impact of saline water

on velocity
In saline water, is reduced because of dissolved salt
ions reduce polarisability of water (Kirsch 2006, 17).
is reduced by degrees of salinity.
From GPR velocity :

Salinity

GPR velocity

GPR velocity increases with salinity.

 Radar and water chemistry: Impact of saline water

on amplitude.
As EM wave (GPR) propagates through a conductor
material, its amplitude is absorbed (Musset and Khan
2000, 218).
The skin depth equation is used to determine depth of
EM wave penetration when its amplitude drops to 1/e
of the amplitude at depth = 0 (Musset and Khan 2000,
218).

= 503

Salinity
Resistivity
Amplitude attenuation

Depth of penetration increases with resistivity.

Resistivity of water decreases with its salinity.
So that the degrees of amplitude attenuation increases

with a salinity of water.

 Salinity
a measure of the concentration of total dissolved solids

in water (Department of Water 2009).

0500 mg/L; fresh
5001500 mg/L; fresh to marginal
15003000 mg/L; brackish
>3000 mg/L; saline (Department of Water 2009).
Relates to water resistivity which can be explained by Cl
ion content.

Petrophysics

DC resistivity
DC resistivity and conductivity of water rely heavily on
Chloride (Cl) ion content(Kirsch 2006, 424).
Cl ion content can be used to define water type (Kirsch
2006, 424).

Fresh water: Cl ions < 150 mg/l or ppm

brackish water: Cl ions are between 150 - 10000 mg/l
Saltwater: Cl ions >10000 mg/l

The more degree of Cl content, the more conductivity of

the water (low resistivity).

Petrophysics

DC resistivity

The conductivity of saltwater (at 18C) in relation to the Cl- content

(after TNO 1976, quoted in Kirsch 2006, 427)

Petrophysics

DC resistivity and sand/sandstone resistivity

Archies law for the resistivity of water saturated clay-free

material can be described as

=
Formation factor
=
m depends on cementation of the grains, influence by
pores geometry, the compaction, the mineral compositions
(Ransom 1984, quoted in Kirsch 2006, 9)
a is related to influence of mineral grains on current flow,
a=1 for perfect insulator grains and reduces according to the
degree of conductivity (Kirsch 2006, 9).
is porosity of the material which is the fraction of
sentiment that is pore space (Musset and Khan 2000, 184).
Overall, Arhies Law describes that the resistivity of aquifer
is not only related to salinity of water content but also
cementation, degrees of conductivity of material and
porosity.

Petrophysics

DC resistivity and Clay content/type

In clay content material, traditional Archies law is no

longer valid since its fine particles trap a film of electrolyte

around them (Musset and Khan 2000, 184) .
Clayey material is considered as a low resistive material
ranging from 5 60 ohm*m due to it has high surface
conductivity (Kirsch 2006, 12).
Electrical charge at the clay mineral surface is negative
because cations ions in clay minerals are replaced by
cations of higher valence (Kirsch 2006, 12).
Cation Exchange capacity (CEC) is a quantification of
compensating the negative charges by the concentration of
cation ions in the pore water adjacent to the mineral
surface (Kirsch 2006, 13).
CEC strictly depends on mineral contents at a particular
area (Kirsch 2006, 14) and salinity of water content.

 DC resistivity and Clay content/type (continue)

Resistivity decreases proportionally to CEC under the

same temperature, porosity and salinity conditions

(Ussher et al. 2000).

Typical CEC values for clays ( after Grim 1953, quoted in Ussher et al. 2000, 1917)

From the table, determining from CEC average value,

smectite clay should have the lowest resistivity

compared to other clay minerals.
CEC -> Resistivity

Petrophysics

AMT: Audio-magnetotellurics

AMT is one of electromagnetic sounding method

which employs ratio between electric field and

magnetic field to calculate lateral electrical
resistivity of the subsurface.
AMT source: natural EM sources from natural
variations of Earths magnetic field cause by solar
energy or lightening.
When magnetic field travels from very far field,
its orientation almost parallel Earths subsurface.
Since a very high resistivity contrast between air
and the subsurface, after the wave hit subsurface,
it travels down through the subsurface vertically
and generates current flow horizontally in the
subsurface while travelling.

Petrophysics

AMT: Audio-magnetotellurics (Continue)

AMT is more sensitive to a conductive unit e.g.

groundwater because current flows horizontally and it tries

to avoid travelling through a resistive unit.
The frequency range of AMT is from 5 Hz 100,000 Hz,
with penetration depth from several meters up to 100 km+
which relatively shallow compared to MT (10 m 500 km),
however, it gives higher resolution than MT.
Penetration depth of AMT depends on frequency of a
particular wave and resistivity of the subsurface at a
particular area (use skin depth principle to explain since
ATM the source is one of electromagnetic wave).
AMT method is not suitable to perform t in city areas
because there are too much artificial electromagnetic wave
sources e.g. mobile signal, power lines (50Hz for Australia)
which disturb the natural EM source.

Petrophysics

GPR versus EM versus DC resistivity

the main differences
Source

GPR: High frequency electromagnetic field 1 kHz 100 MHz

EM:
FEM: AC current (continuous, multi frequencies) 100 50,000 Hz
TEM: low frequency square wave 1 ms 1 sec on time
DC resistivity: DC Current

Measure
GPR: Travel time of EM reflection

EM:
FEM: Primary and secondary electromagnetic field (In-phase and quadrature response)
TEM: Decay curve of EM field after current has been just turned off (transient response)
DC resistivity: potential different of the subsurface
Depth of investigation
GPR: 1m 1 km
EM:
FEM: 1 100 m
TEM: 10m 30+ km
DC resistivity : 1 1000 m
Purpose
GPR: Imaging near surface structure
EM: mapping subsurface resistivity
DC resistivity : mapping subsurface resistivity

Location
The Ern Halliday Recreation Camp is located on
Whitfords Avenue, Hillarys.
In a view of hydrogeological, the site is selected
due to its location is between saline water source
(Perth coast) and fresh water source (artificial
lake) with height 1 - 2 m below the sea level. In
addition, groundwater in superficial aquifer flows
from the crest of the Gnangara Mound toward the
coast and increases its salinity in the direction of
flow and with depth (Department of Water WA
2009). We assume that there is a hydraulic contact
between these sources at superficial aquifer, hence
there is a high potential to observe a salinity
interface at the site.

Location (continue)
In a view of geophysical, we expected to observe physical

variations e.g. resistivity and electrical permittivity of the

subsurface along the survey transverse due to salinity
gradient from Perth basin towards the survey site (inverse
direction of groundwater flow).

The survey area

https://www.google.com.au/maps

Field Work Background

Perth Basin Aquifers
Can be explained by Gnangara groundwater system which is composed of superficial aquifer,
Leederville aquifer, Yarragadee aquifer (major) and Connectivity of aquifers
(minor)(Department of Water WA 2009).
Highest groundwater 75 m above the sea level locates at the crest of the Gnangara Mound and
water flows away from this high point towards the Indian Ocean, the Swan River, Ellenbrook
and Gingin Brook (Department of Water WA 2009).

Gnangara system hydrogeological cross-section

(after Gnangara Sustainability Strategy Situation statement, department of water WA 2009)

 Perth Basin Aquifer: Superficial aquifer

A major unconfined aquifer consist of the Quaternary

Tertiary sediments of the coastal plain: Safety Bay Sand,

Tamala Limestone, Bassendean Sand, Gnangara Sand,
Guildford clay (Department of Water WA 2009).
Maximum thickness 75 m, with average 45 m.
Groundwater in the Superficial aquifer is generally fresh,
flows from the crest of the Gnangara Mound (less than 250
milligrams per litre total dissolved solids (TDS)) toward the
coast and increases its salinity with flow direction and
depth (Department of Water WA 2009).

 Perth Basin Aquifer: Leederville aquifer

A major confined aquifer consist of the Henley sandstone

member of the Osborne Formation and the Pinjar,

Wanneroo and Mariginiup Members of the Leederville
Formation (Department of Water WA 2009).
Ranges in thickness up to 500 m (Department of Water WA
2009).
The groundwater salinity ranges from less than 500
milligrams per litre TDS to in excess of 3000 milligrams per
litre TDS (Department of Water WA 2009).
Restricted to public water supply for supplying Perth with
drinking water (Department of Water WA 2009).

 Perth Basin Aquifer: Yarragadee aquifer

A major confined aquifer comprising; the Cretaceous Gage

Formation; the Parmelia Formation; and the Jurassic

Yarragadee Formation (Department of Water WA 2009).
Thickness in Perth region excess 2,000 m (Department of
Water WA 2009).
Salinity ranges from less than 500 milligrams per litre TDS
to in excess of 3000 milligrams per litre TDS (Department
of Water WA 2009).

Field Work Background

Comparable Saline Water Intrusions / Interface studies

Fitzpatrick et al. (2007), propose technics to map salt-loads at the Murray
River, Australia by using airborne and in-river electromagnetic methods.

Conductivity mapping (a) In-river nanoTEM and (b) RESOLVE airborne EM

(after Fitzpatrick et al. 2007 )

Both airborne EM and in river EM successfully investigate fine scale variations

in water flow direction and showing alternation between losing and gaining
groundwater in a river.

Field Work Background

The Perth Water Supply and the PRAMS Ground water model

Conceptual model of PRAMS

(after Perth Regional Aquifer Modelling System (PRAMS) scenario modelling for the Gnangara
Sustainability Strategy , department of water WA 2009)

Objectives
To employ various geophysical methods to investigate the saline water interface
along Perths coastal and river margins.
To understand the overview of Perths hydrogeological system which
contributes to supportive information in selecting geophysical methods to
investigate the saline water interface.
To understand water chemistry effects in physical properties of water which are

the objects of geophysical investigation.

To understand limits of geophysical methods in water chemistry assessment.
To provide recommendations on geophysical methods that could be deployed
at a large scale to better understand groundwater chemistry distribution only
Perth's coastal and river margins (Environmental Geophysics Blackboard).
Since a saltwater interface to the freshwater aquifers is present along the coast
and adjacent to the Swan River estuary, abstraction from areas near river along
the coast influences saltwater intrusion to fresh water aquifer which results in
the deterioration of water quality in the freshwater aquifers (Department of
water 2009). Employing geophysical methods in water chemistry assessment
helps to detect the problem in the early stage.

TEM data

Acquisition
Transmitter section
Power source

Typically, the power source for TEM is DC power supply e.g. battery.

Transmitter instrument

The transmitter operate by using power from DC power source as and

input and sending low frequency square wave signal as an output to
transmitter loop. The transmitted signal parameters e.g. rise time,
ramp, initial delay, duty cycle and data listen time can be adjusted as
user desires. In a very conductive target, signal frequency can be as low
as 1 Hz. Increasing number of stack, increases signal to noise ratio,
however, it also increases measurement time.

TEM transmission waveform

(after Pethick 2014)

TEM data (continue)

Transmitter loop

The rectangular electrical wire transmitter loop, controlled by

transmitter instrument. Transmitter area can be adjusted
according to the purpose of a survey.
Receiver section
Receiver instrument The receiver instrument is used to record a
transient response after transmitted current is turned off for an
interpretation. Since the response is varied by time, the recording is
divided into channel which is time window for each recording. The
early channels have smaller bin width than late channels due to the
field variation in the early time is higher than the late time.
Receiver loop
The receiver loop receives induced voltage (emf = dB/dT)
generated by variation of induction current.

TEM data
Processing

Outliers removal: remove bad data and bad channel (too low or too

high value, out of trend value, negative number).

Interpretation
Each decay curve of measured data can be calculated and plot in

apparent resistivity curve.

To investigate the saline water interface, we expect to the resistivity
curve to reduce from the survey area towards the coastal direction.
This apparent resistivity curve can also be use to construct layered earth
model. Geological knowledge of a survey area is used to determine
number of layers and layers resistivity for a start model.
TEM method is not suitable for a build up area. After current is turned
off, current caused by an abruptly change of electromagnetic field
travel downward and outwards through like a smoke ring. What we
measure is the decay of an electromagnetic caused by that current
smoke ring. Since the electromagnetic field magnitude is small,
disturbance electromagnetic signal from artificial sources e.g. radio
signal, power line can mask the received signal and ruin the
measurement, consequently the measured data can not be interpreted
accurately.

Surface Radar
Acquisition
Equipment

Antenna sending a very short pulse wave, contains frequencies

in the range 25 1000 MHz. The shorter pulse the higher
frequency.
The pulse creates electromagnetic field propagates through
the subsurface and propagates back to the atmosphere
received by receiver.
This system require an accuracy GPS to sense the survey
location.
The system can be carried around the survey transvers.
Since travel time of each pulse lasts only a few nanoseconds,
Radar can cover the survey area very fast.

Surface Radar
Processing

Assigned geometry

Reduce effects of diffraction which

obscure true reflection
Smoothing data

Use average velocity

Amplitude recovery
Remove inherent and nonlinear noises
to correct topographic to enhance weak reflectors associated with the antenna characteristic

Convert travel time to depth

General processing flow for the large-scale GPR dataset

(after Strobach et al. 2010)

Surface Radar
Processing (continue)
Radar processing method is very familiar with seismic data
processing.
Interpretation
Radar is effective method to mapping a water table depth because a
water table has high electrical permittivity cause a high electrical
permittivity contrast between a water table and the upper layer,
consequently water table interface is a strong radar reflector and
can clearly recognize in radar data.
Radar can propagate faster in high electrical permittivity material.
Saline water has higher electrical permittivity than fresh water,
hence radar propagate faster as degrees of salinity.
In radar survey, radar image is better (clearly see the subsurface
structure) when survey in unsaturated zone because it has higher
resistivity than saturated zone, so radar energy is less attenuated
while it propagates. As a result of less attenuation in unsaturated
zone, higher energy reflect back to a receiver so we can see radar
image clearer.
Radar image is hard to interpret when conduct a survey in high
saturated zone, due to high energy absorption by low resistivity
material and low energy reflect back to a receiver.

Surface Radar (continue)

Interpretation
Rainfall recharge reduces salinity of water content in the subsurface.
Radar travels slower in the less degrees of salinity. Hence, rainfall
recharge affects radar in reducing velocity of propagation.
However, in dry area, rainfall recharge reduces radar depth of
penetration because it increases moisture content in the subsurface,
hence, decrease resistivity.
While radar propagates in low conductivity materials, it is highly
attenuated by energy absorption in these material. As saline water
has low resistivity, radar can travel in a shorter distance compared to
traveling in water with less degrees of salinity.
To deploy Radar in a particular area with different survey time, the
depth of investigation may varied. Since the moisture content is
changed by the annual rainfall cycle, it changes the subsurface
resistivity of that area, and subsequently changes radar depth of
penetration.
Since radar in one of EM methods, it does not work well in build up
areas because there are to much artificial EM sources e.g. power
line, radio signal which could mask received radar signal and ruin
survey data.

AMT

Acquisition
Equipment :

2 coils for recording natural magnetic field in x and y plains. The

orientation of coils need to precise to recover frequency of the
signal. If need to record magnetic field in Z component (3D
Earth), 1 more coil need to be added (z plain).
4 non-polarise electrodes (EW and NS) for record electric field
in EW and NS direction.
GPS for record the survey position, and synchronize times
between these equipment.
A recording unit for recording amplitude and phase of electric
field and magnetic field.
Data acquisition durations for AMT can take from 1 hour up to 24
hours depends on desires frequency content in the data which is
directly related to the depth of investigation. The higher
frequency, the shorter penetration depth (skin depth relation).

AMT

Acquisition (continue)

AMT Survey layout (after Moombarring geophysics 2014)

http://www.moombarriga.com.au/?ContentID=26

AMT
Type equation here.Processing
Measure two to three components of the magnetic field and two components of the

electric field. Time synchronize is done by GPS (Takam 2013).

Apparent resistivity :

1
=
0

1 2
=
0

= 2 0 = 4 107 1
Correction for Static shift (vertical displacements of the apparent resistivity

sounding curves, between adjacent sites due to boundary charges on surficial

inhomogeneties) (Takam 2013).
Noise removal (Ground motion, power lines, radio transmitters, electric current
from irrigation pumps, electric fence) (Takam 2013).

AMT
Interpretation:
The calculated apparent resistivity can be plotted as in a

sounding curve in resistivity method.

To investigate the saline water interface, we expect to the
resistivity curve to reduce from the survey area towards the
coastal direction.
This sounding curve can also be use to construct layered
earth model. Geological knowledge of a survey area is used
to determine number of layers and layers resistivity for a
start model.
The data cannot be interpreted correctly in a build up area
due interference signals source e.g. power lines, radio can
mask measured natural magnetic signal which as small as
few thousands of nano Tesla. The collected data from this
survey is unusable.

DC Resistivity
Acquisition
Schlumberger array is deployed in the survey.

Schlumberger array is suitable for vertical electrical sounding for

modelling layered-earth.
As current electrode moving further (to decrease depth of current
penetration), measured voltage difference is increased. Then
transmission current is increased to compensate this effect.

DC Resistivity (continue)
Processing
Apparent resistivity in Schlumberger array can be computed as the

equation below.

If the computed resistivity too low or too high it need to be removed from

the data for interpretation accuracy.

DC Resistivity
Interpretation
Schlumberger array is suitable for electrical vertical sounding and
its result can be used to created layered-earth model.
Each layer is characterized by layer resistivity.
Since each material has a specific resistivity, we can deduce material
type in each model layer from it resistivity.
This method can be used to map water table.
Future work:
For saline water interface, dipole-dipole array is a suitable array for
apparent resistivity profiling because we can obtain apparent
resistivity at a particular station along a survey line from this array.
If there is saline water interface in the area, we expect to observe
apparent resistivity increase towards Perth coastal.

Conclusions
TEM, AMT and DC resistivity (dipole-dipole array) can be used to investigate
water chemistry variation. Since salinity changes water resistivity and
conductivity, these methods can be deployed to map distribution of the saline
water interface.
Radar is suitable from mapping high resolution surface structure which can be
use to investigate a depth of the water table. In addition, radar propagation

velocity is related to salinity, as it velocity increases with salinity, it may be use

to map distribution of the saline water interface.
The survey area is considered as urban area, there are a number of artificial
electromagnetic sources e.g. power line, radio signal, as a result of these
interference signals, all range of EM methods (TEM, AMT and radar) fail to yield
good survey results
The most suitable method for mapping distribution of the saline water interface
in Hilary area is DC resistivity method with dipole-dipole array. It can be used to
map apparent resistivity profile, hence it can investigate the distribution from
varying in apparent resistivity.
AMT theatrically yields the highest depth of penetration. However, distribution
of the saline water interface in superficial aquifer which the average depth is 45
m, so all of these method satisfies minimum depth investigation key point.

Recommendations
Seismic reflection methods can be used to map water table which contribute
understanding to water flow path and determine possible location of saltwater interface.
Moving groundwater containing salt cause potential different at the subsurface and it
distribution can be investigated by self-potential method.
Several drilling holes may be used to collect water sample and test it salinity at lab to
observe salinity trend from hole locations.
Downhole EM can be use to investigate resistivity variation a particular depth to observe
salinity variation from resistivity.
Wireline logging can be used as the same principle as downhole EM.
Numerical flow and solute transport modelling can be used determine potential saltwater
interface from water flow path. It is a valuable information to determine appropriate
drilling hole locations to observe saltwater interface. In addition, it is a supportive
information to select potential location of saltwater interface for geophysical
investigation.

References
Musset, Alan E, and M Aftab Khan. 2000. Looking Into the Earth. New York:

Cambridge UniversityPress
Strobach, E. Harris, B.D. and Dupuis, J.C. and Kepic, A.W. and Martin, M.W. 2010.
GPR for largescale estimation of groundwater recharge distribution. 13th
International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Jun 21 2010, pp. 16. Lecce, Italy: IEEE.
Ussher, Greg, Colin Harvey, Roy Johnstone and Errol Anderson. 2000.
Understanding The Resistivities Observed In Geothermal Systems. Proceedings
World Geothermal Congress 2000 Kyushu - Tohoku, Japan, May 28 - June 10, 2000
Huisman, J A, S. S. Hubbard, J. D. Redman and A. P. Annan. 2003. Measuring Soil
Water Content with Ground Penetrating Radar: A Review. VADOSE ZONE J (2):
476-490
Department of Water WA. 2009. Gnangara Sustainability Strategy Situation
statement 2009. Perth, Gnungara Sustainability Strategy: Department of Water.
Pethick, Andrew. 2014. Time Domain EM : Profiling. PowerPoint lecture notes.
Takam, Eric. 2013, Magnetotellurics PowerPoint lecture notes.
A. Fitzpatrick, T. J. Munday, V. Berens, M. A. Hatch, A. L. Telfer
Symposium. 2007. Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental
Problems. 410-41.