The Socio-Cultural Situation in the Philippines1)

Nestor Castro, PhD2)

The situation of the Philippines is not too different from that of other countries in
Southeast Asia.

It is confronted by many socio-cultural challenges, such as rapid

population growth, poverty, ethnic and religious conflicts, and other social problems.
1. The Cultural Landscape
The Philippines, situated just above the equator in insular Southeast Asia, is an
archipelago of 7,107 islands. However, not all islands are populated. The biggest islands
are Luzon located in the north, and Mindanao located in the southern portion of the
archipelago. The group of islands found between Luzon and Mindanao are generically
known as the Visayas.
The country is one of the top regions in the world that are characterized by high
biodiversity. It is diverse in terms of ecosystems, genetic resources, species of flora and
fauna, and culture. Because communities have been separated from one another by sea and
mountain, various ethnicities, languages, and dialects have emerged in different parts of the
country.
There are more than 70 ethnic groups that are spread throughout the islands. However,
only eight of these groups make up more than 82 percent of the population. Based on the
2000 Census of Population and Housing, the so-called ethnic majority is made up of the
Tagalog (28.16 percent), Cebuano (23.12 percent), Ilocano (9.07 percent), Hiligaynon (7.57
percent), Bikol (6.01 percent), Waray (3.36 percent), Kapampangan (3.03 percent), and
Pangasinan (1.78 percent). All of these groups are indigenous to Luzon and the Visayas.
The remaining 18 percent of the population consist of the so-called ethnic minorities who
are mainly found in Mindanao and in parts of Luzon and the Visayas. Since 1997, these
ethnic minorities have been legally referred to as indigenous peoples by virtue of the
The Socio-Cultural Situation in the Philippines

Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (IPRA). Adding to the ethnic complexity is the presence of
several migrant populations, such as the Chinese, Indian, Spanish, American, and recently,
Korean communities.
There are various cultural traits that define ethnicity, such as geographical abode, religion,
native costumes, historical tradition, and other markers.

In the Philippines, however,

linguistic difference is the primary criterion for ethnic identity. Thus, the various ethnic
groups are popularly known as ethno-linguistic groups.
According to the Summer Institute of Linguistics, there are 172 languages that are used in
the Philippines. Three of these languages are foreign languages, namely English, Castilian
Spanish, and Minnan Chinese. The remaining 169 languages are indigenous to the country.
One of these indigenous languages is a visual language, i.e. Filipino Sign Language (FSL),
while the rest are spoken languages. Of these spoken languages, one is a Creole language
known as Chavacano while the rest are languages that belong to the Western
Malayo-Polynesian subfamily of languages.
There are several religious traditions as well in the country.

Majority of Filipinos

(approximately 83 percent) consider themselves as Roman Catholics while the rest are
Protestants (9 percent), Muslims (5 percent), and others, including animists (3 percent).
The dominance of Roman Catholicism is attributed to the three centuries of Spanish colonial
rule in the archipelago. Prior to Spanish colonization in 1565, many communities from
Central Luzon all the way to Mindanao had Musim chiefs. In Mindanao, in particular,
three sultanates had been established, namely in Sulu, Lanao, and Maguindanao.

At

present, Muslim settlements are generally found in southwestern Philippines in what is now
known as the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM).
2. Product of History
The distinction between the ethnic majority and the ethnic minority is a product of
the Philippines colonial past. Those groups that have been colonized by Spain and have
been converted into Roman Catholicism became what is now known as the ethnic
majority. On the other hand, those that have continued the practices of their ancestors
became labeled as minorities and indigenous peoples.
While it is true that they indeed make up the majority of the population in terms of
number, the concept of being the majority is also a political construct. These Christian
(dominantly Catholic) groups have more political power than others because they have
embraced the laws and the life-ways of the colonizers. Eventually, they inherited the
Philippine State and perpetuated the laws and practices of their previous colonial masters (i.e.
Spain and, eventually, the US). It is not surprising then when one hears of criticisms from
6

Visayas or Mindanao against what they call as Manila imperialism.

3. Armed Conflict
Armed separatist movements are still found in Mindanao although the strength of these
groups has weakened in recent years. Originally, the Moro National Liberation Front
(MNLF) and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) advocated for an independent
Bangsamoro Republik and pressed their political agenda through armed means.

Both

groups now officially announce that they are amenable to political and cultural autonomy
within the context of the Philippine State. However, there are splinter groups of the MNLF
and the MILF that still engage in armed hostilities with the Philippine military.
To complicate matters is the persistence of an armed Maoist guerilla movement,
especially in remote rural areas. This movement is led by the Communist Party of the
Philippines and its military arm the New Peoples Army (NPA). The CPP-NPA is waging
a protracted peoples war since 1969. It is perhaps the only remaining Maoist armed
group in the world, after the collapse of the Sendero Luminoso in Peru and the shift to
parliamentary struggle of Maoists in Nepal.
Both Muslim separatism and the Maoist insurgency grew in strength during the period of
Marcos dictatorship. Poverty and human rights abuses have contributed to the popularity
of the revolutionary agenda.

Both groups eventually weakened with the peaceful

overthrow of President Ferdinand Marcos in February 1986 and the restoration of

democratic institutions thereafter.
However, the transition to democracy was marked by armed challenges as well coming
from disgruntled military men who waged several coup attempts against the government of
President Corazon Aquino.

All of these coup attempts have been quelled but this

eventually led to a strong political influence on the government by military generals. Up to

the present, the Philippine State remains as a weak state that is constantly faced with
political instability.
4. Overpopulation and Poverty
While the economies of neighboring countries in Southeast Asia grew, such as those of
Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, and to some extent, Indonesia, the Philippines
continued to experience economic difficulties. These economic problems included the
high incidence of poverty, the unequal distribution of wealth, the diminishing buying power
of the Philippine peso, high cost of commodities, lack of basic services, and the presence of
slum communities in urban centers.

Many of these problems could be traced from the

elite-dominated power structure of the country compounded by the lack of economic

The Socio-Cultural Situation in the Philippines

planning and political foresight.

Exacerbating these economic woes is the rapid population growth of the country. The
delivery of services, such as health and education, could not catch up with the growth of the
population.

One stumbling block comes from the ultra-conservative Roman Catholic

Church hierarchy in the Philippines that opposes the governments population management
measures. The Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) openly meddles
into the political affairs of the State by opposing family planning programs, the teaching of
sex education in schools, and the distribution of contraceptives.
The incumbent President Benigno Aquino, Jr. has openly advocated for the passage of
the Reproductive Health (RH) Bill, which gives women the right to choose whether they
want to give birth or not. However, the Catholic Church hierarchy threatened President
Aquino of excommunication from being a Catholic. It would be interesting to monitor the
course of events regarding the RH Bill to see if the Church still gets its way as it has always
done in the past since the Spanish colonial period.
5. Filipino Diaspora
To escape the lack of economic opportunities in the country, many Filipinos have gone
abroad in search of greener pastures. Many of them have moved to different parts of the
world to work as overseas contract workers. As of 2004, there are 3.6 million Filipinos
who are working abroad as contract workers. Most of them are working as industrial and
service workers in the Middle East. The rest are working as domestic helpers in Hong
Kong, English teachers in the Spanish-speaking regions of the US, nurses in Great Britain,
NGO workers in Cambodia, entertainers in Japan, and Catholic missionaries in Africa,
among others.

If one were to add the number of Filipinos who have permanently

migrated to another country, such as in the United States, the number of overseas Filipinos
would reach eight million.
Unlike their Asian brothers, however, Filipinos do not generally bring with them their
culture to a foreign setting. They do not establish Filipino towns similar to those of a
Chinatown. On the contrary, many of them adopt the culture of the host country. Many
of migrant parents discourage their children from speaking their native tongue with the
belief that they could not easily adjust in their new setting if they continue to cling to
Filipino language and identity. Thus, the problem of culture loss is very strong among
Filipino migrant communities.
Moreover, when these overseas Filipinos go back to the Philippines, they carry with them
the culture that they have learned abroad. For example, Filipinos who have worked in Italy
would create Italian towns (i.e. houses made of Italian architecture) in rural communities
8

in the Philippines. Because of domestic poverty and political instability, many Filipinos
become ashamed of being Filipinos and tend to think that the culture of foreigners is more
superior to their own culture.
6. Future for the Philippines
What the future holds for the Philippines is still unknown as there is still an ongoing
tug-of-war between forces of the status quo versus forces advocating for structural change.
In the light of the 150th birth anniversary on June 19, 2011 of Jose Rizal, the Philippine
national hero, it is important to look back at his thoughts about the future of the Philippines.
Rizal was always optimistic that there will be a better tomorrow for the country. He
pinpointed the social ills that beset the Philippines during the late 19th century.
Unfortunately, many of these ills are the same ones that Filipinos face today. Despite those
problems, Rizal believed that they could be overcome. He believed that Filipinos are
brilliant enough to be able to change the lot that they are in. Of course, one should not be
just dreaming about a better future but should actually wake up to work for that better future.
This remains the challenge for Filipinos today.
Notes
1) Opening Address for the International Conference on Social Environment in Contemporary East
Asia in the Age of Globalization: International and Interdisciplinary Studies on Ageing, Agriculture
and Multicultural Situations, 21-22 February 2011, Nagoya, Japan.
2) Secretary General, International Federation of Social Science Organizations (IFSSO), Quezon City,
Philippines.

Bibliography
Abe Junichiro (2010) Japanese Nation-Building and the Formation of Ethnic/Racial Studies in
Imperial Era from the Perspectives of Human Mobility/Displacement: On the exposition projects
and the tourism policies in Japan and Taiwan, Nagoya University [doctoral thesis].
Alegre, Edilberto N., 1993, Pinoy Forever: Essays on Culture and Language. Quezon City: Anvil.
Azurin, Arnold Molina, 1993, Reinventing the Filipino: Sense of Being and Becoming. Quezon City:
CSSP Publications and UP Press.
Covar, Prospero R., 1998, Larangan: Seminal Essays on Philippine Culture. Manila: NCCA.
Enriquez, Virgilio G., 1994, Pagbabangong-dangal: Indigenous Psychology and Cultural Empowerment.
Quezon City: Akademya ng Kultura at Sikolohiyang Pilipino.
Jocano, F. Landa, 1998a, Filipino Indigenous Ethnic Communities: Patterns, Variations, and
The Socio-Cultural Situation in the Philippines

Typologies. Quezon City: Punlad Research House.

Jocano, F. Landa, 1998b, Filipino Social Organization: Traditional Kinship and Family Organization.
Quezon City: Punlad Research House.
Lynch, Frank and Alfonso de Guzman II, eds., 1970, Four Readings on Philippine Values. Quezon City:
ADMU Press.
Macdonald, Charles J.H. and Guillermo M. Pesigan, eds., 2000, Old Ties and New Solidarities: Studies
on Philippine Communities. Quezon City: ADMU Press.
Manuel, E. Arsenio, 1993, Documenting Philippineasian. Quezon City: The Philippineasian Society.
Mulder, Niels, 1997, Inside Philippine Society: Interpretations of Everyday Life. Quezon City: New Day
Publishers.
Pertierra, Raul, 1997, Explorations in Social Theory and Philippine Ethnography. Quezon City: UP
Press.
Pertierra, Raul and Eduardo F. Ugarte, 1993, Cultures and Texts: Representations of Philippine Culture.
Quezon City: UP Press.
Roces, Alfredo and Grace Roces, 2000, Culture Shock! Philippines. Singapore: Singapore: Times Books
International.

10