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1. C. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES include commands, requests, invitations and they are the
field of application of the imperative mood. They end in an exclamation mark.
e.g. Never count your chickens before they are hatched!
Speak a little louder, will you?
It is common knowledge that the most polite invitations, requests or suggestions are questions of
the types: Would you mind waiting outside?/Shouldnt we better put it off?/Shall we discuss it
over lunch? Wont you stay for dinner?
1. D. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES are the field of application of modalities connected with
our emotions. They denote a wide range of feelings such as admiration, enthusiasm, joy, surprise,
happiness, satisfaction, elation, exultation, horror, terror, disgust, disappointment, regret, grief).
They may include an oblique mood an analytic form of the subjunctive, mainly with
should.
2. The second classification in point of structure/form/composition distinguishes three main
types of sentences:
2. A. SIMPLE SENTENCES which express just one thought at a time, by means of one
predicate.
2. B. COMPOUND SENTENCES include more units than one, placed on an equal footing, two
or more clauses discharging the same function.
2. C. COMPLEX SENTENCES are made up of one or more main clauses and one and more
subordinate clauses.
2. D. COMPOUND-COMPLEX (if coordination occurs at the first level) or COMPLEXCOMPOUND (if subordination comes first and coordination at the second level
3. The last classification is that in point of grammatical dependence - INDEPENDENT
SENTENCES (isolated), INDEPENDENT CLAUSES (as part of a compound sentence),
MAIN CLAUSES (head clauses, in complex sentences), SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
(indispensable elements of complex sentences).
Function of the communicative goal, THE SIMPLE SENTENCE can be classified as follows:
1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES (the subject is always expressed and precedes the
predicate): It is night (positive assertion)
The war is still going on.
That slope is very steep. (warning)
2. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES: What do you mean?
3. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES: Just please dont break anything!
4. EXCLAMATIVE SENTENCES: introduced by what or how
What an egoist he must be!
DECLARATIVE SENTENCES:
Either.., Questions: from a structural point of view they may be like general
questions or like special questions:
Will they go by bus or by train?
Are you going to show it to me or to him?
Why didnt you tell the truth to me or to hem?
Negative Questions: Dont you like tea? (auxiliary verb + NOT + subject + finite
verb) or
Do you not like tea? (auxiliary verb + subject + not + finite verb)
Didnt you go to see her? Of course, I did./ No, I didnt.
Did you not go to see her?
Negative questions may express:
surprise: Dont you like Brahms? (Im surprised you dont like Brahms)
Havent you written to them yet?
annoyance, irritation: Arent you going to watch the film? (youre annoyed)
a polite invitation: Wont you have a seat?/ Wont you have an ice-cream?
Echo-Questions repeat a part of the initial question or part of the given information:
What have I done? Done?
My friends are going to Canada. Going to Canada?
Statement-like questions are usually used in colloquial English. They have the
structure of declarative sentences and the intonation of general questions. If the verb
form is negative so will be the answer:
You wont run away from me? (the confirmation of a premonition) No
Youre going to keep him here all night? Yes.
This type of questions may be introduced by SO/AND/THEN during a conversation:
So you have never seen him? No
Then he is a liar? Yes
Isnt he lucky?
Isnt that wonderful?
How should I know?
Who knows?
3. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES express orders (Sit and shut up!), a request (Help me,
please), an invitation (Have another helping!), a word of encouragement (Give it another
try) or instructions (Turn it off, when hot).
They may be followed by WILL YOU?/WONT YOU/ CANT YOU to make the imperative
more categorical: Sit down, will you?/ Dont tell him, will you?
For the sake of emphasis, we add:
- the subject you: Dont you worry!
You take care of yourself!
- The verbdo which for a polite request or an insistent invitation: Do sit down!
Do stop crying!
- So: So do it!
- Adverbs such as NEVER, ALWAYS: Always remember to say Thank you
: Never say its too late!
The imperative form LET ME/US expressing suggestions and offers: Lets go for a walk/
Let me help you.
- LET HER/HIM/IT/THEM expressing orders and permission: Let the dog in.
Let your mother see the letter.
The imperative sentences introduced by LETS may be followed by CAN
WE/SHALL WE to express the acquiescence: Lets just stick to the matter, shall we?
The negative form consists in adding NOT or DONT: Lets not talk about it now.
Dont let anyone in!
4. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES may be introduced by WHAT / HOW:
What a beautiful day it is!
How nicely she sings!
What awful weather were having!
How delightfully she behaves!
What a bright idea! (admiration)
What a stinky man! (disgust)
Structure: The exclamatory word + the emphasized word + subject + predicate or only
keeping the first part, the rest being understood: What weather!
There may also be exclamatory verbless sentences with no exclamatory words either:
Those children of hers! (How rudely her children behave!)
Silly girl! (What a silly girl you are!)
Exclamatory sentences may also be introduced by HERE/THERE/OFF:
Here come the gold-diggers!
There he goes!
Off they ran!
Up flew the kite! (adverb +verb+ noun)
Interjections may function syntactically as independent verbless exclamatory sentences: Yippee! , or
they can precede a typical exclamatory sentence: Oh, what weather!
Drive carefully, because not only cars can be recalled by their maker.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
adverbial of reason)
Always read stuff that will make you look good if you die in the middle of it.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
defining relative clause and adverbial clause of condition)
Eat a live toad in the morning and nothing worse will happen to you for the rest of the day.
(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses)
Accept that some days youre the pigeon, and some days youre the statue.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
nominal clauses functioning as a compound direct object.)
Always keep your words soft and sweet, just in case you have to eat them.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
adverbial clause of condition.)
If you cant be kind, at least have the decency to be vague.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
adverbial clause of condition.)
If you lend someone 20 dollars, and never see that person again it was probably worth it.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two coordinated
subordinate clauses, adverbial clauses of condition)
You shouldnt cry because its over, but smile because it happened.
(the sentence is compound-complex, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses and
two subordinate clauses, adverbial clauses of reason)
You may be only one person in the world, but you may also be the world to one person.
(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses)
We could learn a lot of things from crayons, because although some are sharp, some are pretty,
some are dull, some have weird names, and all are different colours, they all have to learn to
live in the same box.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and six subordinate clauses,
an adverbial clause of reason, five coordinated adverbial clauses of concession)
Happiness comes through doors you didnt even know you left open.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
a defining relative clause and a nominal clause functioning as direct object.)
A banker is a fellow who lends you his umbrella when the sun is shinning and wants it back
the minute it begins to rain. (Mark Twain)
(the sentence is complex, as it contains one independent clause and four subordinate clauses,
two coordinated defining relative clauses, another relative clause and an adverbial clause of
time.)
A consultant is someone who takes the watch off your wrist and tells you the time.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two coordinate
subordinate clauses, defining relative clauses.)
Ive read some of your modern free verse and wonder who set it free.
(the sentence is compound- complex, as it consists of two coordinated independent clause and
one subordinate clause, nominal relative clause, direct object.)
A diplomat is someone who can tell you to go to hell in such a way that you will look forward
to the trip.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
a defining relative clause and an adverbial clause of result.)
Once youve put one of his books down, you simply cant pick it up again. (Mark Twain, of
Henry James)
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of time.)
You have the right to remain silent but anything you do say will be misquoted, then used
against you.
(the sentence is compound- complex, as it consists of three coordinated independent clauses
and one subordinate clause, a defining relative clause.)
The fact that no one understands you doesnt mean youre an artist.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
a nominal clause, noun complement, another nominal clause contained by the independent
clause, subject complement.)
The play was a great success but the audience was a total failure.
(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses.)
Accuracy to a newspaper is what virtue is to a lady, but a newspaper can always print a
retraction.
If a woman hasnt met the right man by the time shes 24, she may be lucky.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
an adverbial clause of condition and a defining relative clause.)
Show me a woman who doesnt feel guilt and Ill show you a man.
(the sentence is compound-complex, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses and
one subordinate clauses, a defining relative clause.)
I only know that people call me a feminist whenever I express sentiments that differentiate me
from a doormat or a prostitute.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and three subordinate
clauses, a nominal clause functioning as a direct object, an adverbial clause of time, a defining
relative clause.)
Once a woman has given you her heart you can never get rid of the rest of her body.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of time)
Although the cost of living is going sky-high, have you noticed how popular it remains?
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
an adverbial clause of concession and a nominal clause, direct object.)
He who laughs last laughs best. He who laughs last thinks slowest.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a defining relative clause.)
You should always borrow money from a pessimist because she/he wont expect it back.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of reason.)
Show me a congenital eavesdropper with the instincts of a Peeping Tom and I will show you
the making of a dramatist.
(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses.)
When everything is coming your own way, youre in the wrong lane and going the wrong way.
(the sentence is compound-complex, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses and
one subordinate clause, an adverbial clause of time)
We should support bacteria if theyre the only culture some people have.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
an adverbial clause of reason and a defining relative clause)
If at first you dont succeed, destroy all evidence that you tried.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
an adverbial clause of condition and a defining relative clause)
Experience is something you dont get until just after you need it.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
a defining relative clause and an adverbial clause of time)
Never do card tricks for the group you play poker with.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a defining prepositional relative clause.)
To steal ideas from one person is plagiarism, but to steal from many is research.
(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two independent clauses coordinated by but.)
If you want to succeed in politics, it is often necessary to rise above your principles.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of condition.)
The Main Library at Indiana University sinks over an inch every year because, when it was
built, engineer failed to take into account the weight of all the books that would occupy the
building.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and three subordinate
clauses, an adverbial clause of reason containing an adverbial clause of time and a defining
relative clause.)
The only 15-letter word that can be spelled without repeating a letter is uncopyrightable.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a defining relative clause.)
If he asks you if you like cards, you should say you only like credit cards.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and three subordinate
clauses, an adverbial clause of condition, two nominal clauses functioning as a direct object.)
The only way to prompt a man to do something for you is to tell him that he is too old to be
able to do that thing.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a nominal clause functioning as a direct object.)
Blessed are they who could laugh at themselves, for they shall never cease to be amused.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
a defining relative clause and an adverbial clause of reason.)
Anytime four New Yorkers get into a cab together without arguing, a bank robbery has just
taken place.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of time.)
When she got married she also got a new name and a dress.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of time.)
When an actress saw her first strands of grey hair, she thought shed dye.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
an adverbial clause of time and a nominal clause functioning as a direct object.)
(from Bullivant, A, The Little Book of Humorous Quotations, Bristol, Siena, 1998.)
The PHRASE is a word group functioning as a single part of speech, namely as a noun, adjective
or adverb.
1. THE NOUN PHRASE: a word group consisting of a noun (the head noun) and any
determiners/modifiers. There are several means of identifying, quantifying, qualifying
and describing.
A. DETERMINERS are qualifiers and they may be specific or unspecific being
classified as central determiners (words that exclude each other in a noun phrase:
articles, demonstrative adjectives, possessive adjectives, indefinite adjectives such as
every, each, some, any, no, either, neither), predeterminers (words that expands the
indefinite article: only a, such a, many a, etc.) and postdeterminers:
both my children (predeterminer + central determiner + noun)
one of my children (predeterminer + central determiner + noun)
all the other children (predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer + noun)
: None, both, few, little, many, much, several, each, some, any+ OF
+noun/pronoun:
None of his ideas was accepted.
All of his friends were present.
Numeratives (a couple of friends, a dozen of eggs, a pair of jeans)
Other determiners: other, such, only, what:
The only way to get there is by boat.
Nouns: door mat, can opener, car industry, cat food, family dinner party,
pain killer, Christmas party
Adjectives: valuable guidance
Composed adjectives (adjective+noun+ed: long-haired, blue-eyed;
adjective/adverb+past
participle:
well-paid
worker;
adjective/adverb/noun + present participle; heart-breaking)
Other adjectives:
Air-conditioned room, brand-new suit, cut-price sale, bullet-proof jacket,
cross-Channel train, lead-free gasoline, long-distance call, man-killing
poison, nuclear-free zone, remote-controlled toys, tax-free cigarettes, topsecrets documents.
Adverbs (the after life),
Word groups (an up-to-date edition)
Clauses (a wear-at-night-throw-in-the-morning outfit).
Missing children
Leading organisation
Canned vegetables
Broken leg
Closed door
Furnished room
Ready-made clothes
Order of adjectives:
An interesting medical experiment (+unspecific determiner + qualifier +
classifier + noun)
A new technological development (+unspecific determiner + qualifier + classifier
+ noun)
A cheap black suit, a nice red wine (qualifier + colour adjective)
A huge silvery-white steel sky-scraper, red velvet shoes, a grey stone building
(qualifier + colour adjective + material)
A tall young woman, an attractive young man, a nicely-dressed elderly woman,
a handsome tall young man (qualifiers + age adjectives )
A lovely cool evening, an amusing cheap novel (adjectives expressing speakers
opinion + another qualifier)
A small square curtainless window
b. Postmodifiers are:
that overwhelmed her IS NOT the fear, it offers more details about her fear.
that she entertained IS NOT the thought but provides additional information about
her thought, while The thought that he might have is the very thought.
that he brought to our attention IS NOT the fact, it gives information about the
fact
Are separated by commas from the rest of the sentence, do not bring essential
information to the sentence they are part in, cannot be introduced by that:
My friend, who lives in Canada, is a doctor. (Ive got only one friend)
Tokyo, which is the capital of Japan, has a rather low crime rate.
Last month more of those children were sent in the country. (adjective phrase, predeterminer
+ of+ central determiner + head noun)
The amazingly beautiful woman proved to be a well-informed journalist. (adjective phrase,
premodifiers)
This is an answer very difficult to ignore. (adjective phrase, postmodifier)
He is smart.(subject complement)
He painted the fence as white as snow. (object complement)
4. THE ADVERB PHRASE: a word group consisting of an adverb plus any modifiers,
functioning as adverbial modifiers.
He plays the guitar extremely beautifully. (adverbial modifier of manner, modifying the
verb phrase plays the piano)
He almost always does this thing. (adverbial modifier of manner)
She comes here very seldom. (adverbial modifier of time)
5. THE VERB PHRASES may be classified as FINITE VERB PHRASES and NONFINITE VERB PHRASES, function of the verb they contain (finite or non-finite verbs).
Finite Verbs may be TRANSITIVE (MONOTRANSITIVE/DITRANSITIVE),
INTRANSITIVE AND LINKING, function of the objects or complements they take.
TRANSITIVE verbs are monotransitive (taking a direct object which may be followed
by an object complement) and ditransitive (taking both direct and indirect objects. The
indirect object may appear at the end of the sentence in the form of a prepositional
phrase.
INTRANSITIVE verbs take no objects, but may be accompanied by adverbial modifiers.
LINKING verbs (COPULAR) take subject complements (nouns, nouns equivalents,
adjectives) which complete the meaning of the subject: appear, be, become, feel, grow,
lie, look, prove, seem, smell, sound, taste.
She tasted the soup. (finite transitive verb + noun phrase, direct object)
The soup tasted great. (noun phrase, subject + linking verb + adjective, subject complement)
A linking verb cannot be followed by an adverb.
FINITE VERB PHRASES contain a finite verb as their only word; there is person and
number concord between subject and the finite verb which is marked for tense
(present/past) and modality. They also express the distinction between the past tense and
the perfect aspect. NON-FINITE VERB PHRASES do not contain a finite verb and are
generally found in subordinate clauses; there is no concord between the subject and the
non-finite verb which is not marked for tense and modality.
1. FINITE VERB PHRASES: word groups consisting of a main verb plus one or more
helping verbs (grammatical auxiliaries be, do, have, or/and modal auxiliaries.
He is celebrating his birthday.
She has been crying.
You could have been hurt.
The finite verb phrase may also include verbs in catenative use (a catenative verb + the
linked form)
a to-infinitive: He agreed to speak to her. I persuaded her to stay;
a bare infinitive: Id rather go now. He saw the door open.