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THE CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

1. Classification in point of content according to the purpose of the communication, to the


speakers attitude or to modality/manner
2. Classification in point of form/structure or composition of the communication
3. Classification in point of status/grammatical dependence
1. CLASIFICATION IN POINT OF CONTENT: from the point of view of content sentences
are normally divided into- DECLARATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, IMPERATIVE AND
EXCLAMATORY function of the attitude which the speaker adopts towards her/his
communication since any communication/statement reflect or reveal an attitude or modality.
Modality can be expressed in various ways: by morphological means (moods, modal
verbs/phrases), by syntactical means (emphatic constructions), by lexical means
(adverbs) or by stylistic means (inversion)
1. A. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES (STATEMENTS) are used to affirm, declare or state
something denoting an assertive attitude, certainty, conviction, etc. They normally end with a
period. Declarative sentences usually resort to the Indicative Mood. Their degree of assertiveness
depends on the presence of strengthening or emphatic adverbs (certainly, undoubtedly,
doubtlessly), of adverbial modifiers denoting probability (probably, perhaps, maybe), of the verb
must to express conviction, the modal will indicating a high degree of probability.
1. B. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES are expressions of the speakers curiosity and they
normally end in a question mark. They are sub-divided into GENERAL,
SPECIAL/PARTICULAR, ALTERNATIVE and DISJUNCTIVE questions.
1. B.1. GENERAL QUESTIONS (YES/NO QUESTIONS) refer to the truth of an entire
sentence and expect a yes/no answer (or a corresponding gesture). They are straightforward
questions as a typical reflexion of genuine curiosity.
e.g. Have you heard the news?/Must you really go?
1. B.2. SPECIAL/PARTICULAR QUESTIONS refer only to a specific part of a statement and
expect a precise answer. They begin with an interrogative pronoun or adverb whose initials are
letters Wh thus justifying their familiar designation Wh-questions.
1. B.3. ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS are based on the presence of several possibilities and they
are subdivides into LIMITED/FINITE (offering two or three possibilities: Do you work nights
or days?/ Whom do you love more mummy or daddy?) and OPEN/UNLIMITED (offering a
larger number of possibilities: Will you have tea, coffee, or..? Shall we go there on Monday or
Tuesday or when?/ Will you put up at the Palace or the Intercontinental or where?).
1. B.4. DISJUNCTIVE QUESTIONS are statements followed by a question which normally has
the opposite direction than the statement: a positive statement followed by an interrogativenegative question or a negative statement followed by an interrogative question proper.
e.g. You can come tonight, cant you?
It hasnt rained, has it?
You wont forget, will you?

1. C. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES include commands, requests, invitations and they are the
field of application of the imperative mood. They end in an exclamation mark.
e.g. Never count your chickens before they are hatched!
Speak a little louder, will you?
It is common knowledge that the most polite invitations, requests or suggestions are questions of
the types: Would you mind waiting outside?/Shouldnt we better put it off?/Shall we discuss it
over lunch? Wont you stay for dinner?
1. D. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES are the field of application of modalities connected with
our emotions. They denote a wide range of feelings such as admiration, enthusiasm, joy, surprise,
happiness, satisfaction, elation, exultation, horror, terror, disgust, disappointment, regret, grief).
They may include an oblique mood an analytic form of the subjunctive, mainly with
should.
2. The second classification in point of structure/form/composition distinguishes three main
types of sentences:
2. A. SIMPLE SENTENCES which express just one thought at a time, by means of one
predicate.
2. B. COMPOUND SENTENCES include more units than one, placed on an equal footing, two
or more clauses discharging the same function.
2. C. COMPLEX SENTENCES are made up of one or more main clauses and one and more
subordinate clauses.
2. D. COMPOUND-COMPLEX (if coordination occurs at the first level) or COMPLEXCOMPOUND (if subordination comes first and coordination at the second level
3. The last classification is that in point of grammatical dependence - INDEPENDENT
SENTENCES (isolated), INDEPENDENT CLAUSES (as part of a compound sentence),
MAIN CLAUSES (head clauses, in complex sentences), SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
(indispensable elements of complex sentences).

Keep into mind!


THE SENTENCE (the way phrases and clauses function within the framework of the sentence)
According to the number and type of clauses they contain, sentences may be
classified as follows:
1. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE consists of one independent clause, with no
subordinate clause.
There was someone at the door. (simple sentence, independent clause)
2. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE is composed of at least two independent
clauses, with no subordinate clause:
There was someone at the door, but we decided not to let anyone in. (two
independent clauses)

3. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE is made up of one independent clause and at


least one subordinate clause:
If you find a mistake in my essay, let me know.
(one subordinate clause, adverbial of conditional, and one independent clause)
4. THE COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE consists of at least two
independents clauses and at least one subordinate clause:
There was someone at the door, but we decided not to let anyone in, because it
was much too late for a visit.
(two independent clauses and one subordinate clause, adverbial of reason)
Tell me who your friends are and I tell you who you are.
(two independent clauses/matrix clauses and two subordinate clauses: nominal
clauses having the syntactic function of direct object)
1. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE can be
Function of the number of elements it contains, the Simple Sentence can be classified as follows:

ONE-MEMBER SIMPLE SENTENCE: London. Implacable November weather. ( a


noun or a noun phrase)
UNEXTENDED TWO-MEMBER SENTENCE: subject + predicate
He disappeared!
Im not coming
She is a teacher.
EXTENDED TWO-MEMBER SENTENCE: subject +predicate + other parts of the
sentence (objects, complements, adverbial modifiers)
She gave him a nod of encouragement. (subject, predicate, indirect and direct object,
complement of preposition)
Nobody agreed with him. (subject-indefinite pronoun, predicate-finite verb, prepositional
object, complement of preposition)
He returned home with no thought of sleep.

Function of the communicative goal, THE SIMPLE SENTENCE can be classified as follows:
1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES (the subject is always expressed and precedes the
predicate): It is night (positive assertion)
The war is still going on.
That slope is very steep. (warning)
2. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES: What do you mean?
3. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES: Just please dont break anything!
4. EXCLAMATIVE SENTENCES: introduced by what or how
What an egoist he must be!
DECLARATIVE SENTENCES:

Youve done that a few times.


To emphasize, we may use they say following after the declarative sentence: Youve
done that a few times, they say.
There are other ways of emphasising:
1. DO/DID: She does work hard.
She did leave her family in the end.
2. FRONTING:
The finite verb: Cook she can
The subject complement: Tall he was.
The object complement: Nasty, I would call it.
The direct object: Gossip I dont like.
The complement of preposition: His behaviour I do object to.
The adverbial modifier of place introduced by THERE IS: On the upper floor there was a
very small room full of books.
The adverbial modifier of time expressed by negative adverbs such as never, barely,
hardly: Little does she know what to do next.
Hardly did he believe what he saw.
Never could he have believe such a thing.
The adverbial modifier of time preceded by the restrictive adverb ONLY:
Only then did he realise what had really happened.
Only weeks later...
Only afterwards did it occur to him that he had not told her the truth.
The simple inversion: Away flew the kite.
EMPHATIC IT/EMPHATIC WHAT in CLEFT SENTENCES:
He worked in a hospital in Germany two years ago.
It is he who...
It was in a hospital that..
It was in Germany where...
It was two years ago that...
We need more money.
What we need is more money.

1. THE NEGATIVE DECLARATIVE SENTENCE:


They havent made an agreement yet. (negative assertion)
He didnt show any urgent curiosity about my doings.
The guests will not be coming tonight.
The weather was not propitious for walks.
The negation may also be done by the use of some negative words (no, none, nobody, nothing,
neither, never, etc).
He had done nothing to harm her (In this case the verb must be affirmative.)
They met nobody in the street.
She was afraid of nobody and nothing.
They had no friends there.
None of them speaks French.
Neither player deserved applauses.
Neither of them was present.
If we use ANY, the verb must be negative:

He hadnt done anything to harm her.


They didnt go anywhere /They went nowhere.
The negation may be realized by neither..nor: She likes neither her nor him.
Many people neither sing nor play instruments.
The adverb neither: I dont fancy going to Athena. Neither do I. Neither do many other people.
(Many other people dont fancy, either.)
Some negative adverbs: scarcely, barely, hardly, rarely, seldom:
He can scarcely walk.
She hardly talked to us.
He could barely believe her eyes.
Negative affixation: dis-, mis-, un-, -less:
She disliked the man./ She didnt like the man.
This sentence is meaningless/without meaning.
The story made her unhappy./The story didnt make her happy.
2. THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE may be classified according to the type of
questions it contains:
- General Questions (Yes/No Questions): asking for information
Are you a student? Yes, I am/No, Im not.
Is this the way to the railway station? Yes, it is/No, it isnt.
Will you join us? Yes, I will/No, I wont.
Do you go skiing in winter? No, I dont. (other possible answers: using adverbs - never,
always, sometimes)
Will he come tonight? Yes, he will. (other possible answers: declarative sentences- I
hope so/ I think so/ I hope not/ I think not/ I expect so/ I dont know)
Regarding the speakers intention, any/anybody, etc, are replaced by
some/somebody: Have you got any matches? (neutral attitude)/Have you got some
matches? (the speaker has the certainty of a positive answer)
General Questions used to ask/to offer something are built with SOME:
Will you have some more cake? Yes, please/No, thank you.
May I have some more icecream? Do help yourself/Im afraid not.
-

Special Questions (Wh-questions) are introduced by interrogative pronouns or


adverbs: what, who, which, whose, whom: What happened? Who left? (when they are
subjects, the structure is that of a declarative sentence)
How did you manage? (asking for an explanation)
In the patterns What, Which, Who + Preposition the preposition comes at the end
of the question (when there is a prepositional verb this topic is compulsory):
Who are you looking for?
Which of them are you going to speak to?
What are you cutting it with?
Short questions are a category of Special Questions and they only contain the
interrogative word following a declarative sentence: She is getting married. When?
Where?
Im going to buy this coat. What for? Whom for? (an additional piece of information is
asked)

Disjunctive Questions (Tail- Questions or Tag-Question). Structure : a declarative


sentence + a general question (the verb is in the opposite form)
She is your age, isnt she? (its a confirmation: if the verb in the declarative sentence is
affirmative, so will be the answer.)
They havent left yet, have they?
You dont know the answer, do you?
You lost the money, did you? (we keep the affirmative form of the verb to express
speakers discontent)
You lost the money, right? (in colloquial English)
Disjunctive Questions with a negative verb form in their first part express polite
requests:
You wouldnt know where I can find the manager, would you?

Either.., Questions: from a structural point of view they may be like general
questions or like special questions:
Will they go by bus or by train?
Are you going to show it to me or to him?
Why didnt you tell the truth to me or to hem?

Negative Questions: Dont you like tea? (auxiliary verb + NOT + subject + finite
verb) or
Do you not like tea? (auxiliary verb + subject + not + finite verb)
Didnt you go to see her? Of course, I did./ No, I didnt.
Did you not go to see her?
Negative questions may express:
surprise: Dont you like Brahms? (Im surprised you dont like Brahms)
Havent you written to them yet?
annoyance, irritation: Arent you going to watch the film? (youre annoyed)
a polite invitation: Wont you have a seat?/ Wont you have an ice-cream?

Special negative questions usually express surprise as a reply at a negative


statement: I cant find a good dictionary anywhere. Where cant you find a good dictionary?
a suggestion: Why dont we go there ourselves?/ Why dont you just tell them the truth?/
Why dont you join us?
-

Echo-Questions repeat a part of the initial question or part of the given information:
What have I done? Done?
My friends are going to Canada. Going to Canada?

Statement-like questions are usually used in colloquial English. They have the
structure of declarative sentences and the intonation of general questions. If the verb
form is negative so will be the answer:
You wont run away from me? (the confirmation of a premonition) No
Youre going to keep him here all night? Yes.
This type of questions may be introduced by SO/AND/THEN during a conversation:
So you have never seen him? No
Then he is a liar? Yes

Rhetorical questions have exclamatory functions expressing surprise, admiration,


irony and they dont need an answer:

Isnt he lucky?
Isnt that wonderful?
How should I know?
Who knows?
3. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES express orders (Sit and shut up!), a request (Help me,
please), an invitation (Have another helping!), a word of encouragement (Give it another
try) or instructions (Turn it off, when hot).
They may be followed by WILL YOU?/WONT YOU/ CANT YOU to make the imperative
more categorical: Sit down, will you?/ Dont tell him, will you?
For the sake of emphasis, we add:
- the subject you: Dont you worry!
You take care of yourself!
- The verbdo which for a polite request or an insistent invitation: Do sit down!
Do stop crying!
- So: So do it!
- Adverbs such as NEVER, ALWAYS: Always remember to say Thank you
: Never say its too late!
The imperative form LET ME/US expressing suggestions and offers: Lets go for a walk/
Let me help you.
- LET HER/HIM/IT/THEM expressing orders and permission: Let the dog in.
Let your mother see the letter.
The imperative sentences introduced by LETS may be followed by CAN
WE/SHALL WE to express the acquiescence: Lets just stick to the matter, shall we?
The negative form consists in adding NOT or DONT: Lets not talk about it now.
Dont let anyone in!
4. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES may be introduced by WHAT / HOW:
What a beautiful day it is!
How nicely she sings!
What awful weather were having!
How delightfully she behaves!
What a bright idea! (admiration)
What a stinky man! (disgust)
Structure: The exclamatory word + the emphasized word + subject + predicate or only
keeping the first part, the rest being understood: What weather!
There may also be exclamatory verbless sentences with no exclamatory words either:
Those children of hers! (How rudely her children behave!)
Silly girl! (What a silly girl you are!)
Exclamatory sentences may also be introduced by HERE/THERE/OFF:
Here come the gold-diggers!
There he goes!
Off they ran!
Up flew the kite! (adverb +verb+ noun)
Interjections may function syntactically as independent verbless exclamatory sentences: Yippee! , or
they can precede a typical exclamatory sentence: Oh, what weather!

EXERCISES- IDENTIFYING SUBORDONATE CLAUSES AND STATING THE TYPE OF


SENTENCES
1. In each of the following examples: pay attention to the clauses, independent or
subordinate, thr type of each subordinate and the type of sentence:

Drive carefully, because not only cars can be recalled by their maker.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
adverbial of reason)
Always read stuff that will make you look good if you die in the middle of it.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
defining relative clause and adverbial clause of condition)
Eat a live toad in the morning and nothing worse will happen to you for the rest of the day.
(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses)
Accept that some days youre the pigeon, and some days youre the statue.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
nominal clauses functioning as a compound direct object.)
Always keep your words soft and sweet, just in case you have to eat them.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
adverbial clause of condition.)
If you cant be kind, at least have the decency to be vague.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
adverbial clause of condition.)
If you lend someone 20 dollars, and never see that person again it was probably worth it.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two coordinated
subordinate clauses, adverbial clauses of condition)
You shouldnt cry because its over, but smile because it happened.
(the sentence is compound-complex, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses and
two subordinate clauses, adverbial clauses of reason)
You may be only one person in the world, but you may also be the world to one person.
(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses)

We could learn a lot of things from crayons, because although some are sharp, some are pretty,
some are dull, some have weird names, and all are different colours, they all have to learn to
live in the same box.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and six subordinate clauses,
an adverbial clause of reason, five coordinated adverbial clauses of concession)

Happiness comes through doors you didnt even know you left open.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
a defining relative clause and a nominal clause functioning as direct object.)

A banker is a fellow who lends you his umbrella when the sun is shinning and wants it back
the minute it begins to rain. (Mark Twain)
(the sentence is complex, as it contains one independent clause and four subordinate clauses,
two coordinated defining relative clauses, another relative clause and an adverbial clause of
time.)

A professor is one who talks in someone elses sleep.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a defining relative clause.)

A schoolteacher is a disillusioned woman who used to think she liked children.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
a defining relative clause and a nominal clause functioning as direct object.)

A consultant is someone who takes the watch off your wrist and tells you the time.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two coordinate
subordinate clauses, defining relative clauses.)

Ive read some of your modern free verse and wonder who set it free.
(the sentence is compound- complex, as it consists of two coordinated independent clause and
one subordinate clause, nominal relative clause, direct object.)

A diplomat is someone who can tell you to go to hell in such a way that you will look forward
to the trip.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
a defining relative clause and an adverbial clause of result.)

Once youve put one of his books down, you simply cant pick it up again. (Mark Twain, of
Henry James)
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of time.)

You have the right to remain silent but anything you do say will be misquoted, then used
against you.
(the sentence is compound- complex, as it consists of three coordinated independent clauses
and one subordinate clause, a defining relative clause.)

This is what we call today the honeymoon.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a nominal relative clause functioning as an object complement.)

Any connection between your reality and mine is purely coincidental.


(the sentence is simple, as it consists of one independent clause.)

The fact that no one understands you doesnt mean youre an artist.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
a nominal clause, noun complement, another nominal clause contained by the independent
clause, subject complement.)

Ill try being nicer if you try being smarter.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of condition.)

The play was a great success but the audience was a total failure.
(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses.)

Depression is merely anger without enthusiasm.


(the sentence is simple, as it consists of one independent clause.)

Accuracy to a newspaper is what virtue is to a lady, but a newspaper can always print a
retraction.

(the sentence is compound-complex, as it consists of two independent clauses and one


subordinate clause, a nominal relative clause functioning as a subject complement.)

If a woman hasnt met the right man by the time shes 24, she may be lucky.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
an adverbial clause of condition and a defining relative clause.)

It is possible that blondes also prefer gentlemen.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clauses,
a nominal clause functioning as a delayed subject)

Show me a woman who doesnt feel guilt and Ill show you a man.
(the sentence is compound-complex, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses and
one subordinate clauses, a defining relative clause.)

I only know that people call me a feminist whenever I express sentiments that differentiate me
from a doormat or a prostitute.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and three subordinate
clauses, a nominal clause functioning as a direct object, an adverbial clause of time, a defining
relative clause.)
Once a woman has given you her heart you can never get rid of the rest of her body.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of time)

Although the cost of living is going sky-high, have you noticed how popular it remains?
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
an adverbial clause of concession and a nominal clause, direct object.)

He who laughs last laughs best. He who laughs last thinks slowest.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a defining relative clause.)

You should always borrow money from a pessimist because she/he wont expect it back.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of reason.)

I just got lost in thought, as it was unfamiliar territory.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of reason)

I love peace and quite.


(the sentence is simple, as it consists of one independent clause.)

Atheism is a non-prophet organisation.


(the sentence is simple, as it consists of one independent clause.)

Show me a congenital eavesdropper with the instincts of a Peeping Tom and I will show you
the making of a dramatist.
(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses.)

The only substitute for good manners is fast reflexes.


(the sentence is simple, as it consists of one independent clause.)

When everything is coming your own way, youre in the wrong lane and going the wrong way.
(the sentence is compound-complex, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses and
one subordinate clause, an adverbial clause of time)

We should support bacteria if theyre the only culture some people have.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
an adverbial clause of reason and a defining relative clause)

If at first you dont succeed, destroy all evidence that you tried.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
an adverbial clause of condition and a defining relative clause)

A conclusion is the place where you got tired of thinking.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a defining relative clause)

Experience is something you dont get until just after you need it.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
a defining relative clause and an adverbial clause of time)

Never do card tricks for the group you play poker with.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a defining prepositional relative clause.)

No one is listening until you make a mistake.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of time.)

Success usually occurs in private and failure in full view.


(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses.)

To steal ideas from one person is plagiarism, but to steal from many is research.
(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two independent clauses coordinated by but.)

If you want to succeed in politics, it is often necessary to rise above your principles.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of condition.)

If you think nobody cares, try missing a couple of payments.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of condition.)

You never really learn to swear until you learn to drive.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of time.)

He who hesitates is probably right.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a defining relative clause.)

A clear conscious is usually the sigh of a bad memory.


(the sentence is simple, as it consists of one independent clause.)

Love may be blind but marriage is a real eye-opener.


(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two independent clauses coordinated by but.)

The Main Library at Indiana University sinks over an inch every year because, when it was
built, engineer failed to take into account the weight of all the books that would occupy the
building.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and three subordinate
clauses, an adverbial clause of reason containing an adverbial clause of time and a defining
relative clause.)

Sarcasm is just one more service we offer.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a defining relative clause.)

The only 15-letter word that can be spelled without repeating a letter is uncopyrightable.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a defining relative clause.)

If he asks you if you like cards, you should say you only like credit cards.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and three subordinate
clauses, an adverbial clause of condition, two nominal clauses functioning as a direct object.)

Two wrongs are only the beginning.


(the sentence is simple, as it consists of one independent clause.)

The only way to prompt a man to do something for you is to tell him that he is too old to be
able to do that thing.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a nominal clause functioning as a direct object.)

Blessed are they who could laugh at themselves, for they shall never cease to be amused.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
a defining relative clause and an adverbial clause of reason.)

To err is human to admit it is not.


(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two independent clauses coordinated by but.)

Anytime four New Yorkers get into a cab together without arguing, a bank robbery has just
taken place.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of time.)

I started out with nothing and I still have most of it left.


(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses)

I feel free to do that.


(the sentence is simple, as it consists of one independent clause.)

Tell me what to do and Ill tell you where to go.


(the sentence is compound, as it consists of two coordinated independent clauses)

People usually get whats coming to them.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a nominal relative clause functioning as a direct object.)

A bicycle cant stand alone because it is two-tired.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of reason.)

He had a photographic memory, which was never developed.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
a non-defining relative clause.)

Santas helpers are subordinate clauses.


(the sentence is simple, as it consists of one independent clause.)

Youll understand in the end.


(the sentence is simple, as it consists of one independent clause.)

When she got married she also got a new name and a dress.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of time.)

When an actress saw her first strands of grey hair, she thought shed dye.
(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and two subordinate clauses,
an adverbial clause of time and a nominal clause functioning as a direct object.)

Beauty opens locked doors.


(the sentence is simple, as it consists of one independent clause.)

Friends agree best when they are at a distance.


(the sentence is complex, as it consists of one independent clause and one subordinate clause,
an adverbial clause of time.)

(from Bullivant, A, The Little Book of Humorous Quotations, Bristol, Siena, 1998.)

The PHRASE is a word group functioning as a single part of speech, namely as a noun, adjective
or adverb.
1. THE NOUN PHRASE: a word group consisting of a noun (the head noun) and any
determiners/modifiers. There are several means of identifying, quantifying, qualifying
and describing.
A. DETERMINERS are qualifiers and they may be specific or unspecific being
classified as central determiners (words that exclude each other in a noun phrase:
articles, demonstrative adjectives, possessive adjectives, indefinite adjectives such as
every, each, some, any, no, either, neither), predeterminers (words that expands the
indefinite article: only a, such a, many a, etc.) and postdeterminers:
both my children (predeterminer + central determiner + noun)
one of my children (predeterminer + central determiner + noun)
all the other children (predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer + noun)

the other children (central determiner + postdeterminer + noun)


only the first three children (predeterminer + central determiner + two postdeterminers +
noun)
all of those ten children (predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer + noun)
Determiners include:
Articles (definite is specific and indefinite is unspecific)
Adjectives (demonstrative, possessive, interrogative, indefinite, others (last, only,
double, several, whole, half). The demonstrative adjective THIS can replace an
INDEFINITE ARTICLE in order to introduce a new element:
And there comes this man with a funny hat on.
Some men are wise, some are otherwise. (unspecific determiner, indefinite
adjective)
There is some butter left in the fridge.
SOME becomes ANY in interrogative clauses: Is there any butter in the fridge?
If the answer is predictably positive, we may use SOME in questions, too:
Can you give me some money? Yes, I can.
The indefinite adjective SOME can replace an INDEFINITE ARTICLE: He came from some
remote country.
ANY may also be used in declarative sentence: Any book will do./ Any bus will take you to the city
center.
Other indefinite adjectives:
Each person over 14 should complete an application form.
Every child will get a hot meal daily.
Both/either/neither (up to two persons) /None/all (more than two): Both students came.
Neither student came. All people were present. None students were present.
Another is added to something mentioned before: Ill have another cup of tea.
Few/Many: Few people will acknowledge their mistakes. (countable)
Little/Much: Success requires much work./Little knowledge is not comfortable.
Less/More: We earn less money than we need./I need more time for myself.
Enough: There is enough bread for supper.

Numerals (cardinals, ordinals, fractions: three-fourths, one-fifth)


Phrases expressing quantity such as (a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a good deal of, a
great deal of, a great amount of, a great number of)
There is a great amount of work behind his success.
Partitives: a lump of sugar, an acre of land, an item of furniture, a word of advice,
a piece of news, a pint of beer, a pound of flour, a roast of meat, a stick of chalk;
: cardinal +preposition OF+noun/pronoun
Five of the survivors/them were rushed to the hospital.
Tens/hundreds/thousands of people attended the meeting.
: ordinal+ preposition OF+noun/pronoun
The second of their children suffered of heart condition.

: None, both, few, little, many, much, several, each, some, any+ OF
+noun/pronoun:
None of his ideas was accepted.
All of his friends were present.
Numeratives (a couple of friends, a dozen of eggs, a pair of jeans)
Other determiners: other, such, only, what:
The only way to get there is by boat.

His other books are good to.


What people!
He was such a man!
B. MODIFIERS describe, qualify and classify. They are premodifiers (words, phrases,
clauses modifying a noun, placed after the determiner and before the head noun) and
postmodifiers (which immediately follow the head noun)
a. Premodifiers may be:

Nouns: door mat, can opener, car industry, cat food, family dinner party,
pain killer, Christmas party
Adjectives: valuable guidance
Composed adjectives (adjective+noun+ed: long-haired, blue-eyed;
adjective/adverb+past
participle:
well-paid
worker;
adjective/adverb/noun + present participle; heart-breaking)
Other adjectives:
Air-conditioned room, brand-new suit, cut-price sale, bullet-proof jacket,
cross-Channel train, lead-free gasoline, long-distance call, man-killing
poison, nuclear-free zone, remote-controlled toys, tax-free cigarettes, topsecrets documents.
Adverbs (the after life),
Word groups (an up-to-date edition)
Clauses (a wear-at-night-throw-in-the-morning outfit).

A successful family dinner party (unspecific determiner + qualifying premodifier +


classifying premodifiers)
coffee mug (determiner + premodifier + head noun)
a gold watch
a black coffee
the old man
the above information; the inside repairs;
the half-past-five train
Australian citizens oppose nuclear tests. (adjectives, noun modifiers, classifiers)
Many big industrial towns have decayed lately. (unspecific determiner + qualifier+
classifier)
It was a frightening sight.(unspecific determiner +qualifying modifier)
The blooming economy was a sign of good management. (specific central determiner +
qualifying modifier)
She bluntly refused to live in that stinking little town.
Everything was just an outright lie.
He made us a long-standing offer that we could not refuse.
The whole business was pure fiction.
He expects to be elected with a thumping majority.
Classifiers:
Raw meat
Foreign language
Traditional/Social/Rural/Public life
Financial times
Wrong answer
Running nose

Missing children
Leading organisation
Canned vegetables
Broken leg
Closed door
Furnished room
Ready-made clothes
Order of adjectives:
An interesting medical experiment (+unspecific determiner + qualifier +
classifier + noun)
A new technological development (+unspecific determiner + qualifier + classifier
+ noun)
A cheap black suit, a nice red wine (qualifier + colour adjective)
A huge silvery-white steel sky-scraper, red velvet shoes, a grey stone building
(qualifier + colour adjective + material)
A tall young woman, an attractive young man, a nicely-dressed elderly woman,
a handsome tall young man (qualifiers + age adjectives )
A lovely cool evening, an amusing cheap novel (adjectives expressing speakers
opinion + another qualifier)
A small square curtainless window
b. Postmodifiers are:

Nouns functioning as noun complements (appositions): Mother Theresa,


the river Thames, Professor Smith
Her husband, a man in his fifties, was killed in battle.
His father, a staunch Republican, has won the elections.
Adjectives functioning as:
1. appositions (Alexander the Great)
He has many friends, young and old.
2. subject complements, object complements or noun complements: two
ideas alike, the building ablaze, the only excuse acceptable, a book
practical in approach, a work pedagogical in nature, fiction proper, the
members absent, the audience present, The president elect of the U.S.
This may be called new technology proper.
That wasnt a proper joke. (qualifying premodifier)
The persons responsible for a childs education ought to be the parents.
The situation asked for a responsible decision.
All those members present will have to vote.
The present chairman will take the decision.
3. adverbs: the floor below, the people inside, the situation thereafter
4. expressions of measurement: a hotel eleven-storeys high, a girl tenyears old
5. prepositional phrases: an angel of a girl, nouns of Latin origin, a matter
of principle, the roof of our house, the claws of the cat, a play of
Shakespears, the woman on the phone, the shop at the end of the
street.
He has joined the academic staff of our university.
The back of the house was badly damaged by the fire.

They couldnt cross the street because of the stream of cars.


People thought of her as a woman of substance.
An old man with steel-rimmed spectacles was standing on the road.
6. clauses:
A. NOMINAL CLAUSES- function as nouns and are introduced by
the conjunction that, syntactic function: noun complement:
She was terrified by the fear that she would fail the exam. (that she
would fail the exam IS the very fear)
The thought that he might cheat on her terrified her parents.
He refused to help me, in spite of the fact that I had always helped
him.

B. RELATIVE CLAUSES function as adjectives and are


introduced by relative pronouns (which, that, who, whom, whose)
and relative adverbs (where, when, why):
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES- bring essential information to the
sentence they are part of:
The fear that overwhelmed her was the deep-seated fear most women must
overcome.
The thought that she entertained could well be read in her eyes.
The fact that he brought to our attention got all of us worried.

that overwhelmed her IS NOT the fear, it offers more details about her fear.
that she entertained IS NOT the thought but provides additional information about
her thought, while The thought that he might have is the very thought.
that he brought to our attention IS NOT the fact, it gives information about the
fact

My friend who lives in Canada is a doctor. Ive got many friends.


This is the book that Ive been telling you about. Prepositional defining relative clause.

NON DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

Are separated by commas from the rest of the sentence, do not bring essential
information to the sentence they are part in, cannot be introduced by that:
My friend, who lives in Canada, is a doctor. (Ive got only one friend)
Tokyo, which is the capital of Japan, has a rather low crime rate.

2. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES consist of a preposition and its complements ( a noun or a


noun equivalent- a pronoun (She was looking at me), a noun phrase (Its against the law,
complement of preposition; Its for whoever believes in justice, nominal clause)
3. THE ADJECTIVE PHRASES consist of an adjective plus any complements and/or
modifiers functioning as a determiner, modifier, subject or object complement:

Last month more of those children were sent in the country. (adjective phrase, predeterminer
+ of+ central determiner + head noun)
The amazingly beautiful woman proved to be a well-informed journalist. (adjective phrase,
premodifiers)
This is an answer very difficult to ignore. (adjective phrase, postmodifier)
He is smart.(subject complement)
He painted the fence as white as snow. (object complement)
4. THE ADVERB PHRASE: a word group consisting of an adverb plus any modifiers,
functioning as adverbial modifiers.
He plays the guitar extremely beautifully. (adverbial modifier of manner, modifying the
verb phrase plays the piano)
He almost always does this thing. (adverbial modifier of manner)
She comes here very seldom. (adverbial modifier of time)
5. THE VERB PHRASES may be classified as FINITE VERB PHRASES and NONFINITE VERB PHRASES, function of the verb they contain (finite or non-finite verbs).
Finite Verbs may be TRANSITIVE (MONOTRANSITIVE/DITRANSITIVE),
INTRANSITIVE AND LINKING, function of the objects or complements they take.
TRANSITIVE verbs are monotransitive (taking a direct object which may be followed
by an object complement) and ditransitive (taking both direct and indirect objects. The
indirect object may appear at the end of the sentence in the form of a prepositional
phrase.
INTRANSITIVE verbs take no objects, but may be accompanied by adverbial modifiers.
LINKING verbs (COPULAR) take subject complements (nouns, nouns equivalents,
adjectives) which complete the meaning of the subject: appear, be, become, feel, grow,
lie, look, prove, seem, smell, sound, taste.
She tasted the soup. (finite transitive verb + noun phrase, direct object)
The soup tasted great. (noun phrase, subject + linking verb + adjective, subject complement)
A linking verb cannot be followed by an adverb.
FINITE VERB PHRASES contain a finite verb as their only word; there is person and
number concord between subject and the finite verb which is marked for tense
(present/past) and modality. They also express the distinction between the past tense and
the perfect aspect. NON-FINITE VERB PHRASES do not contain a finite verb and are
generally found in subordinate clauses; there is no concord between the subject and the
non-finite verb which is not marked for tense and modality.
1. FINITE VERB PHRASES: word groups consisting of a main verb plus one or more
helping verbs (grammatical auxiliaries be, do, have, or/and modal auxiliaries.
He is celebrating his birthday.
She has been crying.
You could have been hurt.

The finite verb phrase may also include verbs in catenative use (a catenative verb + the
linked form)
a to-infinitive: He agreed to speak to her. I persuaded her to stay;
a bare infinitive: Id rather go now. He saw the door open.

a present participle: I gave up smoking; a past participle: The vase got


broken during the earthquake. (the catenative verb get marks the passive
voice performing the function of the grammatical auxiliary be.)
Catenative verbs may have an aspectual meaning naming the beginning of an action
(start to work/begin to cry/start running/begin climbing), the unfolding of the action
(continue to speak/get to know/carry on playing) and the end of it (stop reading/cease
crying/quit fighting).
They also may have a modal meaning expressing deduction, speculation, certainty
(appear to like, seem to enjoy, tend to decline)
2. NON-FINITE VERB PHRASES or VERBAL PHRASES are word groups consisting
of a non-finite verb form (it not function as the verb of the sentence) and its objects,
complements or modifiers. Depending on the type of verbal they contain, verbal
phrases are classified as gerund, participial and infinitive.
GERUND PHRASES contain a gerund and its objects, complements and/or
modifiers, functioning as a noun.
Allowing him to come was a mistake. (subject)
I cant help falling in love with you. (direct object)
They left without saying good-bye. (complement of preposition)
PARTICIPIAL PHRASES are word groups containing a participle (present
participle (active and passive), past participle, perfect participle (active and passive)
and its objects, complements and/or modifiers. They function as an adjective,
premodifying a noun or noun equivalent:
The quietly sleeping baby was guarded by a nurse. (participial phrase, premodifier of the
head noun baby)
The well-known scientist began his lecture. (participial phrase, premodifier of the head
noun scientist)
Participial Phrases may operate like RELATIVE CLAUSES (postmodifying nouns
or noun equivalents) and ADVERBIAL CLAUSES of time, condition, reason and
result, both analysed as NON-FINITE PARTICIPLE CLAUSES.
RELATIVE CLAUSES are reduced by omitting:
the relative pronoun and the auxiliary be: The wall that is facing the
balcony = The wall facing the balcony; Lies that are told to protect
others = Lies told to protect others
the relative pronoun and changing the main verb into a present
participle form: people who behave badly = people behaving badly
Relative clauses can only be reduced if the relative pronoun is directly followed by
the verb.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES are reduced by:
omitting the subject and the auxiliary be: If it is washed =If washed,
this pull-over will shrinks. (past participle clause, adverbial of condition)
omitting the clause marker and the subject and changing the main verb
into a present participle form: Because I am a perfectionist = Being a

perfectionist, I always double-check everything (-ing participle clause,


adverbial of reason)
While he was looking out of the window = Looking out of the window, he
noticed her in the street. (-ing participle clause, adverbial modifier of time)
She didnt hear the alarm clock yesterday morning so that she was late for
work = being late for work (-ing participle clause, adverbial modifier of result)
As she had been told to leave =Having been told to leave, she turned around
and walked away. (perfect participle clause in passive voice, adverbial modifier of
reason)
There are some adverbial clauses that change their meaning depending on
the clause marker:
Being found guilty of involuntary manslaughter, he was sent to prison.
(non-finite ing participle clause, adverbial of reason if the clause is a reduction
of Because he was found guilty or adverbial of time, if the clause marker is
after)
INFINITIVE PHRASES are word groups that contain an infinitive plus its
subject, objects, complements and/or modifiers:
To love is to give. (infinitive phrase, functioning as a noun, subject, and subject
complement)
He wants to leave. (direct object)
INFINITIVE PHRASES may operate as RELATIVE CLAUSES, NOUN
COMPLEMENTS CLAUSES or ADVERBIAL CLAUSES of purpose and result
analysed as TO-INFINITIVE CLAUSES (Reduced Relative Clauses and Adverbial
Relative Clauses).
You should fight for your right to vote. (non-finite to-infinitive clause, noun
complement)
His promise to take care of the child surprised her parents. (non-finite to-infinitive
clause, noun complement)
He was the only one to give us a helping hand. (defining relative)
She opened the window to let in some fresh air. (adverbial of purpose)
They travelled for two days only to find the village completely deserted. (adverbial
of result).

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