SKILLING OUT TECHNOLOGICAL INTELLIGENCE: A SKILLS-

CLIMATE PARADOX.
Mr. Jason Newcombe
Dr. Kurt Seemann
Southern Cross University
j.n3wc0@gmail.com , kurt.seemann@scu.edu.au
Abstract
This paper discusses an emerging paradox between national concerns over “skills
shortages” and the sense of urgency to address human contributions to climate change.
We will approximate 'human contributions to climate change' to mean essentially
"human technological activity", and hence, the implications for technology education.
There is evidence suggesting that the ‘skills shortages’ rhetoric in Australia may be
highly filtered among some sectors of education. The lay ‘media’ perception of what
‘skills’ means, especially its interpretation in technology curriculum, may be placing
young people’s future “at-risk”. The paper examines the core question, “Are lay views
of ‘skilling’, future proofing the next generation for the known, let alone the probable,
challenges ahead?” The implications for technology education in general education are
discussed. It will be argued that mis-perceptions about ‘skills-needs’ could lead to an
inappropriately skilled work force, or at best, a workforce highly skilled
in exacerbating the climate problems of our times. And that the well entrenched
industrial ‘culture of practice’ may be fostering diminishing returns of knowledge if it
continues to enshrine itself exclusively that way; including being an accomplice to the
over-supply of niche employment markets, and the under-skilling of employment in a
carbon conscious economy. Useful ecological data for common design and technology
choices are tabled, ways of new thinking in the economy around technology knowledge
are presented, and new skills to future proof a creative 'carbon-informed', individual
are proposed. In short, this paper contributes to a new debate calling for a carbon
conscious curriculum in technology education.
Introduction –
“One of the most fateful errors of our age is the belief that “the problem of
production” has been solved.” (Schumacher, 1973). p13
Technology education has long sought to educate young people dominated by a
particular world-view: preparing students to be “skilled” either within vocational
employment using industrial technologies, or using technologies within the home. This
continuing rationale as ‘the’ structure of technology education curriculum has, in
different ways, been a source of debate and discussion within the field (Petrina, 1998);
(Haché, 2007); (Hill, 2003).
For the lay-observer, “technical skilling” may appear relevant and provide a feasible
means for some people to gain productive employment, hence technology education has
the appearance of a useful and productive school subject. This paper asserts that
expressions, clichés and headlines around a notion of 'skills' and associated
nomenclature are simply not adequate for the level of necessary depth and
sophistication required for reliable educational discourse, curriculum, pedagogy and
policy development. Subsequently, lay-views of skilling within educational institutions
potentially compromise any future for strong and effective technology education
programs that contribute towards a more sustainable planet.
The meaning of “skills” is not readily apparent. Without appropriate qualifiers, the word
"skills" neither clarifies if it means to refer to technical, social or cognitive prowess, nor

1
which field of application it refers to or its depth. On its own, the word "skills" in much
of lay debate does not provide detail for directing "what to teach", "when to teach" or
indeed "why it is necessary to teach" particular content. Clear and objective indicators
are required to observe, articulate and understand current contexts thereby enabling
improved thinking to guide decisions in what constitutes the nature of “skilling” for a
technological individual. A brief exploration of historical and contemporary drivers for
the purpose of technology curricular leads to advocating a new value-proposition: to re-
think the purpose of technology education and the meaning of “skills”. Suggestions for
building upon existing curriculum in creating more environmentally sensitive
technological practices are offered.
Arriving at “Skills Central”
The implementation of Educational Sloyd in the United Kingdom was, in part, driven
by an need to remain economically competitive with other nations by preparing young
people ready for the demands of being a highly capable artisan (Mandelson, 1971), p.2).
Although the domain of the artisans was the pre-industrial era, industrialisation
transformed business activities to became part of a new labour market and
artisan's ‘Skills’ became a commodity to be bought or sold (Rock, 1999). The legacy of
pre-industrial craft technologies remain a part of modern education as evident in current
syllabi in the Australian State of new South Wales where in Industrial technology
syllabi there is an option for leather-craft as a program of study(Board of Studies New
South Wales, 2003).
During the 1930’s (Lassman, 2003) a describes a shift in the way knowledge of physics
directed the design of household gadgets. The influx of such devices into the home
along with the other perceived social and domestic demands became a driver for Home
economics education seeking to to educate young women in technical ‘skill’, how to run
a home and manage finances(Anonymous, 2000; Bix, 2002; Nickles, 2002) .
The post World War Two context required a labour force highly capable in the
industrial practices to meet the demands for housing and the extraction of natural
resources on an unprecedented scale (Foster, 1997; Hyslop-Margison, 2001; O’Meara,
Hall, & Carmichael, 2007). Woodwork and Metal work as a school subject addressed
the needs of manufacturing to train young people in the techniques and equipment to be
disciplined and prepared for their role in “the machine”.
At school, it is currently possible to learn to perform tasks on 19th century industrial
revolution technologies, or learn to use modern equipment such as personal computers
and in some cases, perhaps a growing number of experiences with automated industrial
technologies. These are arguably brief, disconnected experiences with some technology
then labelled as ‘an education’. Barely able to keep pace with today’s industrial and
commercial practices these experiences perhaps tend not to have value beyond essential
minimums of life-skills and confidence building. Language and Mathematics are of
such value that a capability, beyond confidence and life-skills, is highly prized in
society. It is a tenuous argument to suggest a limited and marginal ‘taste’ of using
technology is a disciplined study of technology that transcends educational or economic
ideology.
Understanding technology as objects or ‘as artefact’ tends not to give a complete
picture. We know from research in human judgement that information, which is most
prominent, which has had most recent impact on our minds, which is closest to our
“perceived” ordinary experience or personal subjective values, are all given more
weight hence skewing decision-making (Ariely, 2008; Eiser, 1990; Rachlin, 1989).

2
Whilst objects remain most tangible and visible, more abstract understandings and
fiendishly complex technological systems do not inherently demand the same attention
or value. Subsequently, when faced with uncertainty and complexity, our technological
decisions are biased at our peril.
Nevertheless, technological understanding cannot be removed from the study of
tangible things. Indeed, archaeologists must necessarily study and conserve ancient
technological artefacts so they can develop knowledge about past civilisations . Images
and descriptions of objects remain only a description of technological output and are
not, after all, a theoretical structure by which to give meaning and provide predictive
value. Nor does it provide a robust framework around which to develop policy, inform
curriculum development or guide instruction let alone manage a multinational company
or a global environment.
In our current age, technological activity is occurring both at a micro-scale with
developments in nano and bio-technologies and at a global/strategic scale in addressing
issues such as climate change and poverty. This means that much of the technological
game is played unseen to the casual observer and the ‘professional-armchair expert’.
With this in mind, technology is becoming increasingly difficult to grasp and essentially
invisible to the ordinary, personal scale. This increases the significance of risks
associated with poor judgement and the adage “what you don’t know can kill you” is no
more apparent than the growing realisation of our current age. The International
Governmental Panel on Climate Change indicates that human activity has most likely
contributed to climate change (Working Group I of the IPCC, 2007).. Part of the
problem therefore, is the technology used in creating great lifestyles and the levels of
relative security and comfort we enjoy in developed countries and sought after by
developing countries.
Civilisation now looks to technology for solutions in an uncertain future. With focus
and assumptions on “skilling”, there is a risk schools will create a ‘technically trained’
population not fully understanding impacts that ordinary, ‘real-time’ technology choices
and decision have at other more abstract scales of human activity. The paradigms and
schema for how we understand, communicate and apply our technology are likely to
have significant influence over an already chosen path for humanity through past
technological developments. A brief consideration of issues beyond lay-perception of
being “skilled” is offered here to contribute to an informed future direction for the field.
Filtered Meaning of “Skills”.
Over the past few decades concern for undersupply of qualified workers through “skills
shortages” has been a catch-cry evident in media and political and popular discourse
(Anonymous, 1979; Commonwealth of Australia, 2002; Forsyth, 2008; Jamieson &
Wingfield, 2004; Keep, 2005; Kubicek, 2005; Litchfield, 1978; Sullivan, 2004).. It is
perhaps tempting to perceive ‘skills-shortages’ as a rationale for bolstering existing
vocational education and training in our secondary schools. Caution should be exercised
however, as statistics relating to job vacancies, employment growth, economic trends
and levels of education required for employment indicate that all is not as it first seems
(Birrell & Rapson, 2008). provide evidence that there are myths about so-called ‘skills
shortages’. Strategic directions for technology education programs under the guise of
lay-perceptions of “skills shortages”, are at risk of being developed through filters of
myth and ideology, in absence for the appreciation for the full complexity of
technological activity. As strategy becomes filtered down through educational systems
into classrooms, intended needs may not be represented.

3
In an attempt to improve a “skills shortage” situation in Australia, a government
initiative is the establishment of purpose-built trade training centers (Autralian
Government, 2008). . Such an initiative contributes to a pool of “skilled” people to meet
the employment demand though this is not a new concept. In the mid 1900’s a similar
strategy was evident in Australian state of Queensland where high achieving students
could attend technical colleges engage in trade-skill training on weekends (Waltisbuhl,
1995) . Today there are new opportunities for schools to enhance their facilities to meet
the economic demands of the “skills shortage’. However, investment will need to reflect
current situation and future needs if it is to yield dividend for the future.
The impact of a growing knowledge economy has created more demand for “higher
skills” demanding more breadth and depth of knowledge with less emphasis on ‘manual
task’ orientated knowledge. As (Birrell & Rapson, 2008) indicate, “Technological
changes tend to make less skilled positions redundant. Meanwhile the complexities of
contemporary technology and the globalised competitive environment require more
managerial and technical input within organisations.” (p13). This highlights a need for
informed judgement and less ideology and opinion as (Anderson, 2003) suggests are
evident in Vocational Education and Training.
In terms of employment trends, (Birrell & Rapson, 2008) reported that almost four
times as many professional and para-professional jobs were created in Australia than
trades and other related employment (see table 1). A technology education program
directed by a forward view would consider this current context to inform future
directions. A return to previous notions of a ‘skilled’ labour force with a substantial
proportion of time devoted to hand-skills and resistant material manipulation risks lost
opportunity to nurture and develop higher-order knowledge and capabilities necessary
for knowledge intensive industry. Students’ best chance for an appropriate, technology
education at any level is whilst engaged in formal education. This opportunity, if lost,
cannot be reclaimed once graduates find themselves seeking to be productive amidst the
throng of daily work.

Table 1
Percentage Increase in Employment by type of Occupation over Period 1996-97 to
2005-06 (adapted from (Birrell & Rapson, 2008)
Employment type % increase
Tradespersons & Related Workers 10
Managers (excl farm managers) 56
Associate professionals 37
Professionals 39

In an audit of Australia’s Science, Engineering and Technology (SET) “skills”, it was

reported that 64.7% of employees in SET related occupations possessed ‘higher
education’ qualifications. Vocational and technical qualifications accounted for 31.2%
(Australian Government Department of Education Science and Training, 2006) p7).
Further, when seeking to fill SET job vacancies, employers were found to first source
employees from either other employers or upgrade the skills of their own before
employing recent graduates. When doing so half of new employees who education
gradates were sourced from local universities than from local TAFEs; ;(Australian
Government Department of Education Science and Training, 2006) p14).
As technology increases the demand for “knowledge skills” in professional and para-
professional occupations, it also decreases the knowledge intensity and dexterity

4
required in manual tasks (for example automation in manufacturing). Figures evident in
the Australian JobSearch report for June 2008 highlight the high requirement for a
labour force (see Figure 1). Highest demand for labour is found to be in factory work or
as a machine operator. In contrast, other occupations require higher “knowledge skills”
in areas of finance, management marketing, clerical and scientific orientated
occupations.
High demand occupations that align with the traditionally offered school technology
subjects are in the areas of Food & hospitality and Building and Construction. It should
be noted however, that in consideration together with table 1 data, these figures do not
distinguish between para/professional and trade associated occupations hence further
analysis of data is required to determine trade-level skill demand. Another factor to
consider in these occupations would be to seek evidence of high staff turn-overs, high
casualisation or semi-employment and particular significant economic booms that skew
figures.

Figure 1
Top ten vacancies by occupation - June 2008 (source Australian JobSearch
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2008b))
This brief consideration of relevant secondary data provides evidence that there is much
depth and complexity behind what is used without clarity specificity. In economic
context alone a lay-media perception of ‘skills’ cannot serve judicious policy and
strategic development of educational programs. It seems somewhat contradictory that
with an impeding paradigm shift toward the ‘next industrial’ or ‘green’ revolution there
would be any concern over skills shortages for industries based in an economic context
founded upon production and consumption. Journalist, Thomas Friedman provides a
frank comparison that the current state of the “green revolution” can be likened more to
a party where people “consume their way out”. He offers a challenge to consider that
rarely is there a true revolution where no one gets hurt. (Friedman, 2007).
New skills in technology education through greenhouse accounting
For technology educators this challenge is never more relevant than other subjects in the
curriculum. An impending paradigm shift toward a new ‘green’ economy creates a
different context in which to educate. Strategic steps worldwide are toward managing
the uncertainty around the inevitability of climate change. Filtered lay-views of skills

5
framed in ideology of industrialism are almost certainly unhelpful. A recent report
released by Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
(CSIRO) (Hatfield-Dodds, Turner, Schandl, & Doss, 2008) forecasts a 'green-skills"
revolution with projected creation of 2.5 to 3.5 million jobs during the next 20
years (Hatfield-Dodds et al., 2008)The authors also express that "... achieving the
transition to a low carbon sustainable economy will require a massive mobilisation of
skills and training – both to equip new workers and to enable appropriate changes in
practices by the three million workers already employed in these key sectors influencing
our environmental footprint. Current approaches do not appear sufficient for meeting
these challenges."
One area where technology education has not traditionally focused to any significant
depth are impacts on the consumption of resources as very
view theoretical frameworks explicitly position the 'eco-resource' as a key element of
technological activity beyond perhaps, recylcing and the object of technical processing.
Proportioning appropriate value of eco-resource through the framework of technacy is
an area currently being research by the author. Within the area of greenhouse gas
accounting, indicators of sustainability such as water and energy form two of the basic
measures for sustainability performance. Water in the production of materials from
which products are manufactured and energy consumed in the transformation of
materials. Emissions of greenhouse gasses are another significant measure that relates to
environmental impact of human activity.
Determining GHG emissions or the embodied energy or water in a product, is part of a
complex systems science that seeks to account for direct energy (eg "the assembly of
the building") and indirect energy (eg "chain of direct energy requirements leading
upstream to raw materials in the ground") (Treloar, 1998). The implications are that as
metrics and methods improve the figures alter. For Educational purposes the absolute
accuracy of figures is not as important as it might be for a commercial venture where
refined accounting of carbon and water content could affect a businesses bottom line.
Nevertheless, education’s bottom line is in the educational quality of classroom
experiences and authentic learning experience should be analogous to ‘real world’
experiences. Figures that are commercially available and web resources will provide a
sound basis from which to guide learning.

Table 2
Virtual Water for Common Food Products
Virtual Virtual
Product Water Product Water
*L/kg) *L/kg)
(4) (4)
Cheese 5000 tea leaves 2400
(2) (2)
Milk (max) 2000 sugar 3000
**(5)
milk (min) 1000 1 cup of black coffee 115
(4) (3)
eggs 1000 Potatoes 500
(4) (3)
Sheep 6100 Alphalpha 900
(3) (3)
beef 100,000 Corn 1400
(3) **(3)
rice (min) 1912 Broiler Chicken 3500
(2)
rice (max) 5000 Potato 250
(2)
wheat 1000 cotton 11,000
(4) **(4)
maize 900 Tomato 186
(2)
coffee 20,000
Source: refer to relevant cross-reference for data source

6
Virtual (or embodied) water
As a renewable resource, it may at first seem an impractical concern to be accountable
for water use in a technological activity. In some parts of the world however, people
withdrawal more from water sources than can be recharged. Water-logged land, water
vapour contributing to global warming, shifting rainfall patterns, water tables becoming
vastly diminished are just some examples of consequences from water being ‘mined’ at
an industrial rate along with those of climate change. (Pimentel, Houser, Preiss, White,
& et al., 1997).). Sustainability concerns around water are not in the disappearance of
this resource, rather, unsustainable use of water redistributes water stocks into forms not
readily accessible or potable.
Accounting for water use as technological practice assists in monitoring and reducing
the rate of consumption and use. Water 'embodied' in a product such as food, occurs
during the growing and manufacture of products and is referred to Embodied or Virtual
Water (Pearce, 2006). A technology student exploring design and production of food
products can account for water usage through calculation of water embodied within the
ingredients (see table 2). This knowledge can displayed and assessed then be included
with food energy information and typical ingredient disclosure labels.
Table 3
Embodied Energy per Kilogram of Typical Classroom Materials, with Approximations
of Virtual Water and Green House Gas Emissions (CO2 -eq) per kilogram of Material
based on embodied energy values
Embodied Approx. Virtual water Approx. GHGE
energy L/kg Kg CO2-e / kg
(3) (3)
Typical resistant Coal Nuclear plant (7)
Full Fuel cycle
Materials combustion light water
Mj/kg kWh/kg Environmental factor
available in Technology cooling towers reactor
[x 1.06 Kg CO2-e/kWh]
Education classrooms [X 2.6 L/kWh] [X 3.2 L/kWh]
(6)
Kiln dried sawn
3.4 0.95 2.48 3.05 1.01
softwood
(6)
Kiln dried sawn
2 0.56 1.46 1.79 0.59
hardwood
(6)
Air dried sawn
0.5 0.14 0.36 0.45 0.15
hardwood
(6)
Hardboard 24.2 6.78 17.62 21.68 7.18
(1)
partical board 8 2.24 5.82 7.17 2.37
(6)
Particleboard 8 2.24 5.82 7.17 2.37
(6)
Plywood 10.4 10.4 2.91 7.57 9.32 3.09
(1)
plywood 10.4 2.91 7.57 9.32 3.09
(6)
MDF 11.3 3.16 8.23 10.12 3.35
(6)
Plastics - general 90 25.20 65.52 80.64 26.71
(6)
Glass 12.7 3.56 9.25 11.38 3.77
(6)
Aluminium 170 47.60 123.76 152.32 50.46
(6)
Copper 100 28.00 72.80 89.60 29.68
(6)
Low Carbon steel 34 9.52 24.75 30.46 10.09
(6)
Galvanised steel 38 10.64 27.66 34.05 11.28
(6)
Acrylic paint 61.5 17.22 44.77 55.10 18.25
(1)
steel (recycled) 8.9 2.49 6.48 7.97 2.64
(1)
Steel 32 8.96 23.30 28.67 9.50
(6)
PVC 80 22.40 58.24 71.68 23.74
(1)
PVC 70 19.60 50.96 62.72 20.78
(1)
Aluminium 227 63.56 165.26 203.39 67.37
(1)
Aluminium (recycled) 8.1 2.27 5.90 7.26 2.40

Source: refer to relevant cross reference for data source

7
Energy & GHG emissions
In calculating the greenhouse gas emissions for electricity used, Australian Government
department of climate change have issued a National Greenhouse Accounts (NGA)
factors workbook to aid organizations to account for their contribution to
CO2 emissions (Commonwealth of Australia, 2008a).. To calculate the GHG emissions
per unit of electricity the workbook lists a range of factors that vary according to a
range of issues including fuel source for the electricity. Electricity obtained in a
location, which has substantial supply from hydroelectricity requires a lower factor than
a location supplied predominately from coal fired powerstations.
Emissions from purchased electricity used by the student use the factor listed according
to the “full fuel cycle” (see table 3). This factor “gives the quantity of emissions
released per unit of energy for the entire fuel production and consumption chain”
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2008a) p 6). This includes, extraction, production and
transport of fuel source used to generate electricity, emissions associated with
generation as well as energy loss during transmission and distribution of energy
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2008a) .

Conclusion
The real future for the state of the natural environment provides unique opportunities
and new directions for technology education. Technological activity as it was perceived
during the fields foundational era has not adequately, nor is it able to be sustained into
the future. Revolutionary changes in economics and subsequent technological practice
are inevitable. A challenge for education in general is to objectively represent the study
of technology as a phenomenon rather than something simply to master or create for
utilitarian or vocational ends. For technology education, new thinking at the classroom
level is possible now, through inclusion of activities that encourage learners to
appropriately value the eco-resource. Sustainability indicators of virtual water and
embodied energy are one practical means to account for both resource consumption and
impact of greenhouse gas emissions in classroom activity.
Sustainable technology thinking enables progressive Technology Education programs to
move forward in confidence that technology can exist beyond industrial production and
learning to use the latest gadget. Vigilant caution must be exercised to recognise filtered
perceptions founded on historical frames of reference. Poor judgements risk
educational policy and classroom practice that may be 'skilling-out'
technological intelligence, where young people are placed at risk of becoming victims
in a 'green-technology' revolution. A carbon conscious technology education on the
other hand provides a way forward to 'future-proof' both education and young minds
who graduate to shape an environmentally aware, material world.
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<<these endnote in-text citations to be deleted after codes are removed- these references
refer to data sources in tables>>
1 (Canadian Architect, N.D.)

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4 ("Product Gallery," N.D.).
5 (Hoekstra & Chapagain, 2007),

6 (Lawson, 1996),

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