AP European History

Summative Assessment Review Guide - Chapters 19, 21 & 22

______________________________________________________________________________
Assessment Date
Pavel
21 January
Shafqat
22 January
Assessment Format
Part I
20-25 Multiple-Choice Questions
Chapters 21 & 22
One minute per question

Part II

1 Short-Answer Question
Chapter 19

Chapter 19
Full chapter

Key Event, Person

or Concept

What you need to know

French Revolution

causes and results

Causes
Long range problems as well as immediate
precipitating forces.
Revolutions are not necessarily the result of
economic collapse and masses of impoverished people hungering
for change.
In fact in the 50 years before 1789 france had
experienced a period of economic growth due to an expansion of
foreign trade an increase in industrial production. Although many
people especially peasants failed to share in prosperity. Thus, the
causes of the french revolution must be found in multifaceted
examination of french society and its problems in the 18th century
Social structure of the old regime
The long range or
indirect causeses of the french revolution must first
be sought in the condition of French society. Before
the revolution french society was grounded in the
inequality of rights or the idea of privilege. The
population of 27 million was divided as it had been
since the middle ages into legal categories known as
the three orders or estates.
The First Estate
Consisted of the clergy
and numbered about 130,000 people. The church
owned approx. 10 percent of the land. Clergy were
exempt from the taille, a french chief tax although

the church had agreed to pay a voluntary

contribution every five years to the state.
Clergy were also
radically divided since the higher clergy stemming
from astricocatic families shared the interests of the
nobility while the parish priests were often poor
commoners.
The second estate
The second estate was
the nobility, people who although made up a small
portion of the community owned 25 to 30 percent of
the land.
Under louis XV and
Louis XVI the nobility continued to play an important
and even crucial role in french society holding many
of the leading positions in the government the
military the law courts and the higher church offices.
The french nobility was also divided. The nobility of
the robe derived their status from officeholding a
pathway that had often enabled commoners to attain
noble ranks.
These nobles now
dominated the royal law courts and important
administrative offices. The nobility of the sword
claimed to be descendants of the original medieval
nobility. As a group the nobles sought to expand their
privilege at the expense of the monarchy- to defend
liberty by resisting the arbitrary action of the
monarchy as some nobles asserted and to maintain
their monopolistic control over positions in the
military church and government.
The third estate
The third estate the
commoners of society constituted the overwhelming
majority of the french population.
They were divided by
vast differences in occupation, level of education and
wealth.
The peasants who
alone constituted 75 to 80 percent of the total
population were by far the largest segment of the
third estate. They owned about 35 to 40 percent of
the land although their landholdings varied from area
to area and more than half had no or little land on
which to survive. Serfdom no longer existed on any
large scale in france but french peasants still had
obligations to their local landlords that they deeply
resented. These relics of feudalism included the
payment of fees for the use of village facilities such
as the flour mill, community oven and winepress as

well as tithes to the clergy. The nobility also

maintained the right to hunt on peasant's land.
Another part of the
third estate consisted of skilled artisans,
shopkeepers and other wage earners in the cities.
Although the 18th
century had been a period of rapid urban growth, 90
percent of French towns had fewer than 10,000
inhabitants only nine cities had more than 50,000.
One historian has
charted the ups and downs of revolutionary changes
in bread prices, by showing their correlation with
changes in bread prices.
About 8 percent, or 2.3
million people constituted the bourgeoisie or middle
class who owned about 20 to 25 percent of the land.
The group included
merchants industrialists and bankers who controlled
the resources of trade, manufacturing and finance
and benefited from the economic prosperity after
1730.
Many members of the
bourgeoisie sought security and status through the
purchase of land.
They hand their own
grievances because they were often excluded from
the social and political privileges monopolized by the
nobles.
The resistance of the
middle class were for a long time assumed to be a
major cause of the french revolution. But although
these tensions existed the situation was not a simple
case of a unified bourgeois against a unified nobel
class.
As is evident neither
group was monolithic. Nobels were separated by
vast differences in wealth and importance. A similar
gulf separated wealthy delicacies from local lawyers
in the french provincial towns.
It was still possible for
wealthy middle class individuals to enter the ranks of
the nobility by obtaining public offices and entering
the nobility of the robe.
Both aristocratic and
bourgeois elites, long accustomed to a new
socioeconomic reality based on wealth and
economic were increasingly frustrated by a
monarchical order based on the concept of
estates. The opposition of these elites to the old
order ultimately led them to take drastic action

against the monarchical regime, although they

soon split over the question of how far to
proceed in eliminating tradionation prvilvages.
The Revolution had
its origins in political grievances.
Food shortages also
played a part
The number of poor
estimated by some at almost of the population
reached crisis proportions on the eve of the
revolution.
This is a poverty
that strikes at the root of national prosperity
other causes
included
Ideas of
the philosophies

I
ncreased criticism of existing
privileges as well as social and
political situation also
characterized the 18th century.

A
lthough the philosophers did not
advocated a revolution their ideas
were widely circulated among the
literate bourgeois and noble elites
of france.
Failure
to make reforms

F
rench parliament became stronger
Financi
al crises

T
he immediate cause of the french
revolution was the near collapse of
government finances.
Results
To
avoid the dangers of another single
legislative assembly the constitution of
1795 established a national legislative
assembly consisting of two chambers: a
lower house known as the council of 500
who function was to initiate legislation

and an upper house of 250 members the

council of elders composed of married or
widowed members over age forty which
would accept or reject the proposed laws.
The 750
members of the two bodies were chosen
by electors who had been owners or
renters of property worth between one
hundred and 200 hundred days labor a
requirement that limited their number to
30,000 and even smaller base than the
constitution of 1791 had provided.
The
electors were chosen by the active
citizens now defined as all male taxpayers
over the age 21.
The
executive authority of directory consisted
of five directors elected by the council of
elders from a list present by the council of
500.

Liberte, Fraternite, Egalite

liberty, brotherhood, equality.
The motto for the revolution
role of nationalism
I KNOW WHAT IS BUT I AM NOT GOING TO TYPE IT BECAUSE
IT IS TOO TIME CONSUMING.
Ancien Regime
political system before the french revolution
Estates General
In summoning the estates general the government was merely
looking for a way to solve the immediate financial crises
In the election for estates general the government had ruled that
the third estate should get double representation.
Consequently while both the first estate and the second had about
300 delegates each the commoner had almost 600.
Thus giving the third estate a particularly strong legal and urban
representation
The estate opening at versailles on may 5 1789.
It was divided from the start over whether voting should be by order
or by head.
Nobles of the robe-parliament of paris- had advocated the voting by
order according to the form used in 1614
However the lovers of liberty opposed this.
The failure of the government to assume the leadership at the
opening of the estates generales created an opportunity for the third
estate to push its demands for voting by head.
It could turn the three estates into a single chamber legislature that

would reform france in its own way

However some people had reservations as most people wanted to
make changes within a framework of respect for authority of the king
revival or reform did not mean the overthrow of traditional institutions.
Finding the doors locked the third estate they moved
nearby to a tennis court and took the tennis court oath that they
would continue to meet until they had produced a french
constitution.
The great fear
The agrarian revolts served as a backdrop to the great fear, a vast
panic that spread like wildfire through france between july 20 and august 6.
Fear of invasion by foreign troops aided by a superposed historic plot
encouraged the formation of the more citizens militias and
permantcomitites. The greatest impact of the agrarian revolts and the great
fear was on the national assembly meeting in versailles.
Louis XVI & Marie Antoinette
Louis XVI Indecisive and allowed matters to drift, paid little
attention to his advisors and had little patience. Instead of attempted to fix
the problem Louis waited for the last minute where he had basically no
money left
Marie Antoinette Interfered with the government, frequently gave
Louis poor advice, been unpopular from the beginning because she was a
member of the royal family of Austria, spent so much money that she
became known as Madame Deficit
Jacobins, sans culottes, Girondins
By the mid 1971 the concerns faced growing opposition from clerics
lower classes hurt by the rises in the cost of of living resulting from the
inflation of the assignments, peasants remained opposed to dues that had
still not been abandoned and political clubs offering more radical solutions.
The most famous were the Jacobins
The first emerged as a gathering of
more radical deputies at the beginning of the revolutions.
The french revolution was about to enter a more
radical stage as power passed from the assembly to the new paris
comminuted composed of many who proudly called themselves the
sans-culottes ordinary patriotic without fine clothes.
Girondins wanted to abolish the monarchy and
establish a republic.
Committee of Public Safety
To meet the domestic crisis the national convention and the
committee of public safety established the reign of terror.
Reign of Terror
Revolutionary courts were organized to protect the republic from its internal
enemies who either by their conduct their contacts their word or their writings
showed themselves to be supporters of tyranny of enemies of liberty.
Victims of the terror ranged from royalists such as mary antoinette to former
revolutionary girondins including olympe de gouges the chief advocate political

tights for women and even peasants. The reign of terror ended with the execution
of Robespierre and this then lead to the thermidorian reaction. In this period the
national convention began to curtail the power if the committee of public safety
shut down the jacobin club and attempted to provide better protection for its
deputies against the parisian mobes. Churches were allowed to reopen for public
worship and a decree of feb 21 gave freedom of worship to all cults.
Robespierre
leader of the reign of terror
committee of public safety
he tried to take over and then people killed.
member of the estates general
De-Christianization
in an attempt to create a new order the national convention also
pursued a policy of de chronization. The word saint was removed from
street names, churches were pillaged and closed by revolutionary armies
and priests were encouraged to marry.
Olympe de Gouges
She refused to accept this exclusion of women from political rights.
Echoing the words of the official declaration she penned a declaration of
the rights of woman and the female citizen in which she insisted that
women should have all the same rights as men.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)
on august 26, the assembly provided the ideological foundation for
its actions and an educational device for the national by adopting the
declaration of the rights of man and the citizen. This character of basic
liberties reflect the ideas of the major philosophers of the french
enlightenment.
The declaration also raised another important issue. Did the
proclamation ideal of equal rights for all men include women. Many
deputies insisted that it did at least in terms of civil liberties provided that as
one sad women do not aspire to exercise political rights and functions.
Universal male suffrage (1795)
Put in place by the National Convention
Napoleon Bonaparte
The coup that brought him to power occurred exactly 10 years after
the outbreak of the french revolution
In a sense he brought the revolution to an end
He was also its child called himself the son of the revolution
He was born in Corsica, only a few months after france had
annexed the island.
Son of an italian lawyer whose family stemmed from the Florentine
nobility.
His military education led to his commission in 1785 as a lieutenant
although he was not well liked by his fellow officers because he was short,
spoke with an Italian accent and had little money.
Read a lot of philosophers including Rousseau.
Napoleon
Bonaparte

Role in French Revolution

In October 1795 he saved the national convention from the Parisian

mob for which he was promoted to the rank of major general.

Napoleon did not hesitate to abandon his army and return to paris
where he participated in the coup detat that ultimately led to his virtual
dictatorship of France. He was only 30 years old.
With the coup of 1799 a new form of the republic was proclaimed
with a constitution that established a bicameral legislative assembly
elected indirectly to reduce the role of election.
Executive power in the new government was vested
in the hands of three consuls. Article 42 of the constitution said
The decision of the first consul shall suffice . As first consul
Napoleon directly controlled the entire executive authority of the
government.
He had overwhelming influence over the legislature
appointed members of the bureaucracy controlled the army and
conducted foreign affairs.
In 1802 Napoleon was made consul for life and in
1804 he returned France to monarchy when he crowned himself
Emperor Napoleon I.
This step stabilized the regime and
provided permanence not possible in the consulate.
The revolution had started with an
attempt to limit arbitrary government and had ended with a
government far more autocratic than the monarchy of the
old regime.
Directory
See results of the revolution above
domestic reforms (Code Napoleon)
The code Napoleon preserved most of the revolutionary gains by
recognizing the principle of equality of all citizens before the law the right of
individual to choose their professions religious tolerance and the abolition
of serfdom and feudalism.
Property rights continued to be carefully protected while the
interests of employers were safeguarded by outlawing trade unions and
strike.
undid most divorce legislation. The control of fathers over their
families was restored.
foreign policy, including wars against Austria and Great Britain
When Napoleon became consul in 1799 france was at war with a
second european coalition of Russia, Great Britain and Austria.
The peace Napoleon sought was achieved at Amiens in March
1802 and left France with new frontiers and a number of client territories
from the north sea to the adriatic. But the peace did not last because the
british and french both regarded it as temporary and had little of intention of
adhering to its terms.
in 1803 war was renewed with Britain which was soon joined by
Austria and russia in the third coalition.
At first Prussia had refused to join the 3rd coalition but after
Napoleon began to reorganize the german state Prussia reversed its
course.
Napoleon's empire collapsed almost as fast as it had been formed.

 Concordat
Napoleon's concordat with the papacy
solidified the roman catholic church as the majority church in
France.
to what extent his rule both forwarded and undermined changes brought about
by the French Revolution
look at the notes above
he solidified a lot of the liberal rights that were
instituted during the French revolution. Recognized the principle of
equality religious tolerance abolition of feudalism
However revoked certain divorce rights and
reinstated the man as the head of the household
Moreover his was an authoritative ruler worse than
Louis and marie Antoinette.

Chapter 21pi
pp 636-657

Key Event, Person

or Concept

What you need to know

Congress of
Vienna
The quadruple
alliance restored
the bourbon
monarchy to
france in the
person of Louis
XVIII and agreed
to meet at a
congress in vienna
in september to
arrange a final
peace settlement.

Klemens von Metternich and other major players

The leader of the congress of Vienna was the austrian foreign
minister Metternich.
Other Major Players: Foreign Minister Talleyrand (France), Tsar
Alexander (Russia), King Frederick (Prussia), Foreign Minister Casereagh
and Duke of Wellington (Britain)
Rise of conservative ideology
The peace arrangements of 1815 were the beginning of a
conservative reaction determined to contain the liberal and nationalist
forces unleashed by the French Revolution. Metternich and his kind were
representatives of the ideology known as conservatism.
As a modern political philosophy conservatism dates from 1790
when Edmund Burke wrote his Reflections on the revolution in France in
reaction to the French revolution, especially its radical republican and
democratic ideas.
Burke maintained that society was a contract but the state ought to
not be considered as nothing better than a partnership agreement in a trade
of pepper and coffee to be taken up for temporary interest and to be
dissolved by the fancy of parties.
No one generation has the right to destroy this partnership each
generation has a duty to preserve and transmit it to the next. He advised
against the violent overthrow of the revolution but was not anti change.
Principles of legitimacy and intervention
Metternich claimed that he was judged at Vienna by the principle of
Legitimacy.
To reestablish peace and stability in europe he
considered it necessary to restore the legitimate monarch who
would preserve traditional insulations.

 This had already been done in France and Spain with

the restoration of the bourbons, following the fall of Napoleon as
well as in a number of Italian state where rules had been returned to
their thrones.
Elsewhere however the legitimacy was largely
ignored and completely overshadowed by more practical
considerations of power.
The congresss treatment of Poland to which Russia,
Austria and Prussia all laid claim illustrates their approach.
prussia and austria were allowed to keep some polish
territory.
Principle of Intervention: the idea that the great power have the right
to use military force to restore order in countries threatened by Revolution
Balance of power and Concert of Europe
In making these territorial rearrangements the diplomats at vienna
believed they were forming a new balance of power that would prevent any
one country from dominating Europe. For example to balance russian gains
prussia and austria had been strength.
Consideration of the balance of power also dictated the allied
treatment of France. France had not been significantly weakened; it
remained a great power.
The fear remained so strong ( that france would upset European
peace that conferees attempted to establish major defensive barriers
against possible french expansion. To the north of france they created a
new enlarged kingdom of the netherlands composed of the former dutch
republic and the austrian netherlands under a new ruler King william I of the
house of orange. To the southeast Piedmont ( officially part of the kingdom
of sardinia) was enlarged.
Joseph de maistre another conservatism believed that only absolute
monarchy could guarantee order in society and avoid the chaos generated
by movements like the french revolutions
Despite their difference most conservatives held to a general body of
beliefs
They favored obedience to political authority
believe that organized religion was crucial to social
order
hated revolutionary upheavals and were unwilling to
accept either the liberal demand for civil liberties and representative
governments or the nationalistic aspirations generated by the
French revolutions.
The community took preceance over individual rights.
.
Holy Alliance

member countries + agenda

was a coalition created by a monarchist great powers of Russia, Austria and
Prussia.

Rise of Liberalism

ideologys major tenets

Economic Liberalism

 also called classical economics, had its primary tenet

the concept of Laissez faire, the belief that the state should not
interrupt the free play of natural economic forces especially supply
and demand.
Governments should not restrain the economic liberty
of the individual and should restrict itself only three primary functions
Defense of the country
police protection of individuals
the construction and maintenance of
public works too expensive for individuals to undertake.
Political Liberalism
Politically liberal came to hold a common set of
beliefs
Chief among them was the protection of civil liberties
or basic rights of all people which included equality before the law.
Freedom of speech and press
freedom from arbitrary arrest
All of these freedoms should be guaranteed by a
written document such as the american bill of rights or the french
declaration of the rights of man and the citizen.
Believed in some sort of government but with checks
and balances.
John Stuart Mills ideas
Was very pro liberalism
Feminist
absolute freedom
not a fan of government
Early-to-Mid
19th Century
Revolutions

role of nationalism and/or liberalism as guiding ideology(-ies)

Nationalists came to believe that each nationality should have its
own government. Thus a divided people such as the germans wanted
national unity in a german nation state with one central government.
Subject peoples wanted such as the hungarians wanted national self
determination or the right to establish their own autonomy rather than be
subject to a german minority in a multinational empire.
a united germany or united italy would upset the balance of power
established in 1815
At the same time in the first half of the 19th century nationalism and
liberalism became strong allies. Most liberals believed that liberty could be
realized only by people who ruled themselves.
France in 1820s and 1830s
The new elections Charles X had called in 1830 produced another
victory for French Liberals at this point the king decided to seize the
initiative.
On july 26,1830 charles issued a set of edicts ( the july ordinances )
that imposed rigid censorship on the press dissolved the legislative
assembly and reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections.
Charles actions produced an immediate rebellion- the july revolution.
The barricades went up in paris as a provisional government led by
a group of moderate propertied liberals were hastily formed and appealed to
louis philippe the duke of orleans a cousin of charles x to become the

constitutional king of France

Charles X fled to britain and a new monarchy was formed.
Louis-philippe was soon called the bourgeois monarch because
political support for his rule came from the upper middle class
He even dressed like the middle class in business suits and hats
constitutional changes that favored the interests of the upper
bourgeoisie were instituted
financial qualifications for voting were reduced yet remained
sufficiently high that the number of voters increased only a little bit which
meant that only the wealthier people would vote
The party movement led by Adolphe thiers favored
ministerial responsibility the pursuit of an active foreign policy and
limited expansion of the franchise.
The party of resistance was led by Francois guizot
who believed that france had finally reached the perfect form of
government and needed no further institutional changes.
After 1840 the party of resistance dominated the
chamber of deputies.
Guizot cooperated with louis in suppressing
ministerial responsibility and pursuing a policy favoring the wealthier
manufacturers and tradespeople.
Greek independence
The Greeks revolted against their Ottoman Turk masters. A
combined British and French fleet defeated the large Ottoman armada.
Russia declared war on the Turks the year after and win. The Treaty of
Adrianople stated that Russia gained control of two provinces and
allowed Britain, France and Russia decide Greeks faith. The powers
decided to make the country independent.
why 1848 revolutions largely failed
Liberalism and nationalism continued to grow in many european
countries
In 1848 these forces of change erupted once more. Yet again
revolution in France provided the spark for other countries.
France
a severe industrial and agricultural
depression beginning in 1846 brought great hardship to the
French lower middle class, workers, and peasants
One third of the workers in paris were
unemployed in paris by the end of the 1847
As louis philippes government
continued to refuse to make changes opposition grew
Radical republicans and socialists
joined by the upper middle class under the leadership of
Adolphe Thiers agitated for the dismissal of guizot.
Since they were forbidden by law to
stage political rallies they used the political banquet to call for
reforms.
Although louis now proposed reform
he was unable to form another ministry and abdicated on feb
24 and fled to Britain.

 a provisional government was

established by a group of moderate and radical republicans
the latter even included the socialist Louis Blanc. The
provisional government also established national workshops
under the influence of Louis Blanc.
As blanc enviosned them the work
shos were to be cooperative factories run by the workers.In
fact the workshiops priamarly provided unskilled jobs such as
leaf raking and ditch digging for umemployed workers. The
cost of the program became increasingly burdensome on the
government
The result was a growing split between
the moderate republicans who had the support of most of
France and the radical republicans whose main support
came from the Parisian working class. In the election for the
national assembly 500 seats weren't to moderate republicans
and 300 to avowed monarchists while the radicals gained
only 100.
Unemployment rose emptying the
treasury and frightening the moderates who responded by
closing the workshops on june 23.
The workers refused to accept this
decision and poured into the streets
four days of bitter and bloody fighting
by the government forces crushed the working class revolt.
in the election four republicans who
had been associated with the early months of the second
republic were resoundingly defeated by charles louis
napoleon bonaparte, within four year President Napoleon
would become emperor Napoleon.
Germanic states
News of the revolution in Paris
triggered upheavals in central europe
Cries for change caused many german
rulers to promise constitutions, a free press, jury trials and
other liberal reform. In prussia concessions were also made .
King Frederick william agreed to abolish censorship establish
a new constitution and work for a united germany.
a bunch of stuff happens that i dnt
get ???
then the frankfurt assembly disbanded.
the attempt of the german liberals at frankfurt to create a
german state had failed.
Austrian empire
autocratic government was restored
emperor and propertied classes still remained in control and
the numerous nationalities were still subject to austrian
government.
Revolts in the Italian states
French forces helped pope pius XI

regain control of rome

elsewhere in italian rulers managed to
recover power on their own. Only piedmon was able to keep
its liberal constitution
The failures of 1848
Popular revolts had initiated
revolutionary upheavals that had led to the formation of
liberal constitution and liberal government. But how could so
many immediate success in 1848 be followed by so many
disasters only months later ?
Two reasons stand out
The unity
of the revolutionaries had made the
revolutions possible but division soon
shattered their ranks. Except in France
moderate liberal from the propertied classes
failed to extended suffrage to the working
class who helped achieve the revolutions. but
as radicals pushed for universal male suffrage
liberals everywhere pulled back. Concerned
about their property and security they rallied to
the old ruling classes for the sake of order and
out of fear of social revolutions by the working
classes. All too soon established government
were back in power
In 1848
nationalities everywhere had also revolted in
pursuit of self government. but here too
frightfully little was achieved as divisions
among nationalities proved utterly disastrous.
Though the hungarians demanded autonomy
from the Austrians at the same time they
refused to their minorities the slovenes croats
and serbs
Instead
of joining together against the old empire
minorities fought each other. The austrians
efforts to recover the hungarian provinces met
with little success until they began to play off
hungarys rebellious minority nationalities
against the hungarians.
Return of
Conservatism

Concert of Europe= very influential in ensuring the return of

conservatism. GB/ Russia/Prussia/ Austria renewed their commitment
against any attempted restoration of Bonapartist power.
Principle of intervention created by Metternich = great powers of
Europe had the right to send their armies to countries where revolutions
were to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones.

Frances Conservatism:
Was decided at the Congress of Vienna to punish the French people
for their enthusiastic response to Napoleons return. French borders pushed
back to those of 1790
Frenchman, Joseph de Maistre advocated for counter revolutionary
and authoritarian conservatism.
1814, Bourbon family restored to the throne of France.
Successor of Louis XVIII, Charles I, meant a return of
lands to nobles, encouraged the Catholic Church to reestablish
control over the French educational system
Austrias Conservatism:
Metternich played a key role in continuing Conservatism.
In response to a crowed of Burschenschaften who burned works by
conservative authors, Metternich had the diet of the Germanic Convention
draw up the Karlsbad Decrees of 1819, which provided for censorship of
the press, and placed universities under close supervision and control.
Austrian forces were allowed in 1821 to send troops to Naples to
crush revolt.
Prussias Conservatism:
Russias Conservatism:

Chapter 22
pp 670-685

Key Event, Person

or Concept

What you need to know

Napoleon III and

The Second
Empire

Evidence of his conservatism:

He secured absolute rule- unchecked by popularly elected legislature- to secure
national stability and progress
I.
Initially, restructured government to ensure ten-year term as
president
II.
Secures restoration of the French empire created by Napoleon I and
assumed the title of Napoleon III
III.
Controlled military, police, and civil service
IV.
Reserved for himself alone the right to declare war
V.
Ensured that the popularly elected Legislative Corps could neither
initiate legislation nor control the budget in other words, Napoleon IIIs
power was left unchecked
Evidence of his use of nationalism:
He displayed little tolerance for a powerful but troublesome
legislature that unnecessarily checked his power
Championed national order and stability over exercise of individual
rights
Championed tradition in the sense that he connected his own
imperial rule with that of Napoleon I; his was the 2nd French Empire,
connected to Napoleon Is first French Empire
He based his legitimacy as an absolute ruler in a history and legacy
that he and his people shared as citizens of the same region.
Evidence of liberalism in his agenda:

 Bases legitimacy as absolute ruler in the people themselvesthrough popular votes

Protection of civil liberties/ basic rights of all people
Freedom of speech, press and assembly
Freedom from arbitrary arrest
Role in the unification of Italy and Germany:
Cavour came to an agreement with Napoleon III in 1858. Napoleon
agreed to ally with Piedmont in driving the Austrians out of Italy. Once they
were driven out, Italy would be recognized. --> France would receive Nice
and Savoy as a result.
French largely responsible for beating the Austrians in
2 major battles, but then made peace with Austria in 1859 without
telling the Italians.
The legislative corps gave an appearance of representative
government since its members were elected by universal male suffrage for
6 year terms. But they could neither initiate legislation nor affect the budget.
However in the 1860s opposition candidate were allowed greater
freedom to campaign and the legislative cops was permitted more say in
affairs of state, including debate over the budget.
Crimean War

Role of nationalism + other causes:

1854-1856
Long story short: The Ottoman Empire (controlled Southeastern
Europe but in 1699 lost Hungary/Transylvania/Croatia and Slovenia to
Austrian empire) Russian Empire also took Ottoman land by seizing Crimea
in 1783. BASICALLY: Nationalistic revolt in Serbia and Greece= freed from
Ottoman Empire.
War began between Russia & Ottoman in 1853, over protecting
Christian shrines in Palestine and Ottoman Empire declares war on Russia.
Britain and France declare war on Russia because didnt like aggressive
Russia or the fall of the Ottoman Empire.
Results:
Was costly to both sides and broke up long-standing European
power relationships / destroyed the Concert of Europe.
Russia= humiliated and withdrew from European
affairs for 20 years
Because Austria was neutral, it hurt itself because it
didnt have friends with any of the super powers.

Otto von Bismarck

and German
Unification

Why Bismarck is Conservative:

I.
He believed in the power of the aristocracy I was born and raised
an aristocrat
A. Power rests traditionally in the hands of the upper
class/ nobles
II.
Unified Germany
A. Key concept of conservatism is the idea of
community order
III.
He ruled as an absolute ruler:
A. I want to play the tune the way it sounds good to me
or not at all My pride bids me command rather than obey
IV.
Did not like people who opposed his rule (i.e. liked to maintain order
of everything)

V.
Went against parliament decision reject his bill for army
appropriations
A. Went on to basically rule Prussia from 1862-1866 by
ignoring the parliament
VI.
Practiced Realpolitik:is politics or diplomacy based primarily on

considerations of given circumstances and factors, rather than explicit

ideological notions or moral or ethical premises.
VII.
VIII.

Focused on strong military and the reserve of resources.

Allied himself with other countries to fight wars

Evidence of using nationalism to push agenda:

I.
Parliament was dominated by Austrians, he used the idea of
nationalism to largely bypass the parliament with his decisions (did not want
to have Prussian policy approved by Austrians)
Evidence of Liberalism:
When he won the Austro-Prussian War, he won over the approval of many liberals
who then favored his policy of taxation
I.
Created a new constitution for the North German Confederation
(each German state had its own local government)
II.
Parliament broken up into two bodies BUT army and foreign policy
was still in his power
III.
Universal male suffrage for the Reichstag
Course of German Unification:
War (all Bismarck)
Danish War 1864
- Denmark tried annex some German territory (Schleswig and Holstein)
- The people were furious
- Bismarck gets Austria to join in a war against Denmark
- Prussia wins, and Austria and Prussia split the spoils
Austria got to run Holstein
- Prussia got Schleswig
- Lots of disputes between Prussia and Austria
Austro-Prussian War (Seven Weeks War) 1866
- Bismarck realized that for Prussia to dominate the north, Lutheran
areas of Germany, he would have to push out Austria
- Wanted to also kick out any friends of Austria
- Proved the effectiveness of military reforms (Prussian breech loaders
were faster than Austrian muzzle load guns) and railroads
- Set up for the war- isolate Austria so they would not have help
- Russia agreed to be neutral as a reward for Prussian
help earlier

Napoleon was bought off with promises of territory

along the Rhine

- Italy was promised Venetia
- This gave Austria no allies
- Prussia won
Result
Gentle peace- didnt want Austria to be an enemy, so he went easy

on them
- Italy got Venetia
- Ended the German Confederation that was led by Austria, and
replaced it with the North German Confederation, led by Prussia
King of Prussia is the head of the confederation
- Bicameral legislature- Bundestag and Reichstag

Chancellor (Bismarck) responsible to the king

- Prussia annexed Holstein, Sleiswag, Frankfort, etc, while the south German states
remained independent but were forced to sign military agreements with Prussia

Franco-Prussian War (Seven Months War) 1870-1871

France and Prussia were looking for a fight
- France was nervous of the growing German state on
their border
-

Napoleon wanted to be diplomatic

Excuse- Spain
There was a revolution in Spain that deposed Queen

Isabella II need a new king offered the throne to Prince Leopold of

Hohenzollern Sigmaringen (a distant relative of the Prussian leaders)
France didnt want to be surrounded by Hohenzollerns King
William of Prussia told his cousin to forget about it France was
unsatisfied, and demanded a formal apology from William and a
promise that Leopold will never be a candidate for the Spanish throne
William sent Bismarck a telegraph saying Napoleons request, and
Bismarck edited to telegraph and made it sound insulting to the
French, and released it to the press (Ems dispatch); France was angry
and declared war
- Bismarck was completely behind the war and got
France to attack
- Again, the Prussians had better weapons and
railroads, which benefited them
- Prussia won, France lost, and the 2nd Empire in

France ended
Results
Harsh peace for France
Indemnity (had to pay 5 billion Francs to Germany for the cost of the

war)
-

Germany took Alsace-Lorraine

South German states joined the North German Confederation, which

became the Second German Empire (First German Empire was the HRE).
They announced the creation of the new empire in Versaille, which really
rubbed it in Frances face
Danish War, Seven Weeks War with Austria, Franco-Prussian War

Italian Unification

Risorgimento
The failure of revolutionary uprisings in italy had encourage the
italian movement for unification to take a new direction . The leadership of
Italys Risorgimento passed into the hands of Giuseppe Mazzini a
dedicated italian nationalist who founded an organization known as young
italy in 1831. This group set as its goal the creation of a united Italian
Republic. In the duties of man mazzini urged Italians to dedicate their lives
to the Italian nation. A number of Italian women also took up Mazzini's call.
Especially notable was cristina belgioioso a wealthy aristocrat who worked
to bring about Italian Unification.
The dreams of Mazzini and Velgiosiso seemed on the verge of
fulfillment when a number of Italian states rose in revolt in 1848 beginning in
Sicily revelations spread northwards as ruler after ruler granted a

constitution to his people. Citizens in Lombardy and Venetia also rebelled

against their Austrian overlords. The venetians declared a republic in
venice. The king of northern italy state of Piedmont charles albert took up
the call the assumed the leadership for a war of liberation from austrian
domination.
His invasion in lombardy proved unsuccessful and by 1849 the
austrians had established complete control over lombardy and venetia.
Counter Revolutionary forces were also prevailed throughout Italy. French
forces helped pope Pius IX regain control of Rome. Elsewhere Italian rulers
managed to recover power on their own. Only Piedmont was able to keep
its liberal constitution.
Carbonari
group of italians who wanted unification were a secret society.
Key Players
Count Camillo Cavour
The little state- Piedmont- seemed unlikely to supply the needed
leadership. however until the new king Victor Emmanuel II named count camillo
di cavour as his prime minister in 1852.
he was a liberal minded nobleman who made a fortune in agriculture and
went on to make even more money in baking railroads and shipping.
Cavour was a moderate who favoured constitutional government.
After becoming prime minister in 1852 he pursued a policy of economic
expansion encouraging the building of roads, canals and fostering business
enterprises by expanding credit and stimulating investment in new industries. The
growth in the piedmontese economy and the subsequent increase in government
revenues enabled cavour to pour money into equipping a large army.
He was aware that he could not challenge Austria directly. He would need
the French. In 1858 cavour came to an agreement with Napoleon III. The emperor
agreed to ally with Piedmont in driving the austrians out of Italy. Once the austrians
were driven our italy would be reorganized. Piedmont would be extended into the
kingdom of upper italy by adding lombardy venetia parma modena and part of the
papal states to its territory. In compensation for its efforts France would receive the
Piedmontese provinces of Nice and Savoy.
A kingdom of central Italy would be created for Napoleon IIIs cousin Prince
Napoleon would be married to the younger daughter of King Victor Emmanuel.
Confident that his plan would work cavour provoked the austrians into
invading Piedmont in april 1859.
In the initial stages of fighting it was the french who were largely
responsible for defeating the austrians in two major battles at magenta and
solferino. It was also the french who made peace with austria on July 11 1859.
without informing their italian ally. Napoleon realized that despite two losses the
austrian army had not yet been defeated the struggle might be longer and more
costly than he had anticipated. Moreover, the prussians were mobilizing in support
of Austria and Napoleon had no direse to take on two enemies at once.
As a result of the peace deal Piedmont received only lombardy venetia
remained under Austrian control.
Soon after the war with austria had begun some northern Italian states
such as parma modena tuscany and part of the papal states had just been taken
over by nationalism, In plebiscites held in 1860 these states agreed to join
Piedmont. Napoleon agreed to the annexation in return for nice and savoy.
Giuseppe Garibaldi,
In southern Italy a new leader of Italian unification had come to fore
Giuseppe Garibaldi a dedicated italian patriot who had supported Mazzini and the

republican cause of young italy raised an army of thousand red shirts as his
volunteers were called because of their distinctive dress and on may 11 1860
landed in sicily where a revolt had broken out against the bourbon king of the two
sicilies.
Although his forces were greatly outnumbered his tactics won the day by
the end of july 1860 most of sicily had been pacified under his control.
In August garibaldi and his forces crossed over to the mainland and began
a victorious march up the italian peninsula. Naples and the two sicilies feel in early
september
At this point Cavour renterned the scene. Aware that garibaldi planned to
march on rome cavour feared that such a move would bring war with France as the
defender of papal interests.
Moreover garibaldi and his men favored a democratic republicanism cavour
did not and acted quickly to preempt garibaldi.
The piedmontese army invaded the papal states and bypassing rome
moved into the kingdom of naples. Ever the patriot Garibaldi chose to yield cavour's
fait accompli rather than provoke a civil war and retired to his farm.
Although the italian army was defeated by the austrians prussian victory left
the italians with Venetia. In 1870 the franco prussian war resulted in the withdrawal
of french troops from rome. The italian army then annexed the city and rome
became the new capital of the united italian state.
Giuseppe Mazzini,
see above
King Victor Emmanuel II
King of piedmont
Pope Pius IX
see above