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A Historical Comparison of Eastern and Western Theoretical Models in

Music Therapy, and their Influence Today
The general divergence between many cultural aspects of Eastern and Western heritage
is no secret to anyone. The contrasting musical philosophies and practices for therapy,
integrated historically into the collected traditions of both, are discussed forthwith specifically, from the Middle Ages and onwards.
The notion that music may remedy certain psychological disorders in humankind has long
been recognised globally, and specifically, preceding modern Western theories and
practices to around the 9th century. This is when the Arabic maqmt was written, a series
of approximately 400 stories, only roughly 52 of which have survived (Jones, 2000, p.912).
Though the Greek musical modes had been devised with relation to emotion, the Arabic
and Persian literature included in the maqmat is said to have had considerably more
content, classifying both rhythms and melodic patterns, with copious references to the
playing of a particular maqm to induce resulting emotional effects (Burnett, 2000, p.86).
This ethical understanding is sister to the astrological basis, whereby elements of the
universe are analogised with musical phenomena to almost anthropomorphise an
understanding of naturally occurring phenomena, such as the planets or zodiac: Arabic
philosopher, al-Kind (d. c. 837), may be accredited to the founding of said philosophy1
(Burnett, 2000, pp.86-87). The maqmt, however, was never translated to Latin, the
speculated reasons being that the technical terminology was untranslatable (Burnett,
2000, p.87) and due to religious prejudices in the Christian church (Burnett, 2000, pp.
89-90). Thus, one can assume that a systematic understanding of music therapy (for the
treatment of melancholy or mental disorders) was then beginning to take form, whilst also
defining a divergence of Eastern and Western music therapy philosophy: no Latin theories
relating specifically to astrology and psychological cure existed until the 15th century,
when Marsilio Ficinos philosophies took form (Burnett, 2000, p.88). The most profound
circumstance to consider, however, is the evidence from asylums and texts of

For example, assigning the 7 notes of the musical scale to the 7 planets or four basic rhythms to
the quarters of the zodiac, the four elements, the four seasons, etc. (Burnett, 2000)

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distinguished and organised special care for mental health patients in the medieval East
that substantially predate any such facilities in the West (Burnett, 2000, pp.85-90).
Despite the division in philosophies and the modern Wests preference to a more ethical
or psychological theoretical perspective, formal Western music therapy origins are rooted
in ancient Greece, in reality and myth alike. Pythagorean (d. c. 495 BC) astrological
philosophy, specifically a concept known as Musica universalis, mathematically explores
the concept of orbital resonance2 having an effect on the quality of life on Earth (BoyceTillman, 2000, pp.70-71). It was also of medieval understanding, according to Iamblichus
(d. c. 325 AD), that such energies were products of the Gods, and in order to assimilate
oneself with them, one must use their language to align ourselves with the harmonies
underlying the cosmos (Voss, 1998, p.2). With influence from Iamblichus, Plato, Orpheus
(whom he translated); al-Kind and more, Marsilio Ficino (d. 1499) published his Book of
Life, which includes his own manifesto for astrologically-derived music therapy containing
three rules for composition, the effects of which, when followed, will provoke both singer
and audience to imitate the qualities it itself is imitating through its action on the airy spirit,
which connects man's spirit to the soul of the world (Voss, 1998, p.5). Ficino, as
mentioned previously, provided the first Latin literature that specifically explored an
astrological constitution of music therapy. Thus, it is now evident that similarities and
cross-overs can be observed in Western and Eastern musical philosophies throughout
history.
The general secularisation paradigm in the West, however, saw the true divergence of the
two, circa the 16th century, when - amongst many other stimuli - for example,
Protestantism, emerged. However, despite these dissimilarities, a modern convergence is
observable that could be dated back to the mid-late 20th century: though musical
exoticism was an established part of Western music already, The Beatles may have
popularised such integrated philosophies and music upon their work with the Maharishi
Mahesh Yogi and their following interest in transcendental meditation in the 1960s (Boyce-

In the Pythagorean theory, Harmony of the Spheres, it is proposed that the sun, moon and
planets all emit an individualised sonic resonance based on their orbital cycle, imperceptible to the
human ear. The quality of life on Earth is theorised to reflect the celestial tenor.

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Tilman, 2000, p.159). The term for said faith could be New Age spirituality. Music of the
New Age genre is predominantly associated with Eastern ethical ideologies, peace and
environmentalism, and is commonly played commercially to invoke a serene atmosphere
when practicing meditation or yoga. Compositions will often contain an array of nonWestern instrumentation, Native American/Sanskrit/Tibetan influenced vocals that often
associate themselves lyrically to religion, spirituality or legend and sometimes synthesised
electronica. New Age philosophy and its correspondence with music can be defined in The
Secret Power of Music (1984) by David Tame. I have summarised (from Boyce-Tilman,
2000, p.161) as follows:
1. To lead a healthy life, one must recognise the ubiquitous love inherent in the universe
for all to share, expressible and receivable via music.
2. Music allows us to be creative in a material, psychological and spiritual sense.
3. Music can play a part in learning and letting go of suffering.
4. Musical meditation assists in centring oneself with the true or higher self by tapping
into the universal energy of love.
5. Music allows one to call for help from supernatural beings in the universe.
6. In some groups, there is a powerful sense of the soul. Musical trance techniques can
cure ailments in the soul.
It is also notable that at this time, formal developmental psychological theories were
emerging focusing on themes of altruism and spirituality. In 1969, Abraham Maslow (who
is accredited as a pioneer of transpersonal psychology by Rowan) revised his Hierarchy of
Needs theory to add another tier to the triangle, above self actualisation, called selftranscendence (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). Transpersonal psychology focuses on the
development of the Self and also draws on many Eastern philosophical influences: it is to
transcend the boundaries of individualistic qualms and constraints, and realise oneself
with humility as part of a greater universe. It is specifically defined by Rowan (1993) as
different to the New Age, extrapersonal, right brain, religion and spirituality. Generally,
making music cooperatively in a therapeutic environment or in normal life can help to
establish and develop a sense of Self, by defining the boundaries of me and not-me, a
concept explored in the essay, Spectrum of Consciousness (1993), by Ken Wilber who
makes plentiful connections to Eastern traditions/philosophy in relation to babies and
developmental psychology. Furthermore, our experiences that lead us to adulthood allow
us to safely loosen the boundaries between mind, body and spirit (body/ego or soma/

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psyche) and integrate the three as a process of self-actualisation. In music therapy, the
implementation or breaking down of boundaries (psychical/social/ethical) propagates
similar effects, and according to Rowan (1993), may help a client to transcend a fully
integrated ego, often into the territories of the spiritual and transpersonal. (Bunt and
Hoskyns, 2002, pp.34-45)
It is important to realise that culturally integrated theoretical models of therapy that are
derived from ancient philosophy are still relevant today. Artistic boundaries have long been
challenged, notably so in the great 20th century art movements of Dadaism, Futurism,
Fluxus, etc. The breaking down of artistic boundaries is the liberation of the Self, and in
music therapy can be practised in improvisational activities to develop self-expression,
self-exploration (see also Imagination and the imaginal world, in Rowan, 1993) and
empathy. Such activities are popular among child patients and those with learning
disabilities. Also, the notion that music can relieve melancholy, or depression as it is
called today, is arguably obvious now, and patients with limited communicative skills in
particular, such as those suffering from dementia or other psycho/physio degenerative
diseases, are played music to alleviate their emotional inner turmoil, if only temporarily.
There are lots of ways to imaginatively incorporate simply listening to music into a music
therapy environment (Bunt and Hoskyns, 2002, pp.232-233).
Naivety, apathy, or even hostility towards spiritual philosophies in general is common
within society, perhaps consequentially from the influence the pop-culture of elitism,
materialism and commercialism: the three boldest significant aspects from which dominant
musical traditions, such as popular or classical musics, have taken heed. However, the
New Age, for example, challenges such a hierarchical assembly of the arts, culture and
philosophy (Boyce-Tillman, 2000, p.162). The Orient, a concept investigated (in terms of
musical style and its implications) by Derek B. Scott in his essay, Orientalism and Musical
Style (1998), is explored as a representation of the East, or a reading of the East through
the lens of Orientalism: it does not represent the Other, but the Wests own thoughts
about the Other (p.314). Quoted inclusively is Edward Said, who suggests that the
incorporation of the Orient is to characterise and alienate it on a theatrical stage, whose
audience, manager and actors are for Europe, and only for Europe, (p.309). The point, is

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that Eastern philosophies/traditions can commonly be misinterpreted, sensationalised or

glamourised in the notion of Orientalism, rendering corrupted perspectives of the East as
mystically exotic or even dangerous and underdeveloped. However, this does not
necessarily make them any less legitimate than those of the main stream.
The concepts explored are popular amongst many, but controversially, may be ignored by
powerful organisations due to their disruptiveness of orthodox normalities and controls,
and obvious encouragement of individualism. Therapy can be a huge realm of discovery
including self-discovery, if we will let it be so, (Rowan, 1993, p.244), but many would
argue that we first must emancipate ourselves from the repressive ideologies of modern
society and take heed from therapies that focus on transcending the Self and societys
current perspective of Self. Perhaps music therapy could be a means to an end that is
entirely more wholesome than is first assumed.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boyce-Tillman, J., 2000. Constructing a Musical Healing: The Wounds that Sing. London:
Jessica Kingsley Pubishers Ltd.
Bunt, L. and Hoskyns, S., 2002. The Handbook of Music Therapy. New York: Routledge
Burnett, C., 2000. Spiritual medicine: music and healing in Islam and its influence in
Western medicine. In: Gouk, P., ed, 2000. Musical Healing in Cultural Contexts. Aldershot:
Ashgate Publishing Limited.
Jones, A., 2000. Maqmt in English Translation. In: Classe, O., ed. 2000. Encyclopaedia
of Literary Translation into English. Vol. 2. London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
Koltko-Rivera, M. E., 2006. Rediscovering the Later Version of Maslows Hierarchy of
Needs: Self-Transcendence and Opportunities for Theory, Research, and Unification. [pdf]
Available at:
<academic.udayton.edu/jackbauer/Readings%20595/Koltko-Rivera%2006%20trans
%20self-act%20copy.pdf>
[Accessed: 08.11.15]

Rowan, J., 1993. The Transpersonal: Psychotherapy and Counselling. New York:
Routledge.
Scott, D. B., 1998. Orientalism and Musical Style. [pdf] Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Available at:
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/742411?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents>
[Accessed: 06.11.15]

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Voss, A., 1998. The Music of the Spheres: Ficino and Rennaisance Harmonia. [pdf]
Available at:
<http://angelavoss.org/?s=marsilio+ficino&submit=Go>
[Accessed: 08.11.15]
Wilber, K., 1999. The Collected Works of Ken Wilber: Volume 1. Boston: Shambhala
Publications, Inc.

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