Ee1 Notes

Environmental Engineering I
10CV61
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-I
Subject Code : 10CV61
Sub Code
: 10 CV 61
No. of Lecture Hours/Week: 04
Total No. of Lecture Hours : 52
IA Marks : 25
Exam Hours : 03
Exam Marks : 10
Part - A
Unit - 1
INTRODUCTION: Human activities and environmental pollution. Water for various beneficial
uses and quality requirement. Need for protected water supply.
2 Hours
DEMAND OF WATER: Types of water demands- domestic demand indetail, institutional and
commercial, public uses, fire demand. Percapita consumption factors affecting per capita
demand, populationforecasting, different methods with merits &demerits- variations indemand
of water. Fire demand estimation by Kuichlings formula,Freeman formula & national board of
fire underwriters formula, peakfactors, design periods & factors governing the design periods
6 Hours
Unit - 2
SOURCES: Surface and subsurface sources suitability with regardto quality and quantity.
3 Hours
COLLECTION AND CONVEYANCE OF WATER: Intake structures different types of
intakes; factor of selection and location of intakes.Pumps- Necessity, types power of pumps;
factors for the selectionof a pump. Pipes Design of the economical diameter for the risingmain;
Nomograms use; Pipe appurtenances.
6 Hours
Unit 3
QUALITY OF WATER: Objectives of water quality management.wholesomeness&
palatability, water borne diseases. Water qualityparameters Physical, chemical
andMicrobiological.Sampling ofwater for examination. Water quality analysis (IS: 3025 and IS:
1622)using analytical and instrumental techniques. Drinking waterstandards BIS & WHO
guidelines. Health significance of Fluoride,Nitrates and heavy metals like Mercury, Cadmium,
Arsenic etc. andtoxic / trace organics.
6 Hours
Unit 4
WATER TREATMENT: Objectives Treatment flow-chart. Aeration - Principles, types of
Aerators.
2 Hours
SEDIMENTATION: Theory, settling tanks, types, design. Coagulantaided sedimentation, jar
test, chemical feeding, flash mixing, and clariflocculator.
4 Hours
Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology
Page 1
10CV61
Part - B
Unit - 5
FILTRATION: Mechanism theory of filtration, types of filters, slowsand, rapid sand and
pressure filters including construction, operation,cleaning and their design excluding under
drainage system backwashing of filters. Operational problems in filters.
6 Hours
Unit - 6
DISINFECTION: Theory of disinfection, types of disinfection,Chlorination, chlorine demand,
residual chlorine, use of bleachingpowder. UV irradiation treatment treatment of swimming
pool water
4 Hours
SOFTENING definition, methods of removal of hardness by limesoda process and zeolite
process RO & Membrane technique.
3 Hours
Unit - 7
MISCELLANEOUS TREATMENT: Removal of color, odor, taste, useof copper sulfate,
adsorption technique, fluoridation anddefluoridation.
4 Hours
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS: System of supply, service reservoirs andtheir capacity
determination, methods of layout of distribution systems
Unit - 8
MISCELLANEOUS: Pipe appurtenances, various valves, type of firehydrants, pipefitting,
Layout of water supply pipes in buildings.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Water supply Engineering S.K.Garg, Khanna Publishers
2. Environmental Engineering I B C Punima and Ashok Jain
3. Manual on Water supply and treatment CPHEEO, Minstry ofUrban Development, New
Delhi.
REFERENCES
1. Hammer, M.J., (1986), Water and Wastewater Technology SIVersion, 2ndEdition, John
Wiley and Sons.
2. Karia, G.L., and Christian, R.A., (2006), Wastewater Treatment Concepts and Design
Approach, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,New Delhi.
3. Metcalf and Eddy, (2003), Wastewater Engineering, Treatmentand Reuse ,4th Edition,
Tata McGraw Hill Edition, Tata McGraw HillPublishing Co. Ltd.
4. Peavy, H.S., Rowe, D.R., and Tchobanoglous, G.,(1986),Environmental Engineering
McGraw Hill Book Co.
5. Raju, B.S.N., (1995), Water Supply and WastewaterEngineering, Tata McGraw Hill Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi.
Page 2
10CV61
Table of Contents
Unit 1
INTRODUCTION
(06 25)
1. Human activities and environmental pollution.

2. Water for various beneficial uses and quality requirement.
3. Need for protected water supply.
DEMAND OF WATER
1. Types of water demands- domestic demand in detail, institutional and commercial, public
uses, fire demand.
2. Per capita consumption factors affecting per capita demand,
3. population forecasting,
4. different methods with merits &demerits- variations in demand of water.
5. Fire demand estimation by Kuichlings formula, Freeman formula & national board of
fire underwriters formula,
6. peak factors,
7. design periods & factors governing the design periods
Unit 2
SOURCES
(26 49)
1. Surface and subsurface sources

2. Suitability with regard to quality and quantity.
COLLECTION AND CONVEYANCE OF WATER:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Intake structures different types of intakes;

factor of selection and location of intakes.
Pumps- Necessity, types power of pumps; factors for the selection of a pump.
Pipes
Design of the economical diameter for the rising main;
Nomograms use;
Pipe appurtenances.
Unit 3
QUALITY OF WATER
(50 69)
1. Objectives of water quality management.

2. wholesomeness& palatability, water borne diseases.
3. Water quality parameters
Physical
Chemical and
Microbiological.
4. Sampling of water for examination.
5. Water quality analysis (IS: 3025 and IS: 1622) using analytical and instrumental
techniques.
6. Drinking water standards BIS & WHO guidelines.
7. Health significance of Fluoride, Nitrates and heavy metals like Mercury, Cadmium,
Arsenic etc. and toxic / trace organics.
Page 3
Unit 4
WATER TREATMENT
10CV61
(70 99)
1. Objectives
2. Treatment flow-chart.
3. Aeration - Principles, types of Aerators.
SEDIMENTATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Theory
Settling tanks, types, design.
Coagulant aided sedimentation
Jar test
chemical feeding
flash mixing
clariflocculator.
Unit - 5
FILTRATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Unit 6
DISINFECTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(100 118)
Mechanism theory of filtration

Types of filters, slow sand, rapid sand and pressure filters including construction
Operation, cleaning and their design
Back washing of filters
Operational problems in filters.
(119 132)
Theory of disinfection
Types of disinfection
Chlorination, chlorine demand, residual chlorine
Use of bleaching powder.
UV irradiation treatment treatment of swimming pool water
SOFTENING
1.
2.
3.
4.
Definition
Methods of removal of hardness by lime soda process
Methods of removal of hardness by zeolite process
Methods of removal of hardness by RO &Membrane technique.
Unit 7
MISCELLANEOUS TREATMENT
(133 137)
1. Removal of color, odor, taste

2. Use of copper sulfate, adsorption technique
3. Fluoridation and defluoridation.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
1. System of supply
2. service reservoirs and their capacity determination
3. methods of layout of distribution systems
Page 4
Unit 8
MISCELLANEOUS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
10CV61
(138 142)
Pipe appurtenances
Various valves
Type of firehydrants
Pipefitting,
Layout of water supply pipes in buildings.
Page 5
10CV61
Unit1 - INTRODUCTION
Water is a chemical compound and may occur in a Liquid solid gaseous form. All these
three Forms of water are extremely useful to man, full filling his basic necessities of life.No life
can exist without water since water is as essential for life. It has been estimated of water is
absolutely essential not only for survival of human being but also for animals, plants and all
other living creatures further it is necessary that the water required for their needs must be safe in
all respects and it should not contain unwanted impurities or harmful chemical compounds or
bacterias in it therefore in order to ensure the availability of sufficient quantity of good quality
water it becomes imperative in modern society to plan and build suitable water supply schemes
which will provide potable (safe for drinking) water to the varies sections of community in
accordance with then demands and requirements.
The provision of such a scheme shall ensure a constant and a reliable water supply to that section
of the people for which it has been designed such a scheme shall not only help in supplying safe
whole some water to the people for drinking cooking, bathing, washing, etc.., so as to keep the
diseases away and there by promoting better health, but would also help and thus helping in
maintaining better sanitation and beautification of surroundings. Besides promoting overall
hygiene and public health it shall ensure a safety against fire by supplying sufficient quantity of
water to extinguish it. The existence of such a water supply scheme shall further help in
attracting industries and thereby helping in industrialization and modernization of the society and
consequently reducing unemployment and ensuring better living standards such schemes shall
therefore help in promoting health wealth and welfare of entire community as a whole.
Various important and pathogenic organisms (disease causing organisms) due to these diseases
like typhoid Asiatic cholera Amoebiasisgiavdisis etc..may spread. These diseases are called
WATER borne DISEASES and therefore it will be harmful to health.
The pathogenic organisms (pathogens) do not multiply in water like that in milk but they
do survive i.e water may be considered as a carrier for bacteria and not multiplier thus the control
of pathogens is possible by simple disinfection principles (process). (If we control the purity of
H2O completely, the chances of outbreak water borne communicable diseases will be much less).
Besides communicable diseases certain other diseases like goiter, dental flourosis and skeletal
flourosis are attributable to chemical impurities present in water.
Page 6
10CV61
HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Increasing human population numbers are putting great pressure on many of these limited
resources and deplete those resources which cannot be renewed. Many different natural
processes occur within those ecosystems influencing humans. Some of these processes include
atmospheric quality. soil generation and conservation, energy flow, the water cycle, waste
removal and recycling. Human activities are altering the equilibrium involved in these natural
processes and cycles. If these changes due to human activities are not addressed, the stability of
the world's ecosystems may irreversibly affected. Humans damage ecosystems by harvesting
trees that are homes to hundreds of different organisms. We damage the atmosphere by releasing
greenhouse gases when we drive cars or use electricity. We pollute water with chemicals and
waste products from factories. We can't reverse the damage, but we can help prevent new
damage by changing our lifestyles to be less wasteful and more conservative with our resources.
I'd love to tell you all about it(I live very green) but it would take a long time. Basically, just
remember Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. Any little change you can make does help the problem,
even if it's just a minor change like switching to energy saving lightbulbs.
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR A PROTECTED WATER SUPPLY

SCHEME (WSS)
The following factors should be kept in view in water supply for particular place.
i)
THE SOURCE: Source should be selected which may sufficiently provide the water
in all the seasons. The sources may be wells steams, natural lakes, deep ponds in
rivers, reservoirs, perennial rivers etc
ii)
QUANTITY OF WATER: It can be estimated by considering need for present

population and future population growth during the design period also some quantity
of water will be required for fire fighting, public conveniences street washings and
horticultural purposes. In addition to these some water is usually wasted by the
consumers. Thus the total quantity way of water may be estimated for a particular
locality considering all the above factors.
iii)
CHECK CALCULATION: After the above calculations are completed, designer

should again confirm whether the source of water will provide the required amount of
water especially in summer season of the driest year.
iv)
DISTANCE AND DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION: The designer should see

distance and difference in elevation in a town with respect to source of water. As far
as possible the water should be under enough pressure in service pipes so that it may
reach upto 10-15m.
v)
IMPOUNDING RESERVOIR: May only be provided if its provision at higher

elevation is not economical.
vi)
QUALITY OF WATER: After this the quality of water should be tested the
treatment units should be installed according to degree of pollution in the source.
Page 7
vii)
10CV61
METHODS OF PURIFICATION: The methods of purification of water for

drinking purposes may be divided into 5 parts viz.
a) SCREENING: in which the fine and coarse particles, rags, papers, etc are
separated through fine and coarse screens.
b) PLAIN SEDIMENTATION: in which the sedimentation of set liable solids in
large tanks is affected.
c) COAGULATION OR CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION: This is adopted when
there is much turbidity. The alum solution is generally mixed in water and the
precipitation is formed which is later separated.
d) FILTRATION: in which water is passed through layers of stones and sand.
e) DISINFEC TION: in which the pathogenic bacteria are destroyed.
NOTE: In addition to these some special methods like softening, aeration, iron removal
etc.. are also resorted to remove colour, bad taste smell etc.
viii)
SERVICE RESERVOIR: Pure water may be stored at a higher elevation in the town
which is called a service reservoir. From these reservoir the water may be supplied in
the hours of peak demand
ix)
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM: the water from the service reservoir is served to

consumers through a network of mains, sub mains, laterals called as distribution
network system.
ARRANGEMENT OF WATER SUPPLY (FLOW CHART OF WATER SUPPLY

SCHEME)
1- Intake structures
2- Pumping station
3- Screens
4- Coagulants dosing tank
5- Sedimentation tank
6- Filters
7- Chlorine dosing tank
8- Clear water reservoir
9- Pumping station
10- Overhead tank
11- Distribution network systems.
Page 8
10CV61
DEMAND FOR WATER

VARIOUS TYPES OF WATER DEMAND
Which planning a water supply scheme, it is necessary to find out not only the total yearly
water demand but also to assess the required average rates of flow (or draft) and the variations in
these rates. The following quantities are therefore, generally assessed and recorded.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Total annual volume (V) in liters or million liters.

Annual average rate of draft in liters per day, i.e V/365
Annual average rate of draft in liters per day per person i.eliters per capita per day or
lpcd called PER CAPITA DEMAND (q) or RATE OF DEMAND.
V
1
Average rate of draft in liters per day per service i.e
365 No of services
Fluctuations in flows expressed in terms of percentage ratios of maximum or
minimum yearly, monthly, daily or hourly rates to their corresponding average
values.
It is difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water demanded by the public, since there are
many variable factors affecting water consumption certain thumb rules and empirical formulas
are therefore generally used to assess this quantity, which may give fairly accurate results. The
use of a particular method or a formula for a particular case has therefore, to be decided by the
intelligence and fore sightedness of the designer. The various types of water demands, which a
city may have, may be divided into the following classes.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Domestic water demand

Industrial and commercial water demand
Demand for public uses
Fire demand
Water required compensating losses in wastes and thefts.
As correctly as possible the total water demand of a particular section of the community, all
these demands must be considered and suitable provision made depending upon the needs of
those people for whom the water supply scheme is to be designed.
DOMESTIC WATER DEMAND: This includes the water required in private buildings for
drinking, cooking, bathing, lawn sprinkling, Gardening, sanitary purposes etc.
This amount varies according to the living conditions of the consumers on an average this
domestic consumption under normal conditions in a Indian city is expected to be around 135
litres /day/person as per Id:1172,1971. The total domestic consumption generally amounts to 5060% of the total water consumption.
Page 9
10CV61
AVERAGE DOMESTIC WATER CONSUMPTION IN A INDIAN CITY

USE
Drinking
cooking
Bathing
Washing of clothes
Washing of utensils
Washing and clearing of houses
and residences
TOTAL
CONSUMPTION IN LPCD
5
5
55
20
10
10
30
135 lpcd
INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL WATER DEMAND

This includes the quantity of water required to be supplied to offices, Factories, different
industries, hospitals, hostels, etc. This will vary considerably with the nature of the city and
with the number and types of industries and commercial establishment there is no direct relation
of this consumption with the population and hence the actual requirements for all industries
should be estimated. The water requirements for buildings other than residences as per is
standards are as follows.
Type of building
Age consumption in
lpcd
45
1.Factories
a) where bathrooms are required to
be provided
b) where no bathrooms are required
30
to be provided
2.Hospitals (including laundry) per bed
a) Number of beds < 100
340
b) Number of beds > 100
450
3.Nurse homes and medical quarters
135
4.Hostels
135
5.Hotels (Per bed)
180
6.Restauvants (Per seat)
70
7.offices
45
8.Cinemas, Auditoriums and theatres (per 15
seat)
9.Schools
a) Day schools
45
b) Residential school
135
Page 10
10CV61
DEMAND FOR PUBLIC USES (MUNICIPAL CONSUMPTION)

This includes the quantity of water required for public parks, gardening, washing and
sprinkling on roads, use in public fountains etc..
A nominal amount not exceeding 5% of the total consumption may be added to meet this
demand on an arbitrary basis or else the consumption of water for municipal purposes as given
below may be considered.
PURPOSE
WATER CONSUMPTION
Public parks
1.4 litres/m2/day
Road watering
1-1.5 litres/m2/day
Sewer cleaning
4.5 litres/head/day
Extinguishing for is very small in a year but the rate of consumption is large. The scheme should
provide the necessary peat demand of water for firefighting (although fire hydrants with separate
water mains at about 100-150m apart are provided) The water requirements for extinguishing
fire depends on bulk, congestion and fire resistance of buildings. Indirectly we can say, it ,mainly
depends on the population. The minimum limit of fire demand is the amount and rate of supply
that are required to extinguish the largest probable fire that may occur in a town.
Which designing public water supply schemes the rate of fire demand is sometimes treated as a
function of population and is worked out on basis of certain empirical formulas which are as
follows.
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FOR FIRE DEMAND
A) KULCHILINGS FORMULA : It states that
Q 3182 p
(at a demand rate to be maintained at hydrants of 1-1.5 kg km2 lasting
For 3 hrs) where
Q = amount of water required in litres/min
P = population in thousands.
B) FREEMAN FORMULA : It states that
p
Q=1136.5 10 and
10
y 2.8 p
Where
y = period of occurrences of fire in years
Q and p are same as above
Page 11
10CV61
C) NATIONAL BOARD OF FIRE UNDERWRITERS FORMULA

FCPA central congested high valued city
i. When population is 2,00,000
Q = 4637 p 1 D.D1 p
ii. When population is > 2,0,000 a provision for 54600 litres/ min may be made with an extra
additional provision of 9100 to 30400 litres/min for a second fire.
For a Residential City
1. Small low buildings = 2200 litres/min
2. Large and higher buildings = 4500 litres/min
3. High value Residences apartment and tenements
= 7650-1350 litres/min
4. Three storeyed buildings
= 27,000 litres/min
D) BUSTONS FORMULA - It states that
Q = 5663 p
All the above formulae suffer from the drawback, that they are not related with the type
of area served. These formulas therefore give equal results for industrial and non industrial areas,
although the possibility of occurrence of a fire with of given duration is more for an industrial
area as compared to the non-industrial area.WATER REQUIRED TO COMPENSATE IN THEFTS, WASTES, etc..
It includes the water lost in leakage due to bad plumbing or damaged meters, stolen water
due to unauthorized water connections and other losses and wastes, etc. These losses should be
taken into account while estimating the total requirement. These losses can be reduced by careful
maintenance and universal metering. Even in the best managed water works this amount is
usually taken as 15% of the total consumption.
DESIGN PERIOD
A Water supply scheme includes huge and costly structures like dams, reservoirs, treatment
works, penstocks etc., which cannot be replaced or increased in their capacities, easily and
conveniently for example. The water mains including distribution pipes are laid underground and
cannot be replaces or added easily without digging the road or disrupting the traffic. In order to
avoid these future complications of expansions, various components of w.s.s are purposely made
larger, so as to satisfy the community meets for a reasonable years to come. The future period or
the number of years for which a provision is made in designing the capacities of the various
component of the w.s.s. is known as DESIGN PERIOD. It should be neither too long nor should
it be too short. Normally 20-30 years is considered for distribution system.
PER CAPITA DEMAND (RATE OF DEMAND) (Q)
It is the annual average amount of daily water required by one person and includes the
domestic use, industrial and commercial use, public use, wastes, thefts, etc
Page 12
= Per capita Demand in litres/day/head =
10CV61
Total yearly water requirement of the citty in Litres
365 Design population
V
365P
For an Average.Indian town. As per I.S recommendations the per capita demand may be taken as
given in table below.
USE
CONSUMPTION (LPCD)
Domestic use
135
Industrial use
50
Commercial use
20
Civic or public use
10
Waste, theft. Etc
55
Total
270 lpcd
The above figure or 270 lpcd when multiplied by the population at the end of the design period
shall give the total annual average water requirement of the city/day. When multiplied by 365
will give the volume of the yearly water requirement in litres.
Generally the per capita demand valuesranges between 10-300 lpcd. These variations in
total water consumption of different cities or towns depend upon various factors.
FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Size and type of city

Climatic conditions
Class of consumers
Quality of water
Pressure in the distribution system
Sewerage Facilities
System of supply
Policy of metering system
Cost of water
PROBLEM ON RATE OF DEMAND

Work out the rate of demand of water for an average Indian city. Make your own
assumptions wherever necessary.
Soln: The total requirement of water for various purposes is worked out separately as under.
Page 13
PURPOSE
1.DOMESTIC
Drinking
Cooking
Bathing
Washing Clothes and utensils
Washing and Cleaning of houses
Flushing of latrines
10CV61
CONSUMPTION (lpcd)
5
5
55
30
10
30
135
2. CIVIl or PUBLIC
A. Road washing
b. Sanitation purpose
c. ornamental purpose
d. fire demand
3. Industrial purposes
4. commercial purposes
5. waste, theft, etc
Total
5
3
1
1
10
50
20
55
270 Lpcd
VARIATIONS IN DEMAND
There are wide variations in the use of water in different seasons, in different months of
the year, in different days of the month and in different hours of the day.
Seasonal or monthly variation are prominent in tropical countries like India rate of
consumption reaches maximum in summer season due to greater use of water for street and lawn
sprinkling etc It goes down in winter months. The fluctuation in the rate of consumption may
be as much as 150% of the average annual consumption.
HoURLYVARIATIONS
Avg. Demand on a maxm. Day
Page 14
10CV61
TIME IN HOURS.
Daily and hourly Fluctuations depend on the general habits of people, climatic conditions etc
more water demand will be on Sundays and holidays due to more comfortable working, etc. as
compared to other working days. Peak hours may be 6 a.m to 10a.m and 10a.m to 4.p.m
minimum flow and between 10.p.m to 4.a.m it is very less. The above graph shows the hourly
variation in demand of water or rate of consumption 20% of average hourly demand
ASSESSMENT OF NORMAL VARIATIONS

The maximum demands (monthly, daily or hourly) are generally expressed as ratios of their
means. The following figures are generally adopted.
1. MAXIMUM DAILY CONSUMPTION is generally taken as 180% of the average,
therefore
Maximum daily demand(MDD) = 1.8 Average daily demand (^DD)
= 1.8 q
2. MAXIMUM HOURLY CONSUMPTION is generally taken as 150% of its average
hooray consumption of maximum day, there fore
Maximum hourly consumption = 1.5 (150%) Average hourly consumption
of the maximum day or
of the maxm. Day.(Litres/day)
peak demand
MDD
(Litres/hr)
1.5
24
1.8 q
1.5
(Litres/hr)
24
2.7 q
(Litres/hr)
24
Therefore,
Maximum hourly consumption of the maximum day
= (2.7 Annual Average hourly demand)
The formula given by GOODRICH is also used for finding out the rather of peak demand
rates to their corresponding average values.
GOODRICH FORMULA P=180 t 0.10
Where,
P = % of annual average draft for the timet in days
1
T = Time in days from
to 365
24
Page 15
10CV61
When t= 1 day (For daily variations)

P = 180 1
0.10
P = 180%
MDD
180%
ADD
When t = 7 days (For weekly variations)

P = 180 (7)-0.10
P = 148%
MWD
148%
AWD
T = 30 days (For monthly variations)

P = 180 (30)-0.10
P =128%
MMD
128%
AMD
Maxm monthly Demand
128%
Avg.MonthlyDemand
PROBLEMS
1. The design population of a town is 15000 Determine the Average daily, Maximum hourly
demand under suitable assumptions
Soln: Assuming Average percapita demand as 270 Lpcd
i.
ADD = design population Avg. per capita demand

= 1500 270
= 4050000 Litres/day
ADD = 4050 m3/day
ii.
MDD = 1`.8 Average daily demand

= 1.8 4050
MDD = 7290 m3/day
iii.
Maximum hourly demand of maximum day

= 2.7 Annual Avg. hourly demand
q
= 2.7
24
Page 16
4050
24
= 455.625 m3/hr
= 10935 m3/day
10CV61
= 2.7
or
EFFECTS OF VARIATION
1. The sources of supplies such as wells etc may be designed for MDD
2. The pipe mains taking water from the source upto the service reservoirs may be designed
for MDD.
3. The filter and OTHER UNITS at water treatment plant may also be designed for MDD.
Sometimes an additional provision for reserve is also made for break down and repairs
therefore they may be designed for twice the ADD instead of MDD.
4. The pumps may be designed for MDD plus some additional reserve (say twice the ADD)
When the pumps do not work for all the 24 hrs such as in small town supplies, the
design draft should be multiplied by
24
Number of hours in the day foe which the pumps are running
5. The distribution system is generally designed for the maximum hourly demand of the
maximum day or coincident draft whichever is more.
6. Service reservoirs are generally designed for 8 days consumption.
COINCIDENT DRAFT
It is extremely improbable that a fire may break out when water is being drawn by the consumers
at maximum hourly draft. Therefore for general community purposes, the total draft is not taken
as the sum of maximum hourly demand and fire demand but is taken as the sum of MDD and fire
demand ort the maximum hourly demand whichever is more. The MDD when added to fire
demand for working out TD (Totaldraft) it is known as coincident draft.
COINCIDENT DRAFT = MAXM DAILY DEMAND (MDD) + FIRE DEMAND (FD)
Problem
1.A water supply screen has to be designed for a city having a population of 1,50,000 Estimate
the important kinds of drafts which may be required to be recorded for an Avg. consumption of
250Lpcd. Also record the required capacities of the major components of the proposed water
works system for the city using a river as the source of supply. Assume suitable figures and data
where needed.
Soln:
i.
Average daily demand
ADD = (per capita Avg consumption in Lpcd) population
= 250 150000
Page 17
10CV61
= 37500000 Litres/day
= 37.5 106Litres/day
= 37.5 Million Litres/day
ADD = 37.5 Mld
ii.
or
Maximum daily draft

May be assumed as 180% of annual average daily draft.
MDD = 1.8 37.5
MDD = 67.5 Mld
iii.
Maximum hourly demand of maximum day

May be assumed as 270% of annual average daily draft.
37.5
24
MHD= 2.7
24
MHD = 101.25Mld
iv.
Fire demand
Using national board of fire under writers formula, when population is
less than or equal to 2 lakhs we have
Q 4637 p 1 0.01 p
4637 150 1 0.01 150
49835.92 Litres / min
71763724.35 Litres / min
71.76 106 Litres / min
Q 71.76 Mld .
COINCIDENT DRAFT
= MDD + Fire draft

= 67.5 + 71.76
= 139.26Mld.
CAPACITY OF VARIOUS COMPONENTS
1. The intake structure for fetching water from the stream may be designed for MDD i.e for
67.5Mld.
2. The pipe mains carrying the water from the intake to the treatment plant and then to
service reservoir. May be designed for MDD
Required capacity = MDD (67.5 Mld)
3. The filters and other units at the treatment plant may be designed for MDD plus some
reserve (say twice the ADD)
Required capacity
= 2 ADD
= 2 37.5
= 75 ld.
Page 18
10CV61
4. The Lift pumps may be designed for twice the ADD = 2 37.5 = 75 Mld (Assuming
pumps are operating for all the 24 hours)
5. The distribution system including the pipes carrying water from service reservoir to the
distribution system may be designed for coincident draft with fire or maximum hourly
demand, whichever is more.
The required capacity = 139.26 Mld.
POPULATION FORECASTING
When the design period is fixed, the next step is to determine population in various periods
because the population of the towns generally goes on increasing. The population is increased by
births, decreased by deaths, increased or decreased migration. The correct present and past
population can be obtained from census office. The WSS are not designed for the present
population the future population expected by the end of the design period may be estimated by
various methods. The method to be adopted to a particular town or city depends on the factors
discussed in these methods.
The various methods of forecasting the population are
1. Arithmetical increase method
2. Biometrical increase method
3. Incremental increase method
4. Decreasing rate of increase method or decreasing rate method
5. Simple graphical method
6. Comparative graphical method
7. Master plan method or Zoning method
8. Ration method or Apportionment method
9. Logistics curve method.
ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD
This method is based upon the assumption that the population is increasing at a constant rate,
ie. The rate of change of population with time is constant.
If the present population of a particular town is P and the average increase in population for
past decade Ia the future population Pn at the end of n decades will be
Pn = P+ nIa
This method gives low results for developing areas, which develop faster than the post this
method of limited value may be useful for smaller design periods or for old and very large cities
Page 19
10CV61
with no industries and which have practically reached their maximum development or
approaching saturation
GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD
This method assures that the percentage increase in population from decade to decade is
constant. This method gives high results for young cities expanding at faster rates and useful for
old developed cities. If the present population of the city is P and the Average percentage
increase/ decade Ig then the population Pn at the end of n future decades will be
Ig
Pn = P I
100
INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

This method is a combination of the above two methods and therefore gives the advantages
of both arithmetic and Geometric increase methods and hence gives satisfactory results. In this
method the Average increase is first determined by the arithmetical increase method and to this
added the average of the net incremental increase once for every future decade.
n(n 1)
p p nI
L
n o
a
i
2
PROBLEMS
1. Estimate the population by 2001 by Arithmetic and geometric progression method using
the following census, which method is ideal and why?
YEAR
1951
1961
1971
1981
POPULATION
19800
42000
75000
110000
Soln:
I)
YEAR
POPULATION
1951
1961
1971
1981
19800
42000
75000
110000
INCREASE
DELADE
22200
33000
35000
PER %
INCREASE
PER DECADE
112.12
78.57
46.67
Ia = 30067
Ig = 79.116
By ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD

The population by 2001 is given by
P2001 = P1981 + nIa
Page 20
10CV61
n= 2 decades
Ia = 30067
P2001 = 100000 + 2(30067)
P2001 = 170134
II)
By GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD

The population by 2001 is given by
P2001 = P1981
Ig
= 1
100
79.116
110000 1
100
P2001 = 352908
In this case AIM is ideal because, GIM gives very high results.
2.
The census record of a town is as follows

YEAR
1940
POPULATION 81420
1950
125000
1960
170000
1970
220000
1980
230000
Workout the populationafter three decades by AIM, GIM, and IIM

Solution:
YEA
POPULATIO
INCREASE/DECAD %INCREASE/DECAD
R
N
E
E
1940
81420
43580
53.52
1950
125000
45000
36
1960
170000
50000
29.41
1970
220000
10000
4.55
1980
230000
Ia = 37145
Ig = 30.87
I)

Population after 3 decades i.e by the year 2010
P2010 = P1980 + nIa
= 230000+3(37145)
P2010 = 341435
II)

populationafter 3 decades
P2010 = P1980
Ig
= 1
100
INCREMENTA
L INCREASE
1420
5000
40000
Ii = -11194
Page 21
30.87
230000 1
100
P2010 =515523
III)
10CV61
By INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

Population by 1990
P1990 = P1980 +Ia +Ii
= 230000+37145-11194
P1990 = 255951
P2000 = P1990 +Ia +Ii
= 255951+37145-11194
P2000 = 281902
P2010 = P2000 +Ia +Ii
= 281902+37145-11194
P2010 =307853
3) The census data of population of a town are as follows Estimate the population by the year
2011 by AIM GIM and IIM. Which method is ideal and why?
1961
YEAR
POPULATION 80
YEA
R
1961
1971
1981
1991
Solution:
POPULATIO
N
(in thousand)
80
120
145
160
1971
120
1981
145
INCREASE/DECAD
E
%INCREASE/DECAD INCREMENTA
E
L INCREASE
40
25
15
50
20.83
10.34
-15
-10
Ia = 26.667
Ig = 27.056
Ii = 12.5
I)

P2011 = P1991 + nIa
= 160+2(26.667)
P2011 =213.334(In Thousands)
II)

P2011 = P1991
1991
160
Ig
= 1
100
Page 22
10CV61
27.056
100 1
100
III)
By INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

P2001 = P1991 +Ia +Ii
= 160+26.667-12.5
P2011 = P2001 +Ia +Ii

= 174.167+26.667-12.5
P2011 =198.334 (In Thousands)
IIM is IDEAL because GIM and AIM have lorger values. IIM gives a constant value.
SIMPLE GRAPHICALMETHOD
In this method a graph is plotted from the available data, between time and population the
curve is then smoothly extended up to the desired year. The method, however, gives very
approximate results, as the extension of the curve is done by the intelligence of the curve is done
by the intelligence of the designer.
PROBLEM:
1.
YEAR
1900
POPULATION 35000
1920
40000
1940
44000
1960
49000
1980
55000
Calculate the population at various decades like 2000, 2020, and 2040.
By GRAPH population in the year,
2000 = 60300
2020 = 65750
2040 = 70000
Comparative graphical method
In this method the cities having conditions and characteristics similar to the city under
consideration are selected. It is assumed that the city under consideration will also develop in
similar fashion of the selected cities. The population growth curve of the city under consideration
is drawn using the available data as shown in the figure.
Decrease in sale of increases method or decreasing sale method
Simi rate of increases in poplin goes on reducing as a city reaches towards etc. saturation
value this method which makes use of decreases in the % increases is wed & gives a rational
result in this method the average decreases in the increases is worked out & then subtracted from
the latest increases for each successive decade.
Page 23
Pn P n 10
10CV61
Ig (n 10) Id
P n 10
100
Master plan or zoning method

By & metropolitan cities are generally not allowed to develop in a haphazard &
natural way but are allowed to develop only in planned ways The master plan prepared for such
cities, divides the city into zones & thus to separate the residential, commend & industrial areas
from each at
The poplin densities are also fixed. It is very easy to calculationdesign poplin using master
plan because it will give us as to when & where the given no of houses, industries etc..Would be
developed.
Ratio method & apportion method
In this method the cities poplin record is ex as %age of poplin of the whole country.
At the feat, the rations of local to national poplin are worked out for past 4-5 decades. A
graph in plotted l/w tone & there ratios to design period to calculation future population.
Graph
If the poplin of a town is plotted w.r.t time, the curve so obtained under normal condition are be
as in figure & is called as ideal growth curve or logistics curve
The rarely growth of the city is shown by IK & is an increasing rate of
dp
P The growth l/w K
dt
dp
= const
dt
This transitional curve KM also pass through the point of inflection L Later the growth from
dp
M to N shows the decreasing in rate ie Ps P where P is the poplin of town @ T from J
ds
& Ps value of saturation
The S shaped curve JKLMN is logistic curve
& M follows
Ps
P P
H s 0 log e1 KPs t
P0
Now let
Ps P0
m
P0
z KPs n
Ps
1 m log e1 nt
Which is the required eq
P
Page 24
10CV61
If 3 pairs of char values P0 , P1 & P2 @ time t0 , t1 , t2 which extend over the range of
t0 0, t1 & t2 2t1 are known as the saturation value Ps

M & n can he found
Ps
2
2 P0 PP
1 2 P1 ( P0 P2 )
P0 P2 P12
Ps P0
P0
P P P
2.3
log10 0 5 1
t1
P1 Ps P0
2. The details of a towns population are given below.Find its population in 2001
Year
Population
sol
Ps
1961
35000
P0 =35000
1971
78000
P1 =78000
1981
115000
P2 = 115000
t0 =0
t1 10
t2 20
2 P0 P1 P2 P12 ( P0 P2 )
138271
P0 P2 P12
Ps P0
2.9506
P0
P P P
2.3
log 0 s 1
t1
P1 Ps P0
0.1338
n
t 1961 2001
t 40
P
Ps
1 m loge1 nt
136364
Page 25
10CV61
UNIT 2 - SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

CLASSIFICATION OF SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
The various sources of water available on earth can be classified into the following two
categories
PRECIPITATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
Surface sources such as

Sub surface sourcessuch as
Lakes(natural)
1.Springs
Streams and Rivers
2.Infiltration galleries
Storage(impounded)reservoir
3. Infiltration wells
Oceangenerally not used for water supplies at present 4. Wells&Tubewells(Borewells)
SURFACE SOURCES are those sources of water in which water flows over the surface of the
earth and is thus directly available for water supplies
NATURAL PONDS AND LAKES: The quantity of water available from pond or lake is
however generally small though they are not considered as principal sources of water supply. It
depends on the catchment area of the Lake Basin, annual rainfall and geological formations.
The quality of water in lake is generally good and does not need much purification.
Larger and older lakes however provide comparatively pure water then smaller and new lakes.
Self purification of water due to sedimentation of suspended matter bleaching of colour, etc
makes the lake water pure and better when compared to stream or river waters.
STREAMS AND RIVERS: The quantity or discharge of the streams is generally low,
sometimes even go dry in summer season. Therefore they may be considered as source of water
supply only for small villages. The quality of water in streams is normally good except the first
runoff. But sometimes runoff water while flowing over the ground is mixed with silt, clay, sand
and other mineral impurities. This can be removed in a sedimentation basin upto certain extent.
(Rivers are formed when the discharge of large number of springs and streams. Combine
together. Rivers (Perennial) are the most important sources of water for public w.s.s. Therefore
most of the cities are situated on the banks of the rivers the rivers may be perennial or nonperennial (seasonal). Perennial rivers flow throughout the year getting their waters during
summer from snow and from rain in winter. Perennial rivers may be considered as water supply
sources directly where asnon perennial rivers can be used as public water supplies by providing
storage barriers across these rivers.
Page 26
10CV61
IMPOUNDED RESERVOIRS: During summer the water which is flowing in the river may not
be sufficient to feed the town and on the other hand during rainy season it may be difficult to
operate due to flood waters. Therefore hydraulic structures are constructed across these river
valleys forming impounded reservoirs.
The quality of water in these reservoirs is not much different from that of lake water while
top waters prove to develop algae, bottom layers of water may be high in turbidity Co2, iron and
manganese and on occasions H2S.
UNDER GROUND SOURCES (OR) SUB-SURFACE SOURCES
They are nothing but sub-surface sources with regard to their quantity and quality aspect
rainwater percolating into the ground and escaping beyond the reach of vegetation and either
collecting in underground basins or flowing underground in sub-surface streams constitutes a
ground water source.
Generally ground water is clear and colorless but is harder than the surface water of the
region in which they occur. In lime stone formation, ground water is very hard and dispositive
nature in pipe lines. In granite formations, they are soft. The water as it seeps down comes in
contact with organic and inorganic substances during its passage through the ground and
acquires chemical characteristics representative of the starter it passes. Bacteria logically, ground
water is much better than surface water except where sub-surface pollution exists.
FACTORS GOVERNING THE SELECTION OF A PARTICULAR SOURCE OF
WATER
The following important factors are generally considered.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The quantity of water available

The quality of water available
Distance of the source of supply
Elevation of source of supply
Cost.
1. QUANTITY OF WATER AVAILABLE = Quantity of water available must be

sufficient to meet the various demands during the entire design period. If the available
source found is not sufficient. The additional source which is available in the nearby
(vicinity) is considered.
2. QUALITY OF WATER AVAILABLE = water available must not be toxic, poisonous
or in any other way injurious to health.) It should contain minimum impurities so that
their removal does not require costly treatment processes.
3. DISTANCE OF THE SOURCE = The source of supply must be near to the town in
order to minimize the length of conduits required to transport water.
4. COST = The selection of source should be such that the overall cost of water supply
project is brought down to the minimum.
Page 27
10CV61
VARIOUS FORMS OF UNDER-GROUND SOURCES INFILTRATION GALLERY

Infiltration gallery or horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnels constructed at shallow
depths (3-5m) along the bank of the river through the water bearing strata as shown in the figure.
They are sometimes called as horizontal wells.
These galleries are constructed of masonry walls with concrete roof slab and derive their
water from the aquifer by various drain pipes. These pipes are generally covered with gravel so
as to prevent the entry of sand particles into the pipe. These tunnels are laid at a slope and water
collected in them, is taken into a sump from where it is pumped to the treatment plant and
distributed to the public. These are very helpful when sufficient quantity of water is available just
below the ground level or so.
In order to obtain large quantity of water, a series of shallow wells are sunk in the banks of the
river. The wells are constructed of brick masonry with open joints and are closed at top and open
at the bottom. The water infiltrates through bottom sand bed and gets purified to some extent.
For inspection a manhole cover is usually provided in roof slab.
These various infiltration wells are connected to a common sump well by porous drain
pipes. This sump well is called JACK WELL. The water from this jack well is lifted to the
treatment plant.
SPRINGS
A natural outflow of ground water at the earth surface is said to form a spring a pervious
layer sandwiched between two impervious layers gives rise to a natural spring. The springs are
generally capable of supplying very small quantities (amounts) of water and therefore generally
not regarded as sources of water supply.
FORMATION AND TYPES OF SPRINGS
Springs are usually formed under 3 general conditions of geological formations
They are
i.
Gravity springs
ii.
Surface springs
iii.
Artesian springs.
YIELD AND SPECIFIC YIELD
The volume of ground water extracted by gravity drainage from the saturated water
bearing material is known as YIELD and when it is expressed as the ratio of the volume of water
that can be drained by the gravity to the gross volume of the soil then it is known as SPECIFIC
YIELDA Therefore
volume of water obtained by gravity drainage
SPECIFIC YIELD=
gross volume of the soil.
Values of specific yield are dependent on soil particle size, shape and distribution of pores and
degree of compaction of the soil.
Page 28
10CV61
SPECFIC RETENTION OR FIELD CAPACITY

The quantity of water retained by the materials against the pull of gravity is termed as
specific retention or field capacity. This is also expressed as the percentage of total volume of
materials drained.
AQUIFER AND THEIR TYPES
AQUIFER = An Aquifer is an water bearing stratum or formation capable of transmitting water
in quantities sufficient to permit development.
AQUICLUDE = It is an impermeable stratum that may contain large quantities of water but
whose transmission rates are not high enough to permit effective development.
AQUIFUGE = It is a formation that is impermeable and divide of water.
AQUIFERS may be considered as falling into two categories.
i.
Unconfined or Non-Artesian Aquifer
ii.
Confined or Artesian Aquifer, depending on whether or not the water table or free
water surface exists under atmospheric pressure.
i.
UNCONFINED AQUIFER OR NON ARTESIAN AQUIFER
The top most water bearing stratum having no confined impermeable over burden
(Aquiclude) lying over it, is known as an unconfined aquifer or non-Artesian aquifer.
The ordinary gravity wells of 2-5m dia which are constructed to tap water from the top most
water bearing strata i.e from unconfined aquifer are known as unconfined or Non Artesian wells.
The water levels in these wells will be equal to the level of water table. Such wells are therefore
known as water table wells.
ii.
CONFINED or ARTESIAN AQUIFERS

When an aquifer is confined on its upper and under surface by impervious rock
formations and is also broadly inclined so as to expose the aquifer somewhere to the
catchment area at a higher level for the creation of sufficient hydraulic head, it is called a
confined or an artesian Aquifer. A well excavated through such aquifer yields water that
often flown out automatically under the hydrostatic pressure thus even rise or gush out of the
surface for a reasonable height.
PERCHED AQUIFER
It is a special case which is sometimes found to occur within a confined Aquifer. If
within a zone of saturation an impervious deposit is found to support a body of saturated material
then this body of saturated material which is a kind of Aquifer is known as perched Aquifer. The
top surface of the water held in this perched aquifer is known as perched water table.
Page 29
10CV61
SPECIFIC CAPACITY = Specific capacity of a well is the measure of the effectiveness of the
well and is defined as the yield of the well per unit draw down. Therefore
Q
yield
L draw down
Specific capacity of a well is not constant but decreases as discharge increases
SPECIFIC CAPACITY =
WATER TABLE:- The uppermost layer of soil or top soil at ground level is generally pervious.
The rainwater which is directly percolated through this top soil is contained by it. The upper
surface of free water in top soil is termed as water table or ground water level. The water table is
the surface of a water body which is constantly adjusting itself towards an equilibrium condition.
If there were no recharge or outflow from the ground water in a basin, the water table would
eventually become horizontal.
WELLS
CLASSIFICATION OF WELLS
The wells may be classified as
i.
Open wells
ii.
Tube wells
i.
OPEN WELLS or DUE WELLS

Smaller amount of ground water has been utilized from ancient times by open wells.
They are generally open masonry wells having compensatively higher diameters and are suitable
for low discharge (18m3/hr). The dia of open wells may be 2-9m and they are generally less than
20m in depth. The walls of an open well may be built by brick or stone masonry or precast
concrete rings.
The open wells may be classified into the following 2 types
i.
Shallow wells
ii.
Deep wells
The nomenclature of shallow and deep is purely technical and has nothing to do with the actual
depth of the well. A shallow well might be having more depth than the deep well.
YIELD OF AN OPEN WELL
The term yield of the well is used to indicate the rater of with drawl of water without causing
failure of well. It is the rate at which a well can supply the water.
The factors which influences the yield of an open well are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Well dimensions
Location of nearby wells
Porosity of aquifers
Quantity of water available in aquifers
Slope of water table
Page 30
10CV61
6. Coefficient of permeability of soil.

7. Rate of pumping water.
CO-EFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY (k)
It is defined as the velocity of flow which will occur through the total cross sectional area
of soil (or Aquifer) under a unit hydraulic gradient.
CO-EFFICIENT OF TRANSMISSIBILITY
It is defined as the rate of flow of water in m3/day through a vertical strip of the aquifer of
unit width and extending the full sanitation height under unit hydraulic gradient at a temperature
of 600F.
T = BK
Where
B = Aquifer thickness
DARCYS LAW
The percolation of water through soil was fist studied by darcy(1856) who demonstrated
experimentally that for laminar. Flow conditions in a saturated soil, the rate of flow or the
discharge per unit time is proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
i.e
Q = Ki.A
Q
V = = Ki
A
WHERE,
Q = Discharge
K= Darcys Co-efficient of permeability
i = hydraulic gradient
A = Total C/S area of soil
V = Flow velocity.
EXPRESSION FOR YIELD OF AN OPEN WELL OR DISCHARGE FROM AN
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
Let,
H= depth of water before pumping
h= depth of water after pumping
i = slope of hydraulic gradient - dy
dx
r = radius of well
R = Radius of circle of influence
K= coefficient of permeability
S = draw dawn at the well.
Consider any point P on the draw down curve (cone of depression) whose co-ordinates
are(x,y). THEN from DARCYS law
Q = KM.Ax ix
Page 31
10CV61
Where
Ax = Area of C/S at the saturated part of Aquifer at P
Ax = (2 x)y = 2 xy
Ix = hydraulic gradient at P = dy
dx
Substituting Ax and ix in the above eqn.

Q = K . 2 ny
Q
dy
.
dx
dx
2 k y dy
x
Integrating between the limits r & R for x and (H,h) for Y we get.
R
H
dx
Q
2 k y dy
x
r
h
Q log e x r
Q
Q
y2
R k
2 h
k H 2 h2
log e ( R / r )
1.36k H 2 h 2
log10 ( R / r )
If there are two observation wells at radial distances r1 and r2 and if the depths of water in
them are h1 and h2respectively then
Q
1.36k h22 h12

log10 ( R2 / r1 )
YIELD OR DISCHARGE FROM A CONFINED OR ARTESIAN AQUIFER

Let
B = thickness of the Aquifer in m
2.72bk H h
Q
log e ( R / r )
TEST FOR YIELD OF A WELL
The yield of an open well can be found or tested by the following methods
1. Constant level pumping test
a. Pumping in test
b. Pumping out test
2. Recuperation test.
Page 32
10CV61
CONSTANT LEVEL PUMPING TEST

In this test the rate of pumping is so adjusted that water level in the well remains
constant. As and when the condition is reached the rate of inflow will be equal to the rate of
pumping since it is difficult to maintain constant level in the well this test is generally not
adopted to determine the yield.
RECUPERATION TEST
In the Recuperation test the water from the well is pumped at a faster rate and its level is
depressed to certain level is depressed to certain level pumping is then stopped. The time taken
for the water to come to its normal level (Recuperate) is recorded.
Let,
H1 = initial depression head after pumping stopped (in m)
H2 = depression head in the well at a time(T) after pumping stopped(in m)
A = Sectional area of the well (m2)
C = specific capacity of the well in m3/hr/ m2 of the area under in depression head
2.303 A
H
m3 / hr / m(m 2 of Area)
log10 1
H
2
T
Yield of the well Q = CH
C
PROBLEMS
1) During the recuperation test, the water level in an open well was depressed by 2.5m after
pumping and is recuperated by 1.6m in 70mins. Calculate the specific yield of the well. Also
determine the yield from the well of 3m diameter under a depression head of 3.5m
Solution:
C =
1
2.303 A
log10 H 2
H
T
2.303
32
70 60
2.5
log 10
0.9
C 6.191 m 3 / hr / m (m2 of area)

yield
Q = ch
= 6.191 3.5
Q 21.67m3 / hr
2) A 30cm dia well penetrates 25m below the static water table (SWT). After 24hrs of pumping
at 5400 lit/min, the water level in a test well at 90m is lowered by 0.53m and in a well 30m
away the draw down is 1.11m. What is the transmissibility of the aquifer.
Page 33
10CV61
For an unconfined aquifer, discharge

1.36 K ( H 22 h12 )
Q =
log10 r2
r1
But, T = kh or k = T
H
2
1.36 T
(h2 h12 )
H
Q =
r
log10 2
r1
1.36 T
(24.47 2 23.89 2 )
25
5.4
log10 90
30
2.576
T
25
38.146
2
T 1.69 m / min .
3) Design an open well in fine sand for a yield of 0.004 cusecs under a depression head of 3.5m.
the value of C is 0.5m3/hr/ m2 of area/m drawsone.
Solution:
Q = 0.004 m3/sec
Q = 14.4 m3/hr
C
= 0.5 m3/hr/m drawdown.
A
We have for the discharge,
Q = CH
Q= C A H
d2
3.5
4
d 2 10.477
d 3.24m
d 3.25m
14.4 0.5
4) A 20cm well penetrates 30m below SWL. After a long period of pumping at a rate of
1800lit/min, the drawdowns in the observation wells at 12m and 36m from the pumped well
are 1.2m and 0.5m respectively.
i)
Determine the transmissibility of aquifers
ii)
The drawdown of the pump well assuming R = 300m.
iii)
Specific capacity of the well.
Solution:
Page 34
10CV61
We have Dupuits Equation

1.36 K ( h22 h12 )
Q =
r
log10 2
r1
h2 = H S2 = 30 0.5 = 29.5m
h1 = H S1 = 30 1.2 = 28.8m.
1800 lit/min = 1.8m3/min
1.36K (29.52 28.82 )

1.8 =
log10 86
12
K 0.00155m / min
i)
TRANSMISSIBILITY OF AQUIFER
T = KH
= 22.28 * 30
T = 6668.47m2/Day
ii)
DISCHARGE
2.72 KHS
Q =
log10 R
r
2.72 0.155 30 5
1.8
log10 300
0.2
S 4.52m
iii)
Sp.capacity of the well
yield(Q)
drawdown s
Q
S
1.8
60 4.52
6.637 103 m3 / sec/ m
5) A Tube well taps an artesian aquifer. Find its yield in lit/hr for a drawdown of 3m, when the
dia of well is 20cm and thickness of the aquifer is 30m Assume the Co-efficient of
permeability to be 35m/day. If the dia of well is doubled. Find the percentage increase in the
yield, the other conditions remaining the same Assume the radius of influence as 30m in
both cases.
Page 35
10CV61
Solution:
We have for an Artesian Aquifer.
2.72T ( H h)
Q =
log10 R
r
where T Kb
2.72kb( H h)
log10 R
r
2.72 35 30 30 27
log10 300
0.1
3
Q 2464.11 m / day
Q 102677.14lit / hr
1
Q
log10 R
r
(other things remaining the same)
Q be the yield of the doubled well
r be the radius of the doubled well = 0.2m
log10 R 1
Q
r
1
Q
log10 R
r
log10 300
102671.14
0.2
300
Q1
log10
0.1
1
Q 112402.31 lit / hr
PERCENTAGE INCREASE IN THE YIELD

Q1 Q
100
Q
112402.31 102671.14

100
102671.14
9.48%
Page 36
10CV61
COLLECTIONAND CONVEYENCE OF WATER

INTAKE STRUCTURES
Intakes or intake structures are masonry or concrete structures whose function is to
provide calm and still water, free from floating matter for water supply.
Intakes consists of the opening, strainers or gratings through which the water enters and the
conduit for conveying the water, usually by gravity to a sump well. From the well the water is
pumped to the treatment plant.
SELECTION OF A SITE FOR INTAKE CONSTRUCTION
While selecting a site for intakes, the points to be kept in mind are.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)
Intake work should provide good quality water so that its treatment may become less
exhaustive
Heavy water currents should not strike the structure directly
Approach to the intakes should be easy
As far as possible intakes should not be selected in the vicinity of sewage disposal
Selection of site should be nearer to the treatment plant so that it reduces the cost of
conveyance of water
They should not be located in navigation channels
In meandering rivers, the intakes should not be located on curves or at least on sharp
curves
Intake must be located at a place from where it can draw water even during the driest
periods of the year.
Site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of water, if required of a future
date.
TYPES OF INTAKES
Depending on the source of water the intake works are classified as follows.
i.
Lake intake
ii.
River intake
iii.
Reservoir intake
iv.
Canal intake
For obtaining water from lakes mostly submersible intakes are used. These intakes are
constructed in the bed of the lake below the low water level so as to draw water in dry seasons
also. It consists of a pipe laid in the bed of the river, one end of which is provided with bell
mouth opening with fine screens. The water enters through the bell mouth opening and flows
under gravity.
ADVANTAGES
I.
No obstruction to navigation
II.
No danger from floating bodies
III.
No trouble due to ice.
Page 37
10CV61
RIVER INTAKE
It is a circular masonry tower of 4 to 7 meter in diameter constructed along the bank of
the river at such place from where required quantity of water can be obtained even in the dry
period. The water enters in the lower portion of the intake known as sump well from penstocks
the penstocks are fitted with screens to check the entry of floating solids and are placed on the
downstream side so that water free from most of the suspended solids may only enter the lack
well. Number of pen stock openings is provided in the intake tower to admit water at different
levels. The opening and closing of penstock values is done with the help of wheals provided at
the pump-house floor.
RESERVOIR INTAKE
It is mostly used to draw the water from earthen dam reservoir. It consists of an intake
tower constructed on the slope of the dam at such place from where intake can draw sufficient
quantity of water even in the driest period. Intake pipes are fixed at different levels so as to draw
water near the surface in all variations of water level. These all inlet pipes are connected to one
vertical pipe Indies the intake well screens are provided at the mouth of all intake pipes to
prevent the entrance of floating and suspended matter in them. The water which enters the
vertical pipe is taken to the other side of the dam by means of an outlet pipe. At the top of the
intake tower sluice values are provided to control the flow of water. The value tower is
connected to the top of the dam by means of a foot bridge gangway for reaching it.
CANAL INTAKE
Canal intake is a very simple structure constructed on the bank. It consists of a pipe
placed in a brick masonry chamber constructed partly in the canal bank on one side of the
chamber an opening is provided with coarse screen for the entrance of water. The end of the pipe
inside chamber is provided with a bell mouth fitted with a hemispherical fine screen. The outlet
pipe caries the water to the other side of the canal bank
From where it is taken to the treatment plants one sluice value is operated by a wheel
from the top of the masonry chamber provided to control the flow of water in the pipe.
PUMPS AND PUMPING STATIONS

PURPOSE
I.
To lift the water from source to the treatment plant which is at higher level compared
to the source
II.
To lift the treated water to the elevated tanks
III.
To increase the pressure in the distribution system.
IV.
To lift the water at the treatment plant if sufficient natural ground slope is not
available as to cause gravitational flow between different units of treatment plants.
Page 38
10CV61
Classification of pumps
Based on their Principal of Based on the type

of power required
service
Based on the type of operation
i. Displacement pumps
i.Electrically driven pumps
ii.Centrifugal pumps
ii. Gasoline pumps
iii. Airlift pumps
iii. Steam engine pumpsiii.Deep well pumps
iv. Impulse pumps
iv.Diesel engine pumps
i. Low lift pumps

ii.High lift pumps
iv. Boosters
v. Stand by pumps
Under most of the situations in water supply scheme, displacement and centrifugal pumps are
commonly used.
Displacement pumps
i.
Reciprocating pumps
ii.
Rotary pumps
PUMPING STATIONS
The location of a pumping station is primarily governed by the place where it is to recerive
water. The points to be kept in mind while selecting a suitable site are.
i.
The site should be away from all the sources of contamination or pollution
ii.
The site should be above the HFL of the river.
iii.
Its future growth and expansion is easily possible
iv.
Possibility of fire hazards is also to be considered
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF A PARTICULAR TYPE OF PUMP

1. Capacity of pumps
2. Importance of WSS
3. Initial cost of pumping arrangement
4. Maintenance cost
5. Space requirements for locating the pumps
6. Number of units required
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10CV61
7. Total life of water required

8. Quantity of water to be pumped.
HEAD POWER AND EFFICIENCY OF PUMPS
The total head against which a pump works is made up of
i.
ii.
iii.
The suction Head(Hs)

The Delivery Head(Hd)
The Head loss due to friction entrance and exit in the rising main(Hf)
The suction HEAD is the difference in elevation between the low water level and center line of
pump.
Delivery HEAD is the difference in elevation between the pump center line and point of
discharge
Total HEAD (H) =Hs+Hd+Hf
The work done by the pump in lifting Q cumecs of water by a head(H) =WQH kg-m/sec.
Where,
W = Specific weight of water, 1000 kg/m3
Q = discharge to be pumped, m3/sec.
The water horse power of the pump is given by
WHP(out put) = WQH/75
If n is the efficiency of the pump then
BRAKE HORSE POWER of the pump is given by
BHP(INPUT) + WQH/75n
ECONOMICAL DIAMETER OF THE RISING (PUMPING) MAIN
The economical diameter is a particular size of the pumping or rising main which while
passing a given discharge of water gives the total annual expense to be minimum.
If the diameter chosen is more than the economic dia, it will lead to higher cost of the pipe line
on the other hand, if the dia of the pipe is less than the economical dia, the increased velocity
will lead to higher friction headless and require more HP for the required pumping and the cost
of pumping shall be much more than the resultant saving in the pipe cost.
LEA FORMULA
An empirical formula given by LEA
Connecting the dia and discharge is given by
D = 0.97 to 1.22 Q
Where
D = economical diainm
Q = Discharge to be pumped in cusecs
Page 40
10CV61
This relation gives optimum flow velocity varying between 0.8 to 1.35m/sec
FOR RIGOROUS ANALYSIS The total cost of pipe and pumping should be woeked out at
different assumed velocities (b/w 0.8 to 1.8m/sec) and a graph plotted between the annual cost
and the size of the pipe. The economical size is one which gives the least annual cost.
PROBLEMS
1. Determine the capacity of pump required for the following data
Population = 3lakhs
Daily demand of water = 140lped
Water level in the source = 100m
Level of the treatment plant = 125m
Pumping hours = 24hours a day
Dia of the Rising main = 90cm
Distance between the source and
Treatment plant = 2km
Coefficient of friction = 0.01
Solution:
Total daily demand = 300000 140
(TDD)
= 42000000 lit/day
TDD = 42000m3/day
42000
Discharge =
24 60 60
Q = 0.486m3/sec
Static head(Hs) = 125-100=25m
FLQ2
Head loss(Hf) =
3d 5
0.01 2000 (0.486)2
3 (0.9)5
H F 2.67m
Total head = 25+2.67
H = 27.67m
WQH
BHP
75n
1000 0.486 27.67
75 0.75
BHP 239.07 HP
2. A town with prospective population of 60000 is to be supplied with water from a river
4.8km away and 30.5m below the level of town. Design the economical section of rising
Page 41
10CV61
main and pumping unit where electrical power is available. Take water supply rate as
150lped and f=0.01. Assume other relevant details.
Solution:
Total daily demand = 60000 150
(TDD)
= 9000000 lit/day
= 9000m3/day
TDD = 0.1042m3/sec
Assuming 18hrs of pumping is done a day
0.1042 24
18
0.1389 m3 / sec
The economical dia of rising main using LEA FORMULA
1.2 Q
1.2 0.1389
0.447m
0.45m dia rising main
STATIC HEAD = 30.5M
FLQ2
Head loss(Hf) =
3d 5
0.01 4800 (0.1389)2
3 (0.45)5
H F 16.728m
Total head = 30.5+16.728
Total head = 47.23m
Assuming efficiency of motor (nm) as 90%
Assuming efficiency of pump (nP) as 80%
(Since electrical power is used)
WQH
Capacity of the pump required
75nm n p
1000 0.1389 47.23
75 0.9 0.8
BHP 121.49 HP
3
3. A centrifugal pump is to lift 4m of water per sec to a height of 10m. Assuming total loss
of head in pipes as 0.5m calculate the H.P of driving engine to run the pump it its
efficiency is 75%.
Solution:
Q = 4m3/sec
Total head = H = 10+0.5 = 10.5m
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10CV61
Assuming that the efficiency of driving engine is 90%

WQH
BHP
75nP nm
1000 4 10.5
75 0.75 0.9
BHP 829.63HP
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PRESSURE PIPES

DETERMINATION OF LOSS OF HEAD IN PIPES
The head loss in the pipe can be determined by the following formula:
a) MANNINGS FORMULA
This formula is usually used in determining the loss of head in the gravity conduits
n 2V 2 L
H L 4/3
R
Where
n = Manning Rugosity (roughness) coefficient
L = Length of pipe
V = Velocity of flow in pipe
R = Hydraulic mean depth(HMD)
A
Wetted area
R=
P wetted perimeter
When circular pipe flowing full = A =
P= d
d2
4
d
A 4
d
R=
D
P
4
When circular Pipe flowing halffull = = A =

P = d 2
d2
8
d 8
d
R=
4
d2
B) HAZEN WILLIAMS FORMULA
V= 0.85 CH R0.63 S0.54
CH= Hazen williams coefficient (100 -140)
S = Slope
c) DARCY WEISBACH FORMULA
Page 43
10CV61
4 FLV 2
flQ 2
2 gd
3d 5
F = dimensionless friction factor, varies between 0.0075 to 0.03
G = acceleration due to gravity
The appropriate value of F can be determined by the following empirical formula
hL
a)FOR NEW PIPES

1
0.02 1
35d
b)FOR OLD PIPES
1
0.04 1
35d
WHERE, d = diameter of pipes
4. A town population 1.5 lakh is to be supplied with water. The water works to be located at
a lower elevation of 10m than the water level of the source. Find the size of the gravity
main to convey the water from the source to the water works which is located at a
distance of 30km. The per capita demand of water is 150lit/day.
Solution:
Qty of water required by the town = 150000 150
(TDD)
= 22500000 lit/day
= 22500m3/day
TDD = 0.2604m3/sec
Assuming 12hrs of pumping per day
0.2604 24
12
0.5208 m3 / sec
We have
Discharge = Area * Velocity
Q AV
VQ
A
0.5208
V
2
d 4
0.663
V
d2
Using Darcy Weis bach formula
Page 44
10CV61
4FLV 2
Hf =
2 gd
Assuming of = 0.0075
HF
0.663 2
)
d2
3 9.81 d
0.075 30000 (
114.68 0.663
d d 2
5.04
HF 5
d
HF
Cosidering all the available head lost in overcoming the friction

5.04
100 5
d
d 0.55m
5. Determine the size of water main required to carry water from a source 2.15KM away from
the town the yield from the source is 1500lit/min Head lost in friction is 50.50m. Assume F =
0.01
Solution
Discharge = 150Lit/min
= 1.5m3/min
Q = 0.025 m3/sec
We have
Q = AV
d2
0.025
V
4
0.0318
V
d2
By, DARCY WEISBACH FORMULA
4FLV 2
HF =
2 gd
Page 45
0.0318
4 0.01 2150
d2
50.50
2 9.81 d
5
d 8.77733105
d
d
d
10CV61
0.15441m
15.44cm
16cm
6. Water is to be supplied to a town of 3laks population from a source 2km away. Percapita
demand of town is 180lped. If the town is situated at a higher elevation than the source and the
difference in elevation b/n the lowest water level in the source to the point of inlet at the water
wars is 30m, Determine the size of rising main and HP of the pump, The value of
Solution:
Quantity of water required by the town = 500000*180
= 90 *106litres/day
Q = 90MLD
Q = 1.042 m3/sec
0.63
0.54
V = 0.85 CHR
S
2
d 1.2 1.051
4
0.63
0.54
1.05
42 0.85 110
5
4
S 1.495 103
S Lin 688
CH - 110 and the pump works for 18hours
Q AV 1.042
Solution:
Qty of water required by the town = 300000 180
(TDD)
= 54000000 lit/day
= 54000m3/day
Q = 0.625m3/sec
The discharge required for 18 hours of pumping per day
0.625 24
Q
18
Q 0.833m3 / sec
Assuming the velocity of flow through pipe as 1.2 m/sec
Page 46
10CV61
Q 0.833
V
1.2
A 0.694m2
The c/s area of pipe (A) =
Dia of the rising main

d2
0.694
4
d 0.94m
Using Hazen Williams equation
V 0.85CH R0.63 S 0.54

Where
HL
S
L
0.94
R d
0.235
4 4
V 0.85 110 0.235
1.2 0.85 110 0.235
0.63
0.63
S 0.54
S 0.54
S 1 in 587.84
HL
S
L
1
HL
587 2000
H L 3.41m
The head difference between LWL to water works point of inlet = 30m (static head)
Total head = 30 + 3.41 = 33.41m
Assuming the efficiency of the pump 75%
WQH
BHP
HP
75nP
1000 0.8333 33.41
75 0.75
BHP 494.94 HP
Page 47
10CV61
CONVEYANCE OR TRANSMISSION OF WATER

VARIOUS TYPES OF PRESSURE PIPES
Depending on the construction material the pipes are of the following types
i.
C.I pipes
ii.
Steel pipes
iii.
RCC pipes
iv.
Hume steel pipes
v.
Vitrified clay pipes
vi.
Asbestos cement pipes
vii.
Miscellaneous pipes such as wrought iron pipes, PVC pipes.
PIPE JOINTS
For facilitating in handling transporting and placing in positions pipes are manufactured in
small lengths of 2-6m. These small pieces of pipes are then joined together after placing in
position, to make one continuous length of pipe the design of these joints mainly depend on the
pipe material, internal pressures and the condition of support.
VARIOUS TYPES OF JOINTS are
i.
Bell and spigot joint
ii.
Expansion joints
iii.
Flanged joint Mechanical joint
iv.
Mechanical joint
v.
Flexible joint
vi.
Screwed joint
vii.
Collar joint
BELL AND SPIGOT JOINT
Design of pipes using monograms
For the known design discharge. The pipe dia are assumed in such a way that the velocity of
flow varies from 0.6 to 3m/sec smaller velocity is assumed for pipes of smaller dia& larges
velocity for pipes of larger dia. The loss of head in the pipe is then cal using hydraulic formulas.
Out of these formulas Hagen William formula is more commonly used. The use of Hagen
Williams formula however involves trial & error sol & in order to avoid this monogram of
Hagen Williams formula has been developed. These are in all four variably
1. Discharge Q in m3/min or lit/sec
2. Dia of pipe in mm
3. Loss of heat in m/1000m light of pipe
4. Velocity of flow in m/sec
Page 48
10CV61
If out of 4 quantities any 2 are known. The other 2 can be found from the monogram. The
monogram should in fig is valid for a value of roughness co-eff. C4 = 100. For any other value
of CH the head loss obtained from the monogram is multiplied by the factor CH/100
For example
Let the flow rate he 10m3/min & the dia of pipe he 400mm. It is required to find the head for
a pipe of 800 m length.
Mark a point A corresponding to Q = 10m3/min discharge line & point B corresponding to dia =
400m the dia line from point A & B by means of straight be prolong the line AB to cut the head
loss line at per velocity line at point D this we get head loss 1000m light = 7m
Hence the head loss for 800m length
800 7
the velocity of flow comes to the 1.38m/sec.
1000
Page 49
10CV61
UNIT3 - QUALITY OF WATER

WHOLE SOME WATER Absolutely pure water is never found in nature absolutely pure
water is the water which contains 2parts of H and 1part of oxygen by volume but the water
found in nature contains a number of impurities in varying amounts. The rain water which is
originally pure also absorbs various gases dost and other impurities while falling. This water
when moves on ground picks up silt, agonic and inorganic impurities. Complete, removal of
these impurities becomes costly and on other hand, certain impurities cause the water tasteful
and our body needs certain elements and if no present in water their removal is not necessary
such a water which does not contain harmful impurities and thus contain other salts and
impurities either good or unharmful to health is called wholesome or potable water
Following are the requirements of wholesome water
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Should be free from bacterias which may cause diseases.

Should be colourless and sparkling which may be accepted by the public
It should be tasty, adourfree and cool.
Should not corrode pipes
Should be free from all objectionable matter.
Should have dissolved oxygen (DO) and free from carbonic acid so that it may remain.
PALATABILITY
To be palatable, water must be significantly free from colour, turbidly, taste and Adour and of
moderate temperature in summer and winter and well aerated. At least 4 human perceptions
respond to these qualities.
IMPURITIES IN WATER
Impurities in water may be organic, inorganic and living organisms. Both organic and inorganic
impurities may be in the form of suspended, colloidal, sett liable and dissolved state.
SUSPENDED IMPURITIES includes silt, clay, Algae, Tung, organic and inorganic matters
and mineral matters etc. They neither settle down nor dissolve in water and are microscopic
and make water turbid. Bacteria cause diseases while silts, clay, Algae, protozoans cause
turbidity, odor and colour in water. The concentration of suspended matter in water is measured
by turbidity.
Page 50
10CV61
COLLOIDAL IMPURITIES
Colloids are particles in a finely divided state. They are neither in suspension nor insolvable
but in condition midway between the two. These particles are so small that their removal in a
sedimentation tank is impossible at reasonable overflow rates and detention time. They are not
visible to the naked eye and are electrically charged and repel cash other. The size of these
particles is between 1 minor to 1 mille micron. They impart colour to the water.
DISSOLVED IMPURITIES
Their numbers may be very large because water is a very good solvent and can dissolve all
the salts to which it comes in contact. Salts of calcium, magnesium when dissolved in water
cause taste, hardness, alkalinity, etc.
IMPURITIES
A)INORGANIC
a. Suspended
b.Dissolved
IMPURITIES
B) ORGANIC
I. Suspended
a.vegetable
b.animal
II.Dissolved
a.vegetable
CAUSES
EFFECTS
Particles of silt and clay
Turbidity
I)Carbonates and bicarbonates of Hardness & alkalinity
calcium and mg.
ii)Sulphates and chortles of
ca Hardness and corrosion
and mg.
iii)carbonates and bicarbonates of Alkalinity
sodium
iv)Nitiates
Excess
over
50mg/lit
Methenoglubanemiao r blue babies.
Brackish taste
v)chlorides of Na
vi)Fluorides of Na
Excess over 1.5mg/L causes Fluor
sis.
vii)Iron oxide
Taste colour and hardness
viii)Manganese
Taste and odour
CAISES
EFFECTS
Decayed
leaves, Acidity, taste and colour
algae,Fungi,etc..
Contamination
Dead animals, hairs, insects,
etc..
Bacteria.
Page 51
b.Animal
10CV61
Large
quantities
of
albuminoidal nitrogen with Pathogens, contamination due
little quantities of ammonia to sewage. Etc
and chlorides.
Large
quantities
of
Albuminoidal nitrogen
WATER BACTERIA
May bacterias are found in water most of them are of no sanitary significance. Few in
numbers are pathogenic. These include bacteria causing typhoid fever, Para typhoid, Dysentery,
Gastro enteric diseases, etc
Water bacteria may be classified in 4 ways.
1) According to Oxygen Demand
a. Aerobic bacteria = those which require light and free oxygen for their living and
development.
b. Anaerobic bacteria = those which do not require light and free oxygen for their living
and development.
c. Facultative bacteria = those which can exist in presence or absence or light and free
oxygen. They grow more in absence of oxygen.
2) According to Shape
a. Cocci bacteria = Cells are round or spherical.
b. Bacilli = Cells are rod shaped.
c. Spirilla = Spiral shaped cells.
3) According to their diseases producing characteristics
a. Pathogenic bacteria = those which are harmful to human life. They causes diseases
like typhoid, Dysentery, cholera, etc
b. Non-pathogenic bacteria = those do not cause diseases to human.
4) According to the Temperature Flourish
a. Psycryophilic bacteria = which can persist at low temperature only Range 10 200C.
b. Mesophillic = which can thieve within the temperature range of 200C to 400C.
c. Thermophillic = It is most effective in the temperature range of 40-650C.
WATER BORNE DISEASES are those which are transmitted by contaminated water. Water is
a very good carrier of micro organisms. Communicable diseases which may be transmitted by
water include bacterial, viral and protozoan infections
The diseases caused by bacterial infections are
a. Typhoid fewer
b. Para-Typhoid
c. Bacillary dysentery
Page 52
10CV61
d. Cholera
e. Solmonellosis
f. Shigellosis
Viral infections
a. Infectious hepatitis(jaundice)
b. Polio myelitis
Protozoan infections
a. Amoebic dysentery (Amoebiasis)
b. Giardiasis.
CHARACTERISTICS AND EXAMINATION OF WATER
OBJECTS OR ADVANTAGES OF ANALYSIS OF WATER
1. By knowing the results of analysis, the outline of the treatment process may be framed.
2. Daily operation of the treatment plant is based on this analysis report.
3. To ascertain the quality of raw water to suggest the type of treatment to be given and the
degree of treatment necessary.
4. Water must also be analyzed at the end of the treatment to find out the efficiency or
performance of the treatment plant.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND EXAMINATIONS
The various physical characteristics and examinations are
i.
Temperature
ii.
Colour
iii.
Turbidity
iv.
Taste and odour
Temperature: The most desirable temperature for public water supply scheme is 100C.
Temperature above 260C are undesirable and above 370C are unfit for P.W.S.S. as they are not
palatable
Colour:Colour in water is usually caused by the presence of organic matter in colloidal and
dissolved state. The colour can be measured by comparing the colour of water sample with other
standard glass tubes called NESLERS TUBES containing solutions of different standsrdcolour
intensities) The standsrd unit of colour is that which is produced by one milligram of platinum
cobaltus chloride dissolved in 1-litre of dist5illed water. For domestic supplies the permissible
limit is 20 colour units (CU) on platinum cobalt scale and should be preferably less than To. For
precise determination of small colour intensities, compact instrument properly lighted from
inside called TINTOMETER is used.
Turbidity: It is the measure of inter frame given by insoluble process of soil organics,
mionoorganisms and other materials for the passage of light through water the standard unit is
Page 53
10CV61
that which is produced by 1 milligram of finely divided silico in one litre of distilled water the
permissible limit of turbidity is 5 to 10units on silica scale.
The turbidity may be measured in the laboratory by following instruments
i.
Turbidity Rod
ii.
Jacksons Turbidity meter
iii.
Nephelo Turbidity meter
iv.
Baylis Turbidity meter
v.
Hellige Turbidity meter
JACKSONS TURBIDITY METER
It is the std. instrument for measuring turbidity. It essentially consists of a calibrated glass
tube, a metallic container tube (or holder), a standard candle and a metallic stand. The glass tube
is placed in the container and the candle or standard source of light is placed below the container.
The water sample B poured slowly in the glass tube until the outline of the candle flume is no
longer visible. Readings in terms of Jackson turbidity unit (JTU) are then taken directly from the
calibrated tube.
TASTE AND ODOUR
The dissolved organic materials and inorganic salts or dissolved gases impart taste and odors to
the water but for the drinking water it must not contain any undesirable or objectionable taste and
odors. It is measured in terms of odors intensity which is related with the threshold number. The
Threshold number represents the dilution ration at which the odors is hardly detectable. For
domestic purpose the threshold odors umber is limited between 1 and 3
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND XAMINATION
Chemical analysis involves test for determining total solids P value hardness, chronicle
content, and nitrogen content, from and manganese, residual chlorine, toxic metals, etc.
Total solids =these include the solids in suspension, colloidal and dissolved state. The quantity of
suspended solids is determined by filtering the sample of water. Through a fine filter and drying
and weighing. The quantity of dissolved and colloidal solids is determined by evaporating the
filtered water and weighing the residue. The total solids can be directly determined by
evaporating the water sample and weighing the residue. The amount of total solids should be less
than 500milligram/Lit and should never exceed 1000 mg/Lit.
P H VALUE
P H value of water indicates the log of reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration present in water.
It is thus indicator of the acidic and alkaline nature of water.
Page 54
10CV61
1
P H Log Log H
H
Since P H is the reciprocal of Log H the higher values of P H means, lower H loons
concentration and thus represents alkaline solutions, where as the lower values of P H means
higher H ion concentration and thus represents acidic solutions. Pure water is a balanced
combination of positively charged
H ions and negatively charged
OH ion
concentration. Therefore in water it has been found that the product of combinations of H
ion and OH ions in a water solution B constant. This constant has been found to be equal to
1014 moles/lit. Therefore if H lon and OH ion concentrations are equal, virtually each
will have
Concentrations equals to 1014 i.e 107 moles/lit in neutral water will therefore have a
1
1
P H Log log10 7
H
10
log 10 7
(7) log10
7 (1)
7
H
Hence if the P of water is more than 7 it will be alkaline and if it is less than 7 acidic. The
permissible limit of P H values for drinking water may e 6.62 to 8.5
PROBLEM
1. In a water treatment plant, the P H values of incoming and outgoing waters are 7.2 and
8.4 respectively. Assuming a linear variation of P H with time, Determine the Average
P H value of water.
Solution:
We have
1
P H log
H
H
P of incoming water
P
H
1
7.2 log10
H1
P H of outgoing water
Page 55
P
H
10CV61
1
8.4 log10
H2
log10 H1 7.2
H1
107.2
lll ly , H 2 108.4
H1 H 2
Avg.Value of H
2
1.2
10 108.4
H 3.35 108
1
Avg.Value of P H log
H
1
log
8
3.35 10
P H 7.477
2) If the concentration of OH lons in a water solution is 0.008 find the value of P H
Solution:
By the law of mass action, we have
H OH 1014
H
H
10 14
0.008
1.25 1012
1
P H log
H
PH
log
12
1.25 10
11.90
3) If a sample of water contains a 0.000001g.m of H ion/lit what is HS P H value.

Solution :
Page 56
10CV61
P H log
1000000
PH 6
Determination of P H
P H value may be determined by instrumental or colorimetric method or P H paper method
(narrow or wide ranged)
INSTRUMENTAL METHOD = this method is very quick and automatic method of recording
P H values. In this potentiometer is used to measure electrical pressure exerted by positively
charged H ions. A meter is connected to the electric acquit which directly indicates the P H
value of water.
COLORIMETRIC METHOD = some indicators or chemicals are added to the sample of water
and the colour so obtained is compared with standard colours of known P H value. The usual
indicators are benzol yellow, methyl red, brown phenol etc for P H range 0-7 and Thymol
blue, Tolylred and phenol red for P H values above 7.
HARDNESS
Definition: Hardness is the property of water which prevents the formation of lather or foam and
needs large quantities of soap. It forms scales in not water pipes, heaters, boilers where the
temperature of water is increased.
CAUSES
It is caused by DIVALENT METALLIC CATIONS the principal hardness causing cations
are calcium and magnesium there are two types of hardness temporary and permanent hardness
TEMPORARY HARDNESS Caused due to presence of carbonates and bicarbonates of
calcium and magnesium this can be removed by boiling or by adding lime solution in water.
Temporary hardness is also called carbonate hardness.
PERMENET HARDNESS of water is caused due to the presence of sulphates, chlorites and
nitrates of calcium and magnesium. They cannot be removed by simple boiling and require
special treatment of water softening it is also called as Non-=carbonate hardness.
DETERMINATION OF HARDNESS
Hardness is generally defined as the caco3 equivalent of ca and Mg ions present in water and
expressed in mg/llitas caco3
Hardness can be determined by EDTA titrometric method ( EthyleneDiamine Tetra acidic
acid), Ferrochrome black T is used as indicator
Page 57
10CV61
Erichrome Black + water

= Less stable ions
(Blue colour)
(Ca++,Mg++)
(wine red colour)
EDTA
+ Less stable ion = Erichrome black T + more stable lon
(TITRANT)
(Blue colour)
Colour change = Wine red to purple to blue
Water are commonly classified interms of degree of hardness.
Milligram / Litre
CaCo3
0 - 75
75 -150
150 - 300
300 and a bove
as Degree of hardness
Soft
Moderately soft
Hard
Very hard
However the permissible Units of hardness for potable water ranges between 75 115 mg/lit as
CaCo3.
CHLORIDES
Chlorides in combination with other elements are always found in water. Nacl is normally
found in water the presence of nacl may be due to water coming in contact with saltish layer or
sewage entering into it for potable water the amount of chlorides is limited to 250mg/lit.
Chlorides may be readily measured by means of volumetric procedures employing indicator
solution. For most purposes the MOHR method employing silver nitrate as indicator solution
(yellow brick red) is used.
NITROGEN CONTENT
The presence of nitrogen in water is an indication of organic matter present in water and they
may occur in any of the following
a. Albuminoid Nitrogen
b. Free ammonia
c. Nitrate
d. Nitrate (stabilized end product of nitrogen)
Presence of above indicate the degree of pollution of water. Permissible limits of Nitrate is
45PPm
IRON AND MANGANESE
These metals at very low concentrations are highly objectionable in water supplies for
domestic or industrial use. Fe and Mm in concentration greater than 0.3ppm and 0.05ppm
respectively stain plumbing fixtures and laundered clothes moreover they cause incrustation of
water main due to deposition of ferric hydroxide and Mno. Foul taste and odours are produced
by growth of fe bacteria in water distribution mains. Fe and Mn may be determined either by
precipitation Technique if they are present in large amounts or by colorimeter or spectra
Page 58
10CV61
photometer. In they are present in small amounts (Phenol chlorine and per sulphate method
respectively)
Public water supplies should not contain more than 0.3ppm of Iron and 0.05ppm of manganese.
If they exceed the above limits they can be oxidized by oxidizing agents like oxygen, chlorine
and potassium permanganate (KMno4) or by simple aerator Technique by adjusting P H 9-10 the
manganese gets precipitated.
RESIDUAL CHLORINE
The important purpose of chlorinating public water supplies is to prevent the spread of
water borne diseases chlorine is used in water treatment for disinfection, prevention and
H
destruction of odours, Iron and colour remover. At optimum P and temperature of water its
bactericidal efficiency is very high. In order to ensure no bacterial growth even in the
distribution, chlorination is necessary. Therefore residual chlorine of 0.2ppm is required to be
maintained in the distribution system to ensure no further bacterial contamination. Residual
chlorine is determined by STARCH IODIDE method or ORTHOTOLIDINE METHOD.
FLUORIDES
Excessive fluoride ions in drinking water cause DENTAL FLUOROSIS or MOTLING OF
TEETH. On the other hand, communities whose drinking water contains no fluoride have a high
prevalence of dental caries optimum fluoride concentrations provided in public water supplies
generally in range of 1-1.5mg/lit reduce dental caries to a minimum without causing noticeable
dental fluorosis. Several fluoride compounds are used in treating municipal water all of these
dissociate readily yielding fluoride ions (fluoridation).
Excessive amounts of fluoride lons drinking water can be removed by defluoridation. The two
current treatment methods for defluoridation use either activated alumina are bone char. In india
NALAGONDA TECHNIQUE OF DEFLUORIDATION is most widely used as it is easier
and convenient to use in rural areas.
BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND EXAMINATION SIGNIFICANCE OF
TERMS BACTERIA, E-coli and B - Coli
Sewage contains many barn ----------- which are discharged through excremental matter of
intestines of man and warm blooded animals these organisms were used to be called colon
bacilli and are known as coli forms. It is a full group of bacteria, but out of them
ESCHIRICHIACOLI (E coli) are the most important
The E-coli bacteria are harmless organisms of coli form group, live longer in water than
pathogenic bacteria, it is generally presumed that the water will be safe and free from pathogens
if no coli form bacteria are present.
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10CV61
The term BACTERIUM COLL (B-coll) used to indicate a group of organisms that
include. The whole Coli aero gens group.
TEST OF BACTERIA
a. Total count
b. Coli Form count
Total count = More popularly known as PLATE COUNT or AGAR COUNT. Test
procedure consists of placing 1ml or some other portion of water to be tested on a sterialelish
100m in diameter. To this a sterile nutrient medium is added and the plate is incuvated at 200C
for 48 hours or at 370C for 24 hours Each bacterium would have formed am colony which can
be seen on the plate and counted using a colony counter for POTABLE WATER the total count
should not exceed 100 colonies/cc of water.
COLIFORM COUNT (Determination of coliform or B-coli)
COLIFORMS are defined as that group of organisms which includes all the aerobic
facultative, grain stain negative, non-spore forming bacteria. This group of organisms ferments
lactose with gas. Formation at 310C within 48hours.
The multiple tube fermentation Technique is used for the determination of coli forms. It
consists of
a. Presumptive test
b. Confirmatory test
c. Completed test
DETERMINATION OF BACTERIAL NUMBERS
The preferred method for bacterial enumeration is membrane filter techniques in this
procedure.
i)
A measured volume of water is drawn through a cellulose acetate of glass fibre filter
with the openings less than 0.5ill
ii)
The bacteria present in the sample will be retained upon the filter
iii)
The filter is rinsed with sterile buffer solution placed upon a pad saturated with
suitable nutrient medium and incubated at an appropriate temperature.
iv)
The bacteria which are able to grow upon the nutrient medium will produce visible
calories which can be counted.
v)
Each colony departs one bacterium in the original sample.
MOST PROBABLE NUMBER (MPN)
In order to arrive at the number of coli forms in a water sample, it is necessary to
know the positive results from various size portions of a sample. The MPN of coli
forms in the water is obtained by applying the laws of statistics to the results of test.
DEFINITION
MPN of coli forms or B-coli is defined as that bacterial density which if actually present in
the sample under examination would requently give the observed analytical results
Page 60
10CV61
In other words MPN indicates the bacterial density which is most likely to be present in water.
The standard sample for potable water is 5 of 10mc portions. If all these are negative, the MPN
is zero. If only 1 out of 5 is true, then MPN is two.
THOMAS EQUATION OF DETERMINATION OF MPN
Thomas has suggested the following approximate equation for calculation of MPN
MPN
100 Number of tve portions
ml in all -ve portions ml of all portions
PROBLEMS:1. If 1 out of 5-10ml portions is +ve and 1 out of 5-1ml portions is tve calculate MPN
Solution:
100 1 1
MPN =
40+4 50+5
4.07
MPN 4
2. Calculate the MPN for the following tabular columns. Comment on the result.
Sample size
10ml
1ml
0.1ml
0.01ml
Portions
5
5
5
5
Positive No
5
4
2
1
MPN =
100 5 4 2 1
1+0.3+0.04 50+5+0.5+0.05
139.087
MPN 139
COMMENT: The MPN index of coli form bacteria should be o or <1 therefore
disinfection
Q 810000 m3 / hr
distance= 1200m F=0.04
Q=810000 103 m3 / hr
810000 103 3
m /s
60 60
Q 0.225m3 / sec
LEA FORMULA
0 0.97 1.22 Q 1.2 Q 0.569m say 0.57m
Calculation of total head
Q
Page 61
10CV61
H=Hs+HF
Static head = 80-82+2.5 = 50.5
Q AV
0.57 2 v
4
0.225
0.86mk
0.57 2
4
FLV 2 0.04 1200 0.88
3.32M
2GD
2 9.81 0.569
H H s H F 53.82M
HF
WHP WQH
75
1000 0.225 53.82
75
161.46 HP
3. For water supply ota foyer, ----- is pumped 2km away into a reservoir the maximum
difference of levels of water is river and the reservoir is 3em, the population of the town
is leach-- and any demand of water is 135uped. If the pumps are to operate for a total of
8hours and the efficiency of the pumps is 80% determine the HP of the pumps Assume
friction factor as 0.04 and velocity of flow as 2m/s.
Solution: Data: Distance between river and reservoir 2km = 2000m the max.difference of levels
of loader is river and reservoir = 30m Average demand of water = 135 lped
Pumping time = 8hrs.
Efficiency of pumps = 80%
Sanction Ector = 0.04
Velocity of flow = 2m/s
Quantity of water require by the town = population * Percapita required
= 100000 * 135
= 13500000
MDD = 1.5 * 13500000
= 20250000 = 20250m3/day
= 20.25 MLDs
hrs of pumping per day,
Q = 20250m7/day =20250/8*60*60 = 0.703 m3/c
V = 2m/s.
d2 2
4
d 0.668m 0.67m
Q AV 0.703
Page 62
10CV61
H HS HF
H S 30M
FLV 2 0.04 2000 22
29 D
2 9.81 0.67
H F 24.34M
HF
H 30 24.34 54.34M
1000 0.703 54.34
HP
75
509.34
0.8
636.68 HP
4. Obtain H.P of the pump for the following data

a. Population served = 80000
b. Percapita water demand = 135lpcd
c. Static head = 26m
d. Factional head = 20m
e. Max. daily peak factor = 1.4
f. Pumping hours per day = 8
g. Combined efficiency of the pump and motor = 80%
Also find the economic diameter of the pipe used lea constant = 1.2
Soln : max daily demand 1.5 135 80000 16.20 MLD
16200 m3 / day
0.562m3 / c
D 1.2 Q
0.89 M 0.9 M
H HS HF
H S 26m
H F 46m
1000 0.562 46
75
344.69
0.8
430.86 HP
WHP
Page 63
10CV61
5. Water is to be pumped from a river intake to the treatment plant of a town situated skim
away work out capacity of pump and motor from the following data. Pulps. of town =
80000
Per capita demand of water = 150lpws total pumping hours = 16 min water level is the is
take way = 30m
Rl. of delivery paint @ the treatment plant = 362.00m
Coefficient of friction of pipe = 0.01
Flow velocity in raising main = 1.5m/s
Other losses due to lends valves = 2m
Combined efficiency of pump and motor = 50%
6. Town population = 2lakns and provided with water. Water works, lower elevation. Find
the size of the gravity main to convey water from source to water works. Located at a
distance of 50kms. Percapita demand of water is 150 lpcd.
Solution:
Population = 200000
Water read = 200000*150=30MLD
Assuming pumped for 12hrs
Q = 30min
= 0.347m3/sec
24
Q 0.347
0.694m m / sec
12
w.k .t
Q AV
d2
0.694
v
4
0.694
V
4d 2
V 0.883 / d 2
Difference in elevation = 150m
HC = 150m.
By Darcy weisbach formula,
4 FLV 2
2 gd
Assuming F=0.01
HL
HL
150
4 0.05 50 1000 0.883 / d 2
2 9.81 d
4 0.05 50 1000 0.883 / d 2
2 9.81 d
d 0.88m
Page 64
10CV61
7. Waters to be supplied to a town of 500000 populations from a source 3km aware,

percapita demand of town is 180lped. If the town is situated higher lend than the source
and the difference is elevation between the lowest water level in the source to the point of
inlet at the water works is 40m, determine the size of the raising mains and HP of pump
the value of H s 110 and the pump works for 18hrs.
Decrease in rate % increase method
a) The expected rate of ppls at the end of 2010,
P2010 P2000 C
23.51 C 5.76
4200
42000
100
54293.4
54294
29.27 C 5.76
b) P2020 54294
54294 73314
100
73314
35.03 C 5.76
c) P2030 73314
73314 1, 03, 219
100
Year
Population
1961
1981
2001
50000
110000
160000
P0
P1
P2
Estimate saturation ppln.; equation of logistic wite ; ppls @ 2021
2P P P P 2 (P P )
Ps 0 1 2 1 02 2
P0 P2 P1
2 50000(110000)(160000) 1100002 (50001 16000)
50000(160000) 1100002
Saturationppln. 190487.80
19048
Ps 1,90, 488
Calculation of m and n.
P P
m s 0 2 80
P0
P (P P )
2.3
log10 0 s 1 3.95 104
t1
P1 (Ps P0 )
Note : I g (geometric) = v1v2 .....vn
1/4
(v1 v2 v3 v4 )1/4
53.5 36 29.4 4.5
1/4
22.46%
Page 65
8.
10CV61
The following data have been collected for a town from the census department
1970
Year
Population 25000
1980
28000
1990
34000
2000
42000
Calculate the probable population. of the town in 2030 by arithmetic increase method
geometrical increase method incremental increase method decrease is rate % increase method
Year
Population
Increase/decade
%increase/dec
ade
Incremental
increase/decade
1970
1980
1990
2000
25000
28000
34000
42000
Avg/decade
3000
6000
8000
12%
21.42%
23.52%
+3000
+2000
Decrease
increase
decade
(-)9.42%
(-)2.09%
Ia=17000/3=5667
Fg=18.99%
Ii=2500
Io=(-)5.76%
AIM = P Po nIa
P2010 P2000 1 5667
P2020 P2000 2 5667
P2030 P2000 3 5667
Ig
QIM = P =P0 1
100
P2010 P2000
P2020 P2000
P2030 P2000
9.
The census record of a population of a town is as follows.
1961
Year
Population 81420
1971
125000
1981
170000
1991
220000
2001
230000
Look out the probable population after 3 deco eves By

i)
A.Y method
ii)
G.P method
iii)
Incremental increase
Population
1961
1971
1981
81420
125000
170000
Increase
decade
43580
45000
50000
per %increase per Incrfnautac

decade
increase
53.5%
1420
36%
5000
29.4%
-40000
Page 66
in
%
in
1991
2001
220000
230000
10000
10CV61
4.5%
Ig=30.867%
Ii=-11193
i) P Po nIa
P2031 P2001 nIa
230000 3 37145
P2031 341435
Ig
ii)Pn P 1
100
Ig
P2031 P2001 1
100
30.867
230000 1
100
515523.1154
P2031 515524
iii ) Pn P0 nIa
n(n 1)
Ii
2
3(3 1)
11193
2
3(4)
230000 3(37145)
11193
2
274277
P2031 P2001 3(37145)
Factors affecting the design period:1. Useful life of component structures and the chances of them becoming old and associate.
2. Ease and difficulty that is likely to be faced in expansions, if undertaken at future dates.
3. Amount and availability of additional investment likely to be incurred for additional
previsions
4. The rate of interest on the borrowing and the additional money invested.
5. Anticipated rate of population growth, including possible shift is communities industries
and commercial establishments
10. If the design population of a town is 100000 having average water consumption rate of
150 LPCD. Estimate the man daily demand max. hourly demand of max.day and five
demand.
Solution:
Page 67
10CV61
Population = 100000
Average rater cone rate=150LPCD
Assuming that the max. daily demand = 180% avg. daily demand
180
1000000 150
100
1.8 150 100000
27 106 L / D
27 MLD
Max.hourly demand of max.day in MLD = 2.7 Am.avg.hourly demand
= 2.7 15000
= 40.5MLD
Fire demands (using national board)

Q 4637 P 1 001 P
4637 100 1 0.01 100
41733litres / min
41733 10 6 Minion litres/min

41733 10 6
MLD
1
24
60
41733 60 24 106 MLD
60.01MLD
Is necessary to remove bacteria for making water safe to drink.

DRINKING WATER STANDARDS (BIS)
Type of characteristics
PHYSICAL
Type of Impurities who

a. Turbidity
d. Temperature
a.Total solids
b. PH value
Max. Permissible limit

5-10mg/lit
(Silica scale)
10-20units
(colour no count scale)
Threshold Number
b/n 1-3
10=160
500-1000mg/lit
6.6-8.0
c. Hardness
7-115mg/litre as Caco3
b. Colour
c. Taste and odour
CHEMICAL
Page 68
d. Chlorides
250mg/lit
e. Nitrate
45mg/lit
f. Fe(Iron)
g. Manganese
0.3mg/lit
0.05mg/lit
h. Lead (PB)
0.05-0.1mg/lit
i.
Arsenic
chromium silver
k. Barium
l. Cadmium
m. Copper(Cu)
n. Zinc(Zn)
o. Magnesuim
Type of characteristics
Biological &microorganism
Radiological
10CV61
selenium 0.05mg/lit
Type of impurities
P. Sulphate 200-400
q. Fluoride 0.5-1.15
r. Cyanide
s. BOD
Cali form bacteria
a.Alpha emitters
b.beta emitters
1mg/lit
0.01mg/lit
1-3mg/lit
15mg/lit
125mg/lit
Maxim. permissible limit

250mg/lit
1-1.5mg/lit
0.2mg/lit
Nil
Not to exceed 1colony/100ml
of water or MDN less than
(1400)ml
1uuc/lit
10uuuc/lit.
Page 69
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UNIT4 - WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

OBJECTIVES
The aim of water treatment is to produce and maintain water i.e hygienically safe,
aesthetically attractive and palatable in and economical manner. Though the treatment of water
would achieve the desired quality, the evaluation of its quality should not be confined to the end
of treatment but should be extended to the point of consumers use.
It may be desirable to treat water for a number of reasons including removal of pathogenic
organisms, unpleasant tastes and odors, excessive colour or turbidity or potentially harmful toxic
chemical impurities.
METHODS OF TREATMENT OF WATER AND FLOW SHEETS
The method of treatment to be employed depends on the nature of available water and
the desired standards of water quality. The unit operations in water treatment constitute.
i.
Screening
ii.
Plain sedimentation
iii.
Sedimentation aided with coagulation
iv.
Filtration
v.
Disinfection
vi.
Aeration
vii.
Softening
viii. Miscellaneous treatment such as fluoridation, recarbonation, Liming, desalination,
defluoridation, etc..
VARIOUS SEQUENCES OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT
1. Storage
2. Pre Chlorination
3. Aeration
4. Flocculation(Rapid)
5. Flocculation(Slow)
6. Sedimentation
7. Slow sand filter
8. Rapid sand filter
9. Softening
10. Post chlorination
The complete purification of water is achieved by the following:
1. SCREENING: It is used to remove floating matter. This is accomplished just at the
intake.
Page 70
10CV61
2. AERATION : This process is employed where element causing tastes and odour have to
be removed.
3. PLAIN SEDIMENTATION: In this process suspended impurities like silt, clay and
sand etc are removed.
4. SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION: Fine suspended ad colloidal impurities
and some bacteria are removed.
5. FILTRATION: This process is employed to remove very fine particles and colloidal
matter which might have escaped from sedimentation process micro-organisms are
largely removed hence.
6. DISINEFCTION: To render safe against disease producing bacteria disinfection is
necessary.
7. OTHER PROCESS: In order to make the water fit for a particular use, any special
treatment (tertiary) may be used.
LAYOUT OF TREATMENT PLANT

A Complete water treatment plant consists of:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Intake works including pumping plant.

Aeration
Sedimentation Plai9n or Sedimentation with coagulation.
Filtration
Disinfection
Treated water storage reservoir
Pumping plant to pump treated water to elevated storage reservoir.
Distribution system.
SCREENING
Screens are generally provided in front of the pumps or the intake works so as to exclude
the large sized particles such as debris, animals, tree branches, busters, Ice, etc.
In general there are two types of screens, coarse screens and fine screens coarse screens
called as trash racks are sometimes braced in front of the fine screens, consists of parallel iron
rods placed vertically or ( at a slight slope at about 2 to 10cm c/c). The fine screens are made up
of fine wire or perforated metal with openings less than 1cm wide. Fine screens normally get
clogged and are to be cleaned frequently they are therefore avoided these days. The screens are
kept inclined at about (450 to 60o) to the horizontal so as to increase the opening area and to
Page 71
10CV61
reduce the flow velocity. (Flow velocity is maintained between 0.8 to 1m/sec through the
screens.)
AERATION
PURPOSE OF AERATION: The basic purpose of aeration is the improvement of the physical
and chemical characteristics of water for domestic, commercial and other industrial uses.
Aeration is necessary to promote the exchange of gases between the water and the
atmosphere Aeration is practiced for 3purposes.
a. Expulsion of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and other volatile substances causing
taste and odour.
b. To precipitate impurities like iron and manganese.
c. To add oxygen to water for imparting freshness, e.g water from underground sources
devoid of or deficit of oxygen.
TYPES OF AERATORS
There are two methods of aeration in present practice. One method exposes water films to
the air and the other introduces air in the form of small bubbles in the water. The first is called as
WATER FALL AERATDRS and second as the DIFFUSED AIR AERATORS.
WATER FALL AERATORS
There are three methods under this category.
a. Spray aerators
b. Cascade aerators/step
c. Multiple tray aerators.
PLAIN SEDIMENTATION
Sedimentation is processes of separation of settle able and suspended impurities to some
extent by gravity to reach the bottom of the tank from the water in quiescent condition.
SEDIMENTATION
PLAIN SEDIMENTATIONSEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION

When impurities are separated from the water by
when chemicals called as coagulants
are used
The action of natural forces alone i.e. by gravitation.To remove all the particles by precipitation.
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE SEDIMENTATION ARE:Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology
Page 72
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
10CV61
Size, shape and weight of the particle.

Viscosity and temperature of water
Surface overflow rate.
Velocity of flow
Inlet and outlet arrangement
Detention period
Effective depth of basins
THEORY OF SEDIMENTATION
The settlement of a particle in water when brought to rest is opposed by the following factors.
i.
The velocity of flow which carries the particles horizontally.
ii.
The viscosity of water in which the particle is travelling. The viscosity varies
inversely with temperature.
iii.
The size, shape ad septic gravity of the particle. The greater is the specific gravity,
more readily the particle will settle.
Any particle which does not alter its size shape and weight while rising or settling in any fluid is
called DISCRETE PARTICLE all the particles having the specific gravity more than the
liquid will readily move down due to gravitational force when any discrete particle is falling
through a quiescent fluid, it will accelerate until the frictional resistance or drag force becomes
equal to gravitational forces acting upon the particle. At such stage the particles will settle at
uniform velocity. This uniform velocity is called settling velocity and is a very important factor.
STOKES LAW for settling velocity of discrete particle is given by
gd 2
Vs
s w
18r
Where
Vs = Settling velocity, cm/sec.

G = acceleration due to gravity, 981cm/sec2
s = Specific gravity of particles
D = dia of particles in cm.
R = kinematic viscosity of water cm2 / sec.
LIMITATIONS OF STOKES LAW
1. Stokes considered the particles are sphere. But practically it is not possible; all particles
will not be perfect spheres.
2. Stokes law does not hold good for particles of sizes less than 0.1mm which settle with a
velocity varying as the first power of their dia and not varying as the square of their dia.
Hence modified formula given by stakes
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3T 70
Vs 418 s w d 2
For d 0.1mm
100
Where
Vs = Settling velocity in mm/sec
D = dia of particle in mm
T = temperature of water in C0
For particles of sizes less than 0.1mm, the stokes law holds good. For particles of sizes greater
then 0.1mm, HAZEN has given the following relationship.
3T 70
Vs 418 s w d
For d 0.1mm.
100
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
For the purpose of designing the continuous flow type basin can be divided into four zones.
a.
b.
c.
d.
An inlet Zone.
A Settling zone.
A sludge zone
An outlet zone.
An inlet zone must be designed in such a way that the incoming water is uniformly distributed on
the full width of the tank and it enters the settling zone without causing any disturbance to the
settling zone.
SETTLING ZONE THEORY OF IDEAL SETTLING BASIN

DIAGRAM OF IDEAL SETTLING BASIN
The design of sedimentation basin generally based upon the concept of the ideal settling basin as
shown in figure.
A particle entering the basin will have a horizontal velocity, equal to the velocity of the fluid.
Q
Q
A BH
And a vertical velocity, Us equal to its terminal settling velocity defined by stokes law. If a
particle is to be removed its settling velocity and horizontal velocity must be such that their
resultant will carry it to be bottom of tank before the outlet zone is reached. If a particle entering
at the top of the basin (pt. A) is some moved , all particles with the same settling velocity will
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also be removed considering the slope from A to C and the dimensions of the basin, it can be
written as.
Vs
H
V
L
But , V
Vs
Vs
or
Q
BH
VH
L
Vs
Q H
BH L
Q
BL
OR
Settling velocity =
Discharge
Plan area of the basin
Q
i.e, discharge a continuous flow sedimentation basin and is known as overflow rate
BL
or surface loading shall velour
The Qty,
Q
, gives the settling velocity of the particles. It is seen that all the
BL
particles settling at a faster rate than Vs will be readily removed from the tank so it is proved
The equation Vs
from the above equation that the efficiency of sedimentation tank is dependent on surface
overflow and is independent of the depth of the tank.
Normal values of overflow rate ranges between 500 750 litres/m2/hr for sedimentation tanks
and 10 1750 lit/ m2/hr for sedimentation aided with coagulation.
SLUDGE ZONE
The sludge zone of the sedimentation tank is designed in such a way that all the settle able
particles may be collected in it and can be conveniently removed whenever desired, without
causing any disturbance to the water of settling zone. Generally the bottoms of floors of the tanks
are made sloping towards one side or towards centre of the tank.
OUTLET ZONE
Outlet zone is also designed in the similar way as that of inlet zone i.e, without disturbing the
settling and sludge zone. Outletconsists offrequently free falling weirs discharging into effluent
launders as shown in figure.
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Wier loading is limited to prevent high approach velocity near the outlet. Outlets are placed as
far from the inlet as possible loading rates are generally specified in m2 /m length /day
OTHER DESIGN CRITERIA

DETENTION TIME
This is an important term used in the design of sedimentation basin. It is the average
theoretical time for which the water is detained in the tank.
Hence it is the ratio of the volume of the basin i.e T = C/Q
For Rectangular tank
BLH
Q
Detention time For circular tank
t
t =
0.011d 0.785H d 2
Q
The detention time usually ranges between 4 to 8 hours for plain sedimentation and 2 to 4hrs
for sedimentation with coagulation.
DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY
For efficient removal of the sediment it is necessary that the flow is uniformly distributed
throughout the cross section however, in actual practice, certain amount of short circuiting
always exist, which permit a substantial amount of water to pass through directly through the
tank without being detained for the internodes time therefore the actual average time of flow or
the average time required by a particle to pass through the basin at a given rate of flow is called
FLOWING THROUGH PERIOD This is always less than the detention time which is
corresponding theoretical time infect the efficiency of the basin is determined by the ratio of the
observed flowing through period and the theoretical detention time, called as displacement
efficiency.
displacement efficiency =
Flowing through period

Detention time.
It generally varies between 0.25 to 0.5 in normal sedimentation basins.

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TANK DIMENSIONS
The width of the rectangular tank may be 10 to 12m and its length is normally 4 times its
width. The c/s area is such that the horizontal flow velocity is 0.15 to 0.3 m/min
TYPES OF SEDIMENTATION
This can be classified according to
i.
NATURE OF OPERATION
a. Fill and draw type
b. Continuous flow type.
ii.
SHAPE AND TYPE OF FEED

a. Rectangular with horizontal flow
b. Circular with radial or spiral flow.
PROBLEMS
1) Find the settling velocity in water at 20oC of spherical particle of 5 * 10-3 cm dia, having
specific gravity of 0.8, given the kinematics viscosity of water at 20oC is 1.01 * 10-2 cm2/
sec Does the particle settle or rise? What would happen if the specific gravity of the
particle is 1.20?
Solution:(a) D = Dia of particles = 5 * 10-3cm
s = Sp gravity of particles = 0.8
= Kinematre viscosity = 1.01102 cm2
Using stokes law,
Vs
gd 2 s w
18
981 5 103
0.8 1
2
18 1.01102
Vs 0.027 cm / sec
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The Ve sign indicates that the particle will not settle as its sp. Gravity is less than one. The
particle will rise.
(b) In the second case, the specifies gravity of the particle is 1.20
The settling velocity
Vs
981 5 103
1.2 1
2
18 1.01102
Vs 0.027 cm / sec
Hence the particle will settle at a rate of 0.027cm/sec.
2) Design of settling tanks to treat water for a city of five lakhs people, given the detention time
as 2hrs and the velocity of flow as 17.5cm/min. Also calculate the overflow rate for the tank,
having the depth 3m sketch the inlet and outlet arrangements also.
Solution:Population = 500000
Rate of water supply = 135lped(Assumed)
Detention time = 2hrs
Depth of the tank =3m
Velocity of flow = 17.5cm/mmin
Total Qty of water required per day 500000 135
67.5 106 litres / day

67.5 103 m3 / day
2812.5 m3 / hr.
Providing two settling tanks (Rectangular in plan)
flow in each thak = 1406 - 25m3/hr
Given the detention period = 2hrs.
Capacity of the tank required = flow * detention period
= 1406.25* 2
= 2812.5 m3
Given the velocity of flow as 17.5cm/min, the length of the tank required.
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17.5
2 60
100
21m
C/s. area required = capacity / length

= 1406.25/21
2
= 66.96m
66.96
3
22.32m
Given the depth of the tank as 3m breadth of the tank required
23m.
CALCULATION OF OVERFLOW RATE
flow
Q
Overflow rate =
=
Plan area BL
1406.25
23 21
overflow rate = 2.911m3 /m 2 /hr.

Range of over flow rate = 0.5 - 1.7m3 /m 2 /hr.
3) Design a set of circular settling tanks to treat 5 million litres of water per day detention period
may be taken as 2hes. Calculate overflow rate and weir loading
Solution:Qty of water = 5 106 lit / day
5 106
1000 24
208.33m3 / hr
Detention period 2hrs

the capacity of tanks required = 208.33 2
416.67 m3
Pr oviding two circular tanks the capacity of each tank
416.67
208.3 m3
=
2
Assuming the depth of liquid as 3m t6he surface area of the tank required.
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208.33
69.44 m 2
3
49
4 69.44
Dia of tank =
d 9.4 m
overflow rate
Q
=
Plan area
208.33
2 69.4
1.5 m3 / m 2 / hr
a
WEIR LOADING
discharge
weir length
208.33
2 9.4
3.53 m3 / m length/hr
5.2m3 / m length/hr or less
4) The maximum daily demand at a water purification plant has been estimated as 12MLD.
Design the dimensions of a suitable sedimentation thak (Fitted with mechanical sludge
removal arrangements) for the taw supplies, assuming a detention period of 6hours and
the velocity of flow as 20cm/min.
Solution:
Qty of water to be treated in 24hours.
=12 106 litres.
Qty of water to be treated during the detention period of 6hours.
12 106
=
24
500 103 lit / hr
500 m3 / hr
500 6
3000 m3
The capacity of the tank required 3000m3

Velocity of flow to be maintained through the tank = 20cm/min = 0.2m/minute.
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Length of the tank required = Velocity of flow * Detention period

= 0.2 (6 60)
= 72m
capacity of the tank
C/S area of the tank reqd.
Length of the tank
3000
72
41.67m 2
Assuming the water depth in the tank as 4m
41.67
The width of tank required
10.42m
4
10.5m
Using a free board of 0.5m,
Overall depth = 4+0.5 = 4.5m
Hence a rectangular sedimentation tank with an overall size of 72m 10.5m 4.5m can be
used.
5) Two million litres of water per day is passing through a sedimentation tank which is 6m widly
15m long and having a water depth of 3m
a. Find the detention time for the tank
b. What is the average flow velocity through the tank?
c. If 60ppm is the concentration of suspended solids present in turbid raw water how much dry
solids will be deposited per day in the tank assuming 70% removal in the base and
average specific gravity of the deposit as 2.
d. Compute the overflow rate.
Solution:
a) The capacity of the tank = L.B.D
= 15 6 3
= 270 m3
Discharge passing through the tank
Q = 2MLD
2 106 lit / day
2 103 m3 / day
Q 83.33m3 / hr
capacity of the tank
Disch arg e
270
83.33
3.24hrs.
Detention time=
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Disch arg e Q
C / s .area BH
83.33
63
4.629m / hr
7.72cm / sec.
B) Avg. velocity of flow through the tank=
C) Qty of water passing per day = 2 106 lit

Concentration of suspended solids = 60ppm
Qty of suspended solids entering the tank per day 2 106
60
106
120liltres
Avg. sp. Gravity of the given material = 2
Density of deposited material = 2000kg/ m3
Mass of suspended solids deposited (with 70% removal) per day
0.12 0.7 2000
168kg
D) Over flow rate = discharge per unit plan area
Q
BL
83.33 103
=
6 15
925.88 litres/hr/m 2
926 litres/hr/m 2
6. A rectangular settling tank without mechanical equipment is to treat 1.8mLD of raw water the
sedimentation period is to be 4hours the velocity of flow 8cm/minute and the depth on the water
and sediment 4.2m. If an allowance of 1.2m for sediment is made what should be
a. The length of basin
b. The width of basin
Solution:
Water to be treated per day = 1.8 * 106litres
Water to be treated during the detention period i.e the capacity of the tank
1.8 106
4
24
75000 4litres
300 m 3
Flow velocity = 8cm/minute.

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Length of the tank = Flow velocity Detention time

= 8 (4 60)
= 1920cm
= 19.2m
C/s area of the tank =
300
15.625m 2
19.2
Depth of (sediment + water) = 4.2m

Depth of sediment = 1.2m
Depth of water = 3m
15.625
15.208m
Width of tank =
3
5.21m
7) A circular sedimentation tank fitted with standard mechanical sludge removal equipment is to
handle 3.5millon litres per day of raw water. If the detention period of the tank is 5 hours
and the depth of the tank is 3m what should be the diameter of the tank?
Solution:Qty of the raw Water to be treated per day = 3.5 * 106litres
= 3.5 * 103 m3
3.5 103
5
Qty of raw Water to be treated during the detention period of 5 hours
24
729 m3
The capacity of a circular tank of depth H and dia d is given by.
Volume d 2 0.011d 0.785 H

728
d 2 0.011d 0.785 3
728
d 2 0.011d 2.355
728
0.011d 3 2.355d 2
0.011d 3 2.355d 2 729

d 16.95m By hit and trial
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8) In a continuous flow settling tank 3m deep and 60m long, what flow velocity of water would
you recommend for effective removal of 0.025mm particles at 25oC. The sp.gravity of particles
is 2.65 and kinematic viscosity for water may be taken as 0.01cm2/sec\
Solution:The settling velocity (Vs) for particles of 0.025mm (i.e, < 0.1mm) dia is given by
9d 2
s w
18
where
V3
g = 98/cm/sec 2
d 0.025mm 0.0025cm
s 2.65
w 1
r 0.01cm 2 / sec
Vs
981 0.0025
18 0.01
Vs 0.0562cm / sec
2.65 1
WKT ,
V
L
Vs
H
L
V Vs
H
Where L 60m
H 2.5m(Assuming 0.5m as freaboard)
60
0.0562
2.5
V 1.35cm / sec
Hence in order to ensure effective removal of particles upto 0.025mm, the flow velocity in the
settling tank should not be more than 1.35cm/sec.
CHECK AGAINST THE SCOUR OF DEPOSITED PARTICLES
8
Vd
gd s w
1
Where
= 0.04 for unigranular sand and 0.06 or more for non uniform (interlocking) sticky material
1 = Dray zwieback friction factor
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8 0.04
Vd
981 0.00258 2.65 1
0.03
Vd 6.65 cm / sec
Since the flow velocity (V) is only 1.35cm/sec, it is much less than the scour velocity ( Vd ) of
6.65cm/sec. The design flow velocity is OK.
9) Two primary settling basins are 26m in diameter with 2.1m side water depth single effluent
weirs are located on the peripheries of the tank. For a water flow of 26000 m3/day
Calculate
a. Surface area and volume
b. Overflow rate in m3/m2.d
c. Detention time in hours; and
d. Weir loading in m3/m.d.
Solution:(a) Detention period =
d 2 0.011d 0.785H
Q
Where, d = dia of tank = 26m.

H = 2.1m
26000 3
Q
m / day 2 BASINS
2
13000m3 / day
Q 541.67m3 / hr.
26 0.011(26) 0.785(2.1)
t
2
541.67
t 2.41hr.
Qty of water to be treated during the detention period of 2.41 hr.
= 541.67 2.41
=1305m3
a. Capacity (volume) of tank = 1305m3
130.5
surface area of tank required =
621m 2
2.1
b. Overflow rate
Q
13000
=
=
20.93m3 / m2 day
B.L
621
c. Weir loading
Length of the weir along periphery of the tank
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= d=30471 26=81.68m
Discharge per day
Weir loacing per day =
Length of weir
13000
81.68
159.16 m3 / m.day
10. A rectangular sedimentation basin is to handle 10million litres/day of raw water. A detention
basin of width to length ratio of 1/3 is proposed to trap all particles larger than 0.04mm in size.
Assuming a relative density of 2.65 for the particles and 20oC as the average temperature,
compute the basin dimension. If the depth of the tank is 3.5m, calculate the detention time.
Solution:
3T 70
Settling velocity Vs 418d 2 s w
100
For d 0.1mm
2
3 20 70
418 0.04 2.65 1
100
1.435mm / sec
Vs 0.1435cm / sec
WKT
V
L
VC
H
L
V Vs
H
L
V 0.1435 cm / Sec
H
W.K.T
L = Flow velocity Detention time (t)
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L 0.1435 (t 60 60) cm
H
where 't' is in hrs

L 3600t
m
L= 0.1435
H 100
Lt
L 5.166
H
LH
t
5.1664
H
t
5.166
Also the capacity or the tank oft hr detention period
10 106 t
Volume =
103
24
BLH 416.67T
B 1
Given
L 3
L 3B
B.3BH 416.67t
H
3B 2 H 416.67
5.166
3B 2 80.67
3B 2 80.66
80.66
3
B 5.19m
B
Say B 5.2m
L 3B 3 5.2 15.6 m
H 3.5m( given)
3.5
5.166
t 0.68hr or
t
41min utes
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SEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION

DOUBLE LAYER THEORY
ZETA POTENTIAL
Zeta potential is the potential difference between the bulk liquid and the shearing plane
moving with the particle. The stability of colloids is found to be dependent on the magnitude of
the zeta potential.
Zeta potential is thus a measure of both the charge on a colloidal particle and the distance into
the solution to which the effect of charge extends. The particles will be in a stabilized condition
so long as the zeta potential; is in excess of critical value. As soon as this value of zeta potential
falls below the critical value, Coagulation starts.
Coagulation is a chemical technique directed towards destabilization of the colloidal particles.
The coagulation will be more when Zeta potential is minimum.
COAGULATION
When certain chemicals called coagulants are added to water an in doluble, gelatinous,
flocculent precipitate called FLOC is formed. This precipitate during its formation descent
through the water, adsorb and entangle very fine suspended and colloidal impurities. Therefore
the gelatinous precipitate has the tendency of removing fine and colloidal particles quickly and
completely.
Coagulation is a process of add in chemicals to the raw water in order to make the finely divided
colloidal and suspended particles which remain in suspension to dense enough to settle down.
CHEMICALS USED FOR COAGULATION (COAGULANTS)
a. ALUMINIUM SULPHATE [
A
) . 18
+3
) . 18
) 0 3
or
+2
ALUM
(
) +6
+18
ALUM reacts with natural alkalinity in water to form aluminuium hydroxide floc..
If water doesnot contain sufficient alkalinity to react with the alum, lime[Ca(OH) ] or soda
] is fed to provide the necessary alkalinity.
ash [
i ) AL2 SO4 3 .18 H 2O 3Ca OH 2 2 AL OH 3 3CaSo4 18 H 2O
ii ) AL2 SO4 3 .18 H 2O 3 Na2Co3 3H 2O 2 AL OH 3 3 Na2 So4 3Co2 18 H 2O
The effective PH range for alum coagulant is 5.5 8.0 An advantage of using soda ash is that
unlike lime it does not increase water hardness, only corrosiveness.
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b. FERROUS SULPHATE (COPPERAS)

Ferrous sulphate reacts with natural alkalinity but the response is much slower than
that between alum and natural alkalinity. Lime is generally added to raise the pH to the
point where ferrous lons are precipitated as ferric hydroxide by the caustic alkalinity
FeSo4 .7 H 2O Ca ( HCu3 ) 2 Fe HCo3 2 CaSo4 7 H 2O
Fe HCo3 2 2Ca (OH ) 2 Fe OH 2 2CaCo3 2 H 2O
4 Fe OH 2 O2 2 H 2O 4 Fe OH 3
This treatment adds some hardness but no corrosiveness but dosing operation with two
chemicals is more difficult.
c. CHLORINATED COPPERAS
Chlorinated copperas treatment is a second method of using ferrous sulphate. In
this process chlorine is used to oxidize the ferrous sulphate to ferric sulphate.
3 Feso4 .7 H 2O 1.5cl2 Fe2 So4 3 Fecl3 H 2O
Ferric sulphate and ferric chloride react with natural alkalinity or lime, as illustrated by
the following reactions with ferric chloride
2 FeCl3 3Ca HCO3 2 2 Fe OH 3 3Cacl2 6CO2
2 FeCl3 3Ca OH 2 2 Fe OH 3 3Cacl2 .
Colour in water is generally not affected by copperas and lime treatment where as
chlorinated copperas is effective in the removal of colour.
d. OTHER COAGULANTS (SODIUM ALUMINATE).
6nALo2 AL2 So4 3 .18 H 2O 8 AL OH 3 3 Na2 So4 6 H 2O
PROBLEMS
1. Determine the quantity of alum required to treat 10MLD of water at treatment plant the
dosage of alum is 12ppm. Also determine the amount of carbon dioxide released per litre
of water.
1000mg = 1gm
Solution:Qty of water to be treated = 10MLD = 10 106 Lit / day
Alum dosage = 12ppm = 12mgll (Given)
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Amount of Alum required / day 10 106 12 mg

120 106
106
120kgs
The Chemical reactions involved in treating water with alum are given by:
AL2 So4 3 .18H 2O 3Ca HCo3 2 2 AL OH 3 3CaSo4 6Co2 18H 2O

Now, molecular weight of alum,
= 2 26.97+332.066 4 16 18 2 1.008 16
666.426
666
The molecular weight of Co2 112.01 2 16
44
Now, it means that 666mg of Alum will release 6 44 mg of Co2 .
6 44
12
666
4.756mg of Co2
Since, 12 mg of alum is required for treating on litre of water, the Qty of Co2 released per litre
of water = 4.756mg.
12mg of alum releases=
2. 10mg of copperas is consumed with lime at a coagulation basin per litre of water.
Determine the qty of copperas and the quick lime required to treat 10MLD of water, for
one year. Molecular weight of copperas = 278, mol.wgt of quicklime = 56
Solution:Qty of water treated per day = 10 106 Litres
Dosage of copper as given = 10mg/lit.
Qty of copperas required / day 10 106 10
100 106 mg
10kg
Total Qty of copperas required per year
100 365
36500kg
36.5tonnes.
The chemical reactions involved are
FeSo 4 .7 H 2O Ca(OH ) 2 Fe OH 2 CaSo4 7 H 2O Ca OH 2 Cao H 2O
Given molecular wgt of copperas = 278 and
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Given molecular wgt quick lime = 56

From the above equations, one molecular of copperas require one molecule of lime 278 mg of
copperas require = 56mg of lime
56
20.143kg of lime.
10kg of copperas 100
278
20.143kg / day 365
Qty of Lime required per year = 7352.19 kg
7.352tonnes
Hence 36.5 tonnes of copperas and 7.352 tonnes of lime are required for one year to treat
10MLD of water.
3. A water treatment plant treating 50MLD of water requires 20mg/l of filter alum. If the
water has 6mg/l of alkalinity as CaCo3 determine the Qty of filter alum and quick litres
required per year. The alum is 80% pure and the quick lime contains 85% Cao.
(Given mol.wt of Al=27, S = 32, 0=16, h=1, Ca = 40 and C=12)
Solution:
Total qty of water treated/day = 50 106 Litres given dosage of alum = 20mg/lit
Qty of filter alum required
20 50 106 mg / day
1000kg / day
But alum is 805 Pure
1000
80
100
1250kg / day
met Qty of alum required =
For oneyear, alum requirement

=1250 365
=456250kg
=456.25tonnes.
When filter alum is added, the following reactions are followed.
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i) AL2 So4 3 .18H2O 3Ca HCo3 2 2Al OH 3 3CaSo4 6Co2 18H2O

ii) Ca(HCo3 )2 CaCo3 H2O Co2
iii) CaCo3 Cao Co2
The molecular weights of
AL2 So4 3 .18H2O 2 27 3(32 416) 18(2116) 666
Ca(HCo3 )2 40 2(112 316) 162
CaCo3 40 12 316 100
Cao 40 16 56
Now from the above equations it is clear that alum requires (3 162) parts of natural alkalinity as
Ca( HCo3 ) 2 for every 666 parts of alum. (3 162) parts of alkalinity as Ca( HCo3 ) 2 is equivalent
to
(3 100) parts of alkalinity required as CaCo3.
Hence the alkalinity required as CaCo3 for the water containing alum as 20mg/lit
3 100
20
666
9.009mg / lit
But the natural alkalinity present in water is 6mg/lit.
Additional alkalinity required = 9.09-6
= 3.009mg/lit as CaCo3
From the equation, it is clear that 10parts of CaCo3 is produced by 56parts of Cao
56
3.009
Qty of Cao required = 100
1.685mg / lit.
Since the quick lime contains 85% of Cao, the Qty of quick lime required
1.685
100
85
1.9824mg / lit.
Qty of quick lime required per day.
50 106
1.9824
106
99.12kg
Yearly consumption of quick lime
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99.12 365
36178.8kgs
36.179tonnes.
4) The water works of a city treats 50MLd in a coagulation ssedimentation tank. The qty of alum
consumed is 15mg/l. If the alkalinity of raw water is equivalent to 1mg/l as CaCo3, Calculate the
quantity of alum and quick lime (Containing 80% Cao) required per month by water works.
(Atomic weights: Al = 27, S = 32, O = 16, H = 1, Ca = 4, C = 12).
Solution:
Qty of water to be treated = 50 106 lit / day
Qty of filter alum required perday at 15mg/lit
15 50 106 mg
750kg
Qty of filter alum require per month
750 30
22500kg
22.5 tonnes.
The chemical reactions that take place are
AL2 So4 3 .18H2O 3Ca(HCo3)2 2AL(OH)3 3Caso4 18H2O 6Co2
CaCo3 H2O Co2 Ca HCO3 2

CaCo3 Cao Co2
The molecular weights
AL2 So4 3 .18H2O 2 27 3(32 416) 18(2116) 666
Ca Hco3 2 40 2(112 316) 162

CaCo3 40 12 316 100
Cao 40 16 56
Now from the above equations. It is clear that alum requires 3 162 Parts of natural alkalinity
as Ca(Hco3)2 for every 666 parts of alum. 3 162 parts of alkalinity as Ca(Hco3)2 is equivalent
to 3 100 parts of alkalinity required as CaCo3.
Hence the alkalinity required as CaCo3 for containing alum of 15mg/l
3 100
15
666
6.757mg / l
Natural alkalinity available as CaCo3 = 1mg/L
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Additional alkalinity required to be added in the form of lime = 6.757 -1 = 5.757mg/l as CaCo3
Now, 10 parts of CaCo3 is produced by 56parts of Cao.
Hence, the quantity of Cao required
5.757 56
100
3.22mg / l
Since quick lime contains 80% of Cao, the quick lime required.
3.22 100
80
4.025mg / l
The quantity of lime required for treating 50 * 106Litres of water/day
4.025 50 106 mg / day
4.025 50kg / day
201.25kg / day
Hence the monthly consumption of quick lime
201.25 30
6037.5kg
6.037Tonnes
THE CONSTITUENTS OF COAGULATION SEDIMENTATION PLANT
The Coagulation sedimentation plant, sometimes called simply a COAGULATION
PLANT or CLARIFLOCCULATOR contains the following four units.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Feeding device
Mixing device or mixing basin
Flocculation tank or flocculate
Setting or sedimentation tank
The chemical coagulant is first of all fed into the raw water through the feeding device. This
mixture is than thoroughly mixed and agitated in the mixing basin. The flock which is formed as
a result of the chemical reaction taking place in the mixing basin is then allowed to consolidate
in the flocculation tank. The flocculated water is finally passed into the sedimentation tank,
where these flocculated particles settle down and be removed.
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FEEDING DECICES
A) DRY FEEDING DEVICES
B) WET FEEDING DEVICES
MIXING DEVICES
There are two types of mixing basins
a. Mixing basins with baffle walls
b. Mixing basins equipped with mechanical devices.
MIXING BASINS WITH BAFFLE WALLS
SECTIONAL ELEVATION OF OVER AND UNDER THE BAFFLE TYPE MIXING
BASIN
MIXING BASINS EQUIPPED WITH MECHANICAL DEVICES
Design catriteria
Detention time = 30 to 60 seconds
Power required = 2 to 5 kn/m2/min
Velocity of flow = 0.9m/sec
Rotation of blades = 100rpm
Depth = 1 to 3m.
FLOCCULATION
Due to violent agitation of the coagulants in the flash mixer, thorough mix is obtained.
This severe agitated solution is slowly and gently stirred to cause the AGGLOMERATION of
the dispersed particles. Thus flocculation is a slow mixing process in which destabilized colloidal
particles are brought into intimate contact in order to promote their agglomeration the rate of
agglomeration or flocculation is dependent upon the number of particles present, the relative
volume they occupy etc
Therefore flocculation is a process of mixing the coagulated water in order to achieve
through mixing or uniform distribution of coagulants throughout the water on slow mixing of the
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mixture FLOCS are formed which is in the form of gelatinous precipitate which may be
removed by settling
The tank or basin in which flocculation process is carried out is called flocculation
chambers (Floc chamber)
Design criteria
a. Degree of agitation - velocity of flow
of paddle speed 0.2 to 0.6m/sec
b. Detention period 10-30minutes
Power consumption 0.06 to 0.08 kn/m2/min
Paddle speed 2 to 3 rpm.
CLARIFIERS
After proper flocculation the tanks in which water is allowed to settle the flocs formed is
known as sedimentation tank or clarifiers. The tank is designed on the same assumptions as a
plain sedimentation tank, except that a lower value of detention period (say about 2 to 4 hours) is
generally sufficient.
COMBINED COAGULATION CUM SEDIMENTATION TANK
Some times floc chamber combine alone with the sedimentation tank, such a tank is
known as co-adulation sedimentation tank. In such a tank, a plain floc chamber without any
mechanical devices is provided before the water enters the sedimentation chamber. The depth in
the floc chamber may be kept about half that of in the settling chamber.
PROBLEM:i.
Design a coagulation sedimentation tank with continuous flow for o population of

60000 persons with a daily per capita water allowance of 120 litres make suitable
assumptions where needed.
Solution:
Design of sedimentation tank
Average daily consumption = 60000 * 120
= 7.2*106litres
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Assuming maximum daily demand as 1.8time the average daily demand we get .the maximum
daily consumption
= 1.8*7.2*106
= 12.96 * 106litres
Assuming a detention period of 4 hours
Qty of water to be treted,
12.96 106
4
24
2.16 106 litres
2.16 103 m3
Hence the capacity of tank require = 2160 m3

Providing a depth of 4m
Plan area =
2160
540m 2
4
Providing a rectangular sedimentation tank,

Plan Area = BL = 540 m 2
Using the width of the tank as 12m we get,
The length of tank =
540
45m.
12
Hence use a tank of 45m*12m*4m Provide extra depth for sludge storage say 0.3m depth at the
45
5.2m at the other end (using 1 in 50 slope)
starting end and 4.3
50
Use a free board of 0.5m above the water level.
Design of floc chamber
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In addition to sedimentation tank, the floc chamber at the entry has to be provided. Assuming
the effective depth in the floc chamber as half of the depth of in the tank near the floc chamber
4.5
2.25m.
i.e
2
Assume the period of flocculation or detention period as 20minutes.
Capacity of the chamber = flow in 20minutes.
12.96 103 20
24
60
3
180m
180
Plan area
2.15
83.72
Using the same width as 12m, we get the length of flocculation chamber
80
6.67m 6.97
12
6.7m 7
LABORATORY
COAGULANT
TESTING
FOR
DETERMINIE
OPTIMUM
DOSAGE
OF
The optimum dosage of coagulant is first determined in the lab and then adjusted by actual
observations at the treatment plant. The common test which is performed to determine the
approximate optimum dosage of coagulant is known as JAR TEST.
The apparatus for the test is as shown in the figure. The sample of raw water to be tested is
placed in a number of jars each having the capacity of about 1litre normally, 6jars are used.
Different amounts of coagulants are then added to each jar. The driving unit is started. The
paddles connected with the driving shaft through sliming rods placed inside the jars, are thus
made to rotate
The formation of floc in each jar is note the amount of coagulant in the jar which produces a
good floc with the least amount of coagulant indicates the optimum dosage. The speed of paddles
and time of mixing may also be varied for different tests during the determining of least optimum
dosage
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Speed 10 -10 rpm.

Flash mix the samples by agitating at maximum speed (100rpm) for 1min. Flocculate the
samples at a stirring rate of 20-70 rpm for 10-30min. Record the time of floc appearance for each
beaker.
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UNIT 5 - FILTRATION
INTRODUCTION
Screening and sedimentation removes a large percentage of the suspended solids and
organic matter present in the raw water. The percentage of removal of these matters increases
when coagulants are also used in the sedimentation process.
However, the coagulated settled water will hot b e 10% pure and may certain some very
fine suspended particles and bacteria present in it. To remove or to reduce the remaining
impurities still further and to produce potable palatable and wholesome water the water is filtered
through the beds of various sized fine granular material (such as gravel, sand etc..)
The process of passing the settled water through beds of such granular materials (called
filtered media) is known as filtration. Filtration may help in removing colour, odour, turbidity
and pathogenic organisms from water.
TWOtypes of filters are commonly used for treating municipal water supplies. They are
1. The slow sand gravity filters or slow sand filters
2. Rapid sand gravity filters or Rapid sand filters.
A third type of Rapid sand filter works under pressure and is known as a PRESSURE
FILTER.
The slow sand filters can remove larger percentage of impunities and bacterias from the water
as compared to Rapid sand filters however slow sand filters yield a very slow rate of
filtration(about 1/30 times than that given by Rapid sand filters) and require larger area and are
costly.
With the advancement of disinfecting Techniques the necessity of too much purification and that
of 100% removal of micro-organisms (as is obtained by slow sand filters) has decreased and
therefore slow sand filters are becoming absolute these days. In modern treatment plants the
rapid sand filters are almost universally adopted. (Eg.Thorekadanamahalli water treatment plant).
The water from coagulation sedimentation plant is directly fed into the rapid gravity filters and
the resultant filtered water is disinfected for complete killing of micro-organisms and colour
removal.
THEORY OF FILTRATION
In the filtration process the water gets purified under four different process. These process
are
i.
Mechanical straining
ii.
Flocculation and sedimentation
iii.
Biological metabolism
iv.
Electrolytic changes.
i)
MECHANICAL STRAINING
The suspended particles present in settled water and which are of bigger size than the
size of the voids in the filter media cannot pass through these voids and get arrested in
them. So the resultant water will be free from the suspended particles. Most of the
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particles are removed in the upper sand grit layers. These arrested particles forms a
mat on top of the filter bed, which further helps in straining out the impurities
ii)
FLOCCULATION AND SEDIMENTATION

The filters are also able to remove the particles of size smaller than the size of the
voids present in it. These void spaces act like tiny coagulation sedimentation tanks
and the colloidal matter arrested in these voids is a gelatinous mass and therefore
attract the other finer particles. Therefore these fine particles thus settled down in the
voids and removed.
iii)
BIOLOGICAL METABOLISM
Certain useful micro-organisms are generally present in the voids of filter
media. These organisms require organic impurities as their food for the survival and
utilize such organic impurities and convert them into harmless compounds by the
process of biological metabolism the harmless compounds so formed, generally form
a layer on the top which B called SCHMUTZDECKE or DIRTY SKIN. This layer
further helps in adsorbing and straining out the impurities.
iv)
ELECTOLYTIC CHANGES
The process of filtration can also be explained by the theory of ionization.
According to this theory, a fitter helps in purifying the water by changing the
chemical characteristics of the water. This may be explained by the fact that the sand
grains of the filter media and the impurities in the water carry cleotrical charges of
opposite in nature when these charged particles some in contact with each other they
get attracted and making the water purer. After a certain interval the electrical charges
of the fitter media gets exhausted and have to be restored by washing the filter.
FILTER MATERIALS (or) FILTER MEDIA

Sand (coarse or fine grained), grit and gravel of different sizes are used as FILTER
MEDIA. The layer of sand and grit is supported on gravel. Which permits the filtered water to
move freely to the under-drains and allows the wash water to move uniformly upward
SAND AND GRIT
The filter sand and grit generally obtained from rocks like quartzite, and should contain
the following properties.
i.
Should be freeform dirt and other impurities
ii.
Should be uniform in nature and size
iii.
Should be hard and resistant
iv.
Should be such as not to lose more than 5% of its weight after being placed in
hydrations acid (HCl) for 24hours.
The size of the sand is measured and expressed by the term called EFFECTIVE SIZE. The
effective size i.e, D10 may be defined as The size of the sieve in mm through which ten
percent of the sample of sand by mass will pass
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The UNIFORMITY in size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is measured and

expressed by the term called UNIFORMITY CO EFFICIENT. The UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENT i.e D60 may be defined as The ratio of the sieve size in mm through which 60% of
D10
the sample of sand will pass, to the effective size of the sand.
GRAVEL
The gravel which may be used below the sand should be hard, durable, free from impurities,
properly rounded and should have a density of about 1600kg/m3
TYPES OF FILTERS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION
These are mainly 3 types of filters i.e
i.
Slow sand filters
ii.
Rapid sand filters
iii.
Pressure filters
SOLW SAND FILTER
They were first deviced when the process of filtration was invented in England by
JNMES SIMPSON in 1829. They were widely used since then till the last decade of the 19th
century when the rapid gravity filters were invented. Their use has since decreased and they are
becoming obsolete these days. However, they may still be prepared on smaller plants of warm
places where covers on filters are not required to protect the filters from freezing.
TYPICAL CROSS-SECTION OF A SLOW SAND FILTER

i)
ENCLOSURE TANK
It consists of an open water tight rectangular tank made of masonry or concrete.
The bed slope is kept at about 1 : 10 towards the central drain. The depth of the tank
may vary from 2.5 to 5.5m. The plan area of the tank may vary from 100 to 2000
sq.m. or more depending upon the qty of water to be treated.
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ii)
FILTER MEDIA
The filtering media consists of sand layers, about 1.2 to 1.4mts in depth
placed over a gravel support. The eff. Size (D10) of the sand varies from 0.15mm to
0.35mm and the uniformity co-efficient varies from 1.5-3. The media should be
composed of hard, durable, preferably rounded sand grain and should be free from
clay, loam and organic matter. The sand should not contain more than 2% of calcium
and magnesium calculated as carbonate.
iii)
BASE MATERIAL
The base material is gravel and it supports the sand. The gravel bed will
have the following gradation.
Top most Layer

Second Layer
Third Layer
Bottom Layer
Size of gravel
1mm to 2mm
3mm to 6mm
9mm to 18mm
27mm to 54mm
Thickness of layer
8cm
10cm
12cm
15cm
Normally, the total depth of gravel bed is 30cm. The gravel has high permeability and
hence the resistance to downward flow is high.
iv)
UNDER DRAINAGE SYSTEM

It serves twofold purposes, one of supporting the filter Medford and
the other of providing an unobstructed passage way for the treated water to leave the
underside of the filter. The under drainage system consists of a central drain and
lateral drains. The laterals are open jointed pipes pieced 3 to 5m apart on the bottom
floor and sloping towards a main covered central drain. The laterals collect the
filtered water and discharge it into the main drain which leads the water to filtered
water well.
PLAN OF UNDER DRAINAGE SYSTEM FOR SLOW SAND FILTER

EFFICIENCY AND PERFORMANCE
S.S.F are highly efficient in removing micro-organisms and other suspended solids
from raw waters the extent of bacteria removal is up to 98-99% or more these filter5s will also
remove the odors and tastes, particularly those caused by the presence of organic impurities such
as algae and plankton.
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LIMITATION
The quality of raw water affects the performance of the S.S.F which are capable of
coping with turbidities of 10-200mg for a few days. 50mg/l is the maximum that should be
permitted fro longer period best purification occurs when the average turbidity is 10mg/l or less.
Hence the river water can be treated with S.S.F only when the raw water turbidity is brought
down in the range of 50mg/l to 10mg/l by means of flocculation sedimentation process.
CONCLUSIONS
S.S.F are best suited for smaller plants and for purifying waters with low colours,
turbidities and bacterial contents however, because of smaller rate of filtration. They require
large surface areas and large volumes of filtering materials. This makes them costly and
uneconomical especially for treating large scale supplies. They are therefore being replaced by
rapid gravity filters.
DESIGN OF S.S.F
The design of S.S.F is governed by many factors, the important among them being
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
The quality of raw water

The nature and efficiency of pre-treatment, if provided.
The characteristics of filter media
The hydraulic loading of filter
The method and internal of cleaning
The required quality of filtered effluent.
The design of a S.S.F UNIT include the following

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
The size and number of filter units

The super elevated water reservoir
The filter bed
The filter bottom and under- drainage system
Filter box containing (ii), (iii) and (iv)
The filters control system.
DESIGN CRITERIA
101 -400 ltrs / m2/hr
Rate of filtration - 0.1 to 0.4m3 / m2 of surface /hr
Number of filter units is given by the formula,
Where Q in m3/hr N = no. of filter un which is never less than 2.
N 1 Q
4
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RAPID SAND FILTERS

In order to reduce the requirement of space and to increase the rate of filtration a lot of
research was conducted which finally led to the development of rapid sand filters or sometimes
called MECHANICAL SAND FILTERS.
The RAPID FILTERS are of two types. i.e,

1. One which utilize comparatively larger sized sand particles which allow greater rate of
filtration as compared to that of slow sand filters. They are called rapid gravity filters
2. One which utilize the development of pressure over the filtering water and there by
increasing the rate of filtration. They are called PRESSURE FILTERS
Rapid sand gravity filters are used for large municipal supplies, whereas pressure filters,
being more handy, may be used for small installations, such as for industrial plants and
swimming pools.
Rapid gravity filters were developed in the last decade of the 19th century through
the efforts of G.W. fuller of U.S.A there filters employ coarser sand with effective size as
0.5mm or so on an average these filters may yield as high as 30times the yield given by
S.S.F waters from the coagulation sedimentation tanks are used in these filters and
filtered water is treated with disinfectors, so as to0 obtain potable supplies.
FILTER CONSTRUCTION AND ITS VARIOUS PARTS
i)
ENCLOSURE TANK
It consists of and gone water tight rectangular tank, made of masonry or concrete.
The depth of the tank may van from 2.5to 3.5m. In order to achieve uniform distribution of
water. The area of the filter units should not be kept larger and B generally limited to about 10 to
80m2 for each unit
The number of units at a filter plant may be roughly calculated by the empirical formula.
Q
N
4.69
Where
N= No. of beds
Q = Discharge in m3/hr.
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ii)
FILTER MEDIA
The filtering media consists of sand layers, the minimum depth should not be less than 0.6m
and maxim. Depth is generally not more than 0.9m and placed over a gravel support. The eff.
Size (D10) of sand is in the range of 0.4mm to 0.5mm, average being 0.45 and the uniformity coefficient is either less or equal to 1.5
iii)
BASE MATERIAL
The gravel surrounds the under drain system and supports the sand bed above it. Gravel
preferably should be rounded material and not crushed store. The depth and grading of gravel
should be selected in accordance with the type of filter bottom and strainer system used,. Usually
the dept of gravel bed is between 38 to 60cm.
Suggested ranges of sizes and corresponding depths of gravel layers for rapid sand filters.
RANGE IN
SIZE(mm)
65 - 38
38 - 20
20 - 12
12 - 5
5 - 2
Total depth
RANGE IN DEPTH
(mm)
13 - 20
8 - 13
8 - 13
5 - 8
5 - 8
-39 - 62cm
iv)
UNDER DRAIN SYSTEM

The under drain system for a rapid sand filter has the following functions to serve
i.
It collects the filtrate and carries it to the clear water storage.
ii.
It distributes the wash water uniformly to the filter bed during backwash operations
The most commonly used under drainage system comprises of Perforated pipe laterals and the
centrally located manifold and hence B known as lateral and manifold system.
PLAN OF A MANIFOLD AND LATERAL UNDER DRAINAGE SYSTEM FOR A
RAPID GRAVITY FILTER
WASH WATER TROUGHS
The duty wash water which comes out of the fitter after cleaning it is
collected in wash water troughs or gutters and carried to the main gutter. These gutters may be
square, U shaped or semi circular. They should be set at such an elevation that the overflow
tip will be at or somewhere above the top of the sand rise; otherwise, sand may be washed out of
the filter. Their tops are therefore, generally dept at least above the sand bed by a distance of
about half the depth of sand and their bottoms adjusted usually 5cm above the top of sand
surface.
BACK WASHING
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When sand becomes dirty, by the excessive loss of head, the fitter must be cleaned
and washed for cleaning, the raw supplies as well as the frittered supplies have to be cut off, bed
drained down, and washes water sent back upward through the filter beds. This forced upward
movement of wash water and compressed air (if used) will agitate the sand petrels, and these
removing the suspended impurities from it.
This value (1) and (4) are closed and values (5) and (6) are opened. The wash water and
compressed air are thus forced upward from the under drainage through the gravel and sand
beds. Value (5) is closed after supplying the required amount of air. The dirty water resulting
from washings, overflows into the wash water trough and is removed by opening value (2)
through the let chamber into the wash water gutter. The process of washing the filters and
removing the dirty water B generally continued for a period of 3 to 5 minutes.
After the washing of the filter has been completed values (2) and (6) will be closed and values
(1) and (3) are opened. The restores the inlet supplies through the value(1) but the filtered water,
in the beginning, is not collected and washed for a few minutes through value (3) to the gutter.
This is necessary because the remains of the wash water must be removed from the voids of the
filter and a surface mat must be allowed to be formed on sand. Ultimately value (3) is dosed and
value (4) is opened to gee the filtered supplies again.
The entire process of back washing the filters and remaintaining filtered supplies, takes about
15minutess and the filter unit remains out of operation for this much of time. The amount of
water required for washing a rapid gravity filter varies from 2 to 5% of the total amount of water
filtered. The rapid gravity filters get clogged very frequently and have to be washed every 24 to
48 hours.
The rate of washing may vary between 15 90 cmrise/minute. A figure of 45cm/minute B quite
acceptable.
LOSS OF HEAD AND NECESSITY OF CLEANING
The water percolating through the filter moves downward under the force of gravity.
This motion is opposed by the resistance offered by the sand grains and impurities arrested in
them. The percolating water, therefore busy some of its head. The loss of head can be easily
computed by knowing the water level in the filter and the pressure of water in the outlet pipe.
The difference between the two heads will give the loss of head called filter held head loss
through a clean granular media filter is generally less than 0.9m with accumulation of impurities,
head loss gradually increases until the filter is back wasted usually at 2.4 3.0m.
NEGATIVE HEAD AND AIRBINDING
Filtration can be stopped because of a low rate of filtration, passage of excess turbidity
through the bed or air binding. As head loss increases across the bed the lower portion of the
filter is under a partial vacuum this negative head permits the release of dissolved gases which
tend to fill the pores of the filter, causing air binding and reducing the rate of filtration.
RATE OF FILTRAITON OR RATE OR LOADING FOR RAPID GRAVITY FILTERS
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The rate of filtration that can be obtained from rapid gravity filters is very high, and
is generally of the order of 300 to 6000 litres/hv/m2 of filter area (i.e50 to 100 litres/min/m2).
This high rate of filtration leads to considerable saving of space as well as filter materials.
EFFICIENCY AND PERFORMANCE
Rapid gravity filters compared to slow sand filters are less efficient in removing bacteria
and turbidities. They can remove about 80 to 90% of bacterial load present in water. The
remaining bacteria are removing in dB in faction units. They can remove turbidies to about 35
40 mg/L. But since the waters entering these filters are given pretreatments in coagulation
sedimentation tanks, they are comparatively less turbid. Such turbidities can be easily removed
by these filters and brought to permissible limits.
As for as colour removal B concerned they are highly efficient and can bring down the
colour to as low value as 10 to 20 on LOBACT SCALE.
USES OF RAPID GRAVITY FILTERS
They are the best and most economical and therefore invariably used for treating public supplies
especially for large towns and cities. The treated waters are however not so much safe as those obtained
from slow sand filters and need further treatment before they can be supplied to the generally public.
COMPARISON BETWEEN RAPID GRAVITY FILTER AND SLOW SAND

FILTER
Sl
No
1.
ITEM
SOLW SAND FILTER
RAPID GRAVITY FILTER
Pre treatment
requirements
Coagulation, Flocculation and

sedimentation is a must.
2.
Base material
Effluents either from plain

sedimentation tanks or raw waters
without any treatment are
generally fed into them and
coagulation is not at all required.
The gravel base supports the
sand. It varies from 3 to 65mm in
size and 30 to 75cm in depth.
3.
Filter sand
The effective size of filter sand

ranges b/n 0.2 to 0.4mm and
uniformity coefficient b/n 1.8 to
2.5 or 3.0. the grain size
distribution is generally uniform
throughout the depth of filter
The gravel base supports the sand

and also distributes the wash water
uniformly on eth swface of sand. It
varies from 3 to 40mm in size and
its depth is slightly more i.e about
60 90cm.
The effective size of the filter sand
ranges b/n 0.35 to 0.55 and
uniformity coefficient b/n 1.2 to
1.8. The sand is laid in layers with
smallest grain size at top and ageist
grain size at the bottom.
Page 108
4.
Under drainage
system
5.
Size of each
unit
6.
Rate of
filtration
Economy
7.
8.
9.
Depreciation
cost
Efficiency
10.
Flexibility
11.
Ease in
construction
Spilled super
&Blon if reqd.
Loss of lead
12.
13.
14.
Period of
cleaning
media except that top 10 to 15cm

may be laid of finer variety
Laid in order to receive filtered
water
Large such as (30m * 60m). The
area varying from 100 to 2000 m2
or more
Small such as 100 to 200 litres
per hour per m2 of fitter area
High initial cost of both land and
materials but low cost of
operation and maintenance
Relatively low
Very efficient in removing
bacteria (98 to 99%) but less
efficient in removing colour.
Not flexible for meeting
variations in demand
Simple
10CV61
Laid in order to receive filtered

water and also to pass water for
back washing ata very high rate.
Small such as (5m * 8m). the area
varying from 10 t 80m2 .
Large such as 3000 to 6000 litres
per hour per m2 of filter area.
Low initial cost, but higher cost of
operation and maintenance overall
it B cheaper and economical
Relatively high
Not required
Less efficient in removing bacteria

(80 to 905) but very efficient in
removing colour.
Quite flexible for meeting
reasonable variations in demand.
Complicated as under drainage B
to be properly designed.
Essential
Appoximately 10cm isthe initial

loss and 0.8 to 1.2m B the final
limit when cleaning B required
Cleaned at intervals of 1m to
3month
Approximately 0.3m is the infial

loss and 2.5 to 3.5m is the final
limit when cleaning is required.
Cleaned frequently at intervals of
1-3 days.
PRESSURE SAND FILTER
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Rapid pressure sand bed filters are typically operated with a feed pressure of 2 to 5 bar(a) (28 to
70 psi(a)). The pressure drop across a clean sand bed is usually very low. It builds as particulate
solids are captured on the bed. Particulate solids are not captured uniformly with depth, more are
captured higher up with bed with the concentration gradient decaying exponentially.[2]:302-303
This filter type will capture particles down to very small sizes, and does not have a true cut off
size below which particles will always pass. The shape of the filter particle size-efficiency curve
is a U-shape with high rates of particle capture for the smallest and largest particles with a dip in
between for mid-sized particles.[3]
The build-up of particulate solids causes an increase in the pressure lost across the bed for a
given flow rate. For a gravity fed bed when the pressure available is constant, the flow rate will
fall. When the pressure loss or flow is unacceptable the bed is back washed to remove the
accumulated particles. For a pressurised rapid sand bed filter this occurs when the pressure drop
is around 0.5 bar. The back wash fluid is pumped backwards through the bed until it is fluidised
and has expanded by up to about 30% (the sand grains start to mix and as they rub together they
drive off the particulate solids). The smaller particulate solids are washed away with the back
wash fluid and captured usually in a settling tank. The fluid flow required to fluidise the bed is
typically 3 to 10 m3/m2/hr but not run for long (a few minutes). Small amounts of sand can be
lost in the back washing process and the bed may need to be topped up periodically.
PROBLEMS ON SLOW SAND FILTER

1. Design six slow sand filter beds from the following date
Population to be served = 50000 persons
Per capita demand = 150 litres/head /day
Rate of filtration = 180 litrs/hr/ m2
Length of each bed = Twice the breath
Assume maximum demand as 1.8 times average daily demand Assume that one un out of six will
be kept asteroid by
Solution:
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Avd. daily demand = population per capita der

= 50000 150
Maxm.dailydemand 1.8 7.5 106
Rate of filtration per day = (180 24)litres / m 2 / day
4.32 103 litres / m 2 / day
Total surface are a of filters reqd .
MDD
Rate of filtration per day
=
13.5 106
4.32 103
3125m 2
Now six units are to be used out of the one is to be kept as STAND BY and hence on 5 units
should provide the necessary area of filter required.
The area of each filter unit.
1
Total area required
5
3128
5
625 m2
Now if L is the length and B is the breadth of each unit then L = 2B

L.B = 525 m 2
2B.B = 625 m 2
B 2 = 312.5 m 2
B = 17.67m
Say B = 18m
L = 2B = 2 * 18 = 36m
Hence use 6 filter units with one unit as stand by, each unit of size 36m * 18m, arranged in
series with 3units on either side.
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2) PROBLEM ON RAPID SAND FILTER

Design the approximate dimensions of a set of rapid gravity filters for treating water required for a
population of 50000 the rate of supply being 180 liters per day per person the filters are rated to work
5000 litres per hour per sq.m. Assume whatever data are necessary and not given.
Solution
Assume that the given rate of supply is an average demand and also assuming that the maximum
daily demand is 1.8times the average daily demand we have by ignoring wash water requirements.
The maxim waer demand per day = population maxm daily rate of supply
= 50000 (1.8 180)
16.2 MLD
water demand per hour (ignoring time lost in cleaning)
16.2 106
24
675 103 litres / day
Rate of filtration = 5000litres / hr / m 2

area of filterbeds requied.
water demand
Rate of filtration
=
675 103
5000
135m 2
Since two units are required to be designed the area of each unit = 135/2 = 67.5 m 2
Assuming L = 1.5B we have
1.6 B 2 67.5
B 6.708m
say B 7 m
L 1.5B 15 7 10.5m
Hence two units of size 1.05*7m are required one additional unit as stand by may also be provide for
breakdown, repairs or cleaning purposely.
3) Design rapid sand filter unit for 4 million liters per day of supply with all its principal component
Solution:
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Water required per day = 4M.L.D

Assuming that 4% of filtered water is required for washing of the filter every day we have to total
filtered water required per day
= 1.04 4
= 4.16 MLD.
Now assuming that 0.5 hour is lost every day in washing the filter we have.
Filter water required per hour =
4.16
0.177 ML / hr.
23.5
Assuming the rate of filtration to be 5000 litres m 2 , we have.
The area of filter required =
0.177106
35.4m2
5000
Now assuming the length of the filter bed (L) as 1.5 times the width of the filter bed(B), and two be the
total area provided.
2( L.B) 35.4
2.1.5.B 35.4
B 2 35.4 / 3
B 3.43m
L 1.5B 5.2m
Hence adopt 2 filter units, each of dimensions
5.2m 3.4m
DESIGN OF UNDER DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Let MANIFOLD AD LATERAL SYSTEM be provided below the filter bed for receiving the
filtered water ad to allow back washing for cleaning the filter. This consists of a control manifold pipe
with laterals having perforations at their bottom.
To design this system, let us assume that the area of the perforations is 0.2% of the total filter area.
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Total area of perforation 0.2% Filterare

0.2
5.2 3.4 m 2
100
0.035 m 2
Now assuming the area of each lateral
= 2 times the area of perforations in it (For 13mm dia per formations), we have
Total area of laterals = 2 Total area of perforations
= 2 0.035
2
= 0.070 m
Assuming the area of the manifold to be about twice the area of laterals we have.
= 2 0.070
2
= 0.14 m
Dia of manifold (d) is given by
2
d 0.14
4
0.14 4
d
d 0.42 m
Hence use a 45cm dia manifold pipe laid length wise along the centre of the filter bottom. Laterals
running perpendicular to the manifold (i.e width wise) emanating from the manifold may be laid at a
spacing of say 15cm (max30cm) The number of laterals B then given as.
5.2 100
34.6
15
Say 35 Nos on either side of manifold
Hence use 70 laterals in all in each unit now length of each lateral
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width of filter
Dia of manifold
2
2
3.4
0.45
2
2
1.47m
Now adopting 13mm dia perforations in the laterals we have

Total area of perforations =0.035 m 2
=350 m
x.
(1.3) 2
4
Where
X = Total No. of Perforations in all to laterals
4
(1.3) 2
263.68
x 350
Say x 264 Nos

No. of perforations in each lateral
264
3.77 4 Nos
70
Area of perforations per lateral
=
= 4 (1.3) 2
4
2
5.30cm
Now area of each lateral
= 2 Area of perforations per lateral
= 2 5.30
= 10.60cm 2
4 10.60
3.67cm
Dia of each lateral = d =
Say 3.7cm
Hence use 70 laterals each of 3.7cm dia 2 15cm c/c, each having 4 perforations of 13mm size, with 45cm
dia manifold.
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CHECK:
length of each lateral 1.475m 147.5
39.0
Dia of lateral
3.7cm
3.7
(Which is less than 60, and hence O.K)
Now let us assume that the rate of washing of the filter be 45cm rise/minute or 0.45m/minute
0.45 5.2 3.4

The wash water discharge =
60
0.133m3 / sec
Velocity of flow in the lateral for wash water
0.133
3.7 2
70

4 100
0.133
0.07526
1.77 m / sec
Similarly, velocity of flow in the manifold
Discharge
Area
0.133
(0.452 )
4
0.133
0.159
0.84m / sec Which is less than 1.8 to 2.4m/sec maxm permissible .Hence ok
4) Design a rapid sand gravity filter to treat 30MLD of water. Assuming 1 hour B required for back
washing 25 allowances is given for wash water.
Solution:
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Discharge = 30MLD
= 30 106 litr / day
30 103 m3 / day
1250 m3 / hr.
Assuming the rate of filtration between 3000-6000 lit/hr/ m 2
Assume 48 m / hr / m
Given that 2% allowance for wash water.
The amount of water required for back washing

= 2% of 1250
= 25 m3 /hr
Since we filter is working for 23houra (because 1 hr B required for back washing). Therefore the amount
of water to be treated in 1hr.
24
1330.43 m3 / hr
23
Amount of water to be treated
Total area of filter required =
Rate of filtration
(1250 25)1275
1330.43
4.8
277.17m 2
No.of filter beds required = N =
Q
4.69
1330.43
4.69
7.77
Say N 8 Nos
Provide one more unit as stand by

Total No. of units = 9 units
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277.17
Area of each unit =
8
34.65m 2
The length t6o width ratio of a filter bed lies between 1.1 to 1.7
Assuming a convenient ratio of 1.4
L * B = 34.65
1.4B = 34.65
34.65
1.4
B 4.97 m
B2
Say B 5m
L 1.4 5 7 m
Provide 8 units of filter size 7m * 5m
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UNIT 6 - DISINFECTION
It is the process of making water sterile by killing bacterias present in it.
Suitability of the disinfectant
The disinfectant should be effective in killing the micro organisms potentially present in water
with in available contact time, the range of water temperature encountered concentrations etc.
The disinfectant should be readily available at reasonable cost.
It should be safe to handle and its method of application is simple.
It should not render the water toxic, unpalatable or objectionable.
It should have ability to persist in residual concentration as a safeguard against recontamination.
METHODS OF DISINFECTION
i.
ii.
Physical methods
Chemical methods
Physical methods include by heating : boiling of water.

By light: sunlight as a natural source of disinfectant.
Chemical methods of disinfection include oxidizing chemicals such as halogens, ozone and other
oxidants such as potassium permanganate and hydrogen peroxide.
1.Metal ions: such as silver and copper ions. Disinfection in with silver ions is generally done in
low concentrations as low as 15 parts per billion. Hence the process is very slow.
2.Alkalis and acids: It is well known that pathogenic bacteria do not last long in highly alkaline
or highly acidic.
3.Surface active chemicals; Among surfactants the cationic detergents are weakly destructive.
MINOR METHODS OF DISINFECTION

1.Boiling method
2. Excess lime treatment
3. Silver treatment
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4. Ultra violet ray treatment

5. Potassium permanganate treatment
Chlorination
The use of chlorine has become practically universal in the disinfection of water.
Chlorine gas was presumably discovered in the thirteenth century. Chlorine (Cl2) was first
prepared in pure form by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1774. Scheele heated
brown stone (manganese dioxide; MnO2) with hydrochloric acid (HCl). When these substances
are heated the bonds are broken, causing manganese chloride (MnCl2), water(H2O) and chlorine
gas (Cl2) to form.
Reaction meganism:
MnO2 + 4HCl -> MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
Figure 1: Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered chlorine in 1774

Scheele discovered that chlorine gas was water-soluble and that it could be used to bleach paper,
vegetables and flowers. It also reacted with metals and metal oxides. In 1810 sir Humphry Davy,
an English chemist who tested fundamental reations of chlorine gas, discovered that the gas
Scheele found must be an element, given that the gas was inseperable. He named the gas
chlorine (Cl), after the Greek word chloros, which means yellow-greenish and refers to the
color of chlorine gas (White, 1999. Watt, 2002)
Chlorine can be found on many different locations all over the world. Chlorine is always found
in compounds, because it is a very reactive element. Chlorine can usually be found bond
to sodium (Na), or in kitchen salt (sodium chloride; NaCl). Most chlorine can be found dissolved
in seas and salty lakes. Large quantities of chlorine can be found in the ground as rock salts or
halite.
The properties of chlorine
Chlorine (Cl2) is one of the most reactive elements; it easily binds to other elements. In
the periodic chart chlorine can be found among the halogens. Other halogens
are fluorine (F), bromine (Br), iodene (I) and astatine (At). All halogens react with other
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elements in the same way and can form a large quantity of substances. Halogens often react with
metals to form soluble salts.
Chlorine atoms contain 17 negative electrons (negatively charged particles). These move around
the heavy core of the atom in three shells. Within the inner shell there are two electrons, within
the middle shell there are eight and within the outer shell there are seven. In the outer shell there
is space left for another electron. This causes free, charged atoms, called ions, to form. It can also
cause an extra eletron to form (a covalent bond; a chlorine bond), causing the outer shell to
complete.
Figure 2: chlorine atoms contain 17 electrons

Chlorine can form very stable substances, such as kitchen salt (NaCl). Chlorine can also form
very reactive products, such as hydrogen chloride (HCl). When hydrogen chloride dissolves in
water it becomes hydrochloric acid. The hydrogen atom gives off one electron to the chlorine
atom, causing hydrogen and chlorine ions to form. These ions react with any kind of substance
they come in contact with, even metals that are corrosion resistant under normal circumstances.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid can even corrode stainless steel. This is why it is stored either in
glass or in plastic.
Chlorine is a very reactive and corrosive gas. When it is transported, stored or used, safety
precautions must be taken. In Holland for example, chlorine is transported in separate chlorine
trains.
Watery chlorine should be protected from sunlight. Chlorine is broken down under the influence
of sunlight. UV radiation in sunlight provides energy which aids the break-down of underchloric
acid (HOCl) molecules. First, the water molecule (H2O) is broken down, causing electrons to be
released which reduce the chlorine atom of underchloric acid to chloride (Cl-). During this
reaction an oxygen atom is released, which will be converted into an oxygen molecule:
2HOCl -> 2H+ + 2Cl- + O2
Chlorine is produced from chlorine bonds by means of electrolytic or chemical oxidation. This is
often attained by electrolysis of seawater or rock salt. The salts are dissolved in water, forming
brine. Brine can conduct a powerful direct current in an electolytic cell. Because of this current
chlorine ions (which originate from salt dissolving in water) are transformed to chlorine atoms.
Salt and water are divided up in sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrogen gas (H2) on the
cathode and chlorine gas on the anode. These cathode and anode products should be separated,
because hydrogen gas reacts with chlorine gas very agressively.
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To produce chlorine, three different electrolysis methods are used.

1. The diaphragm cell-method, which prevents products to mix or react by means of a
diaphragm. The electrolysis barrel contains a positive pole, made of titanium and a negative pole,
made of steel. The electrodes are separated by a so-called diaphragm, which is a wall that only
lets fluids flow through, causing gasses that form during a reaction to be separated. The
application of the countercurrent principle prevents hydroxide ions from reaching the positive
pole. However, chlorine ions can pass through the diaphragm, causing the sodium hydroxide to
become slightly polluted with chlorine. This causes the following reactions to take place:
+ pole : 2Cl- -> Cl2 + 2e- pole : 2 H2O + 2 e- -> 2OH- + H2
2. The mercury cell-methode uses one mercury electrode, causing the reaction products to be
purer than those of the diaphragm cell-methode. With this method an electrolysis barrel is used
which contains a positive titanium pole and a negative flowing mercury pole. On the negative
pole a reaction with sodium (Na+) takes place, causing sodium amalgams to be formed. When
the amalgams flow through a second reaction barrel, sodium reacts with water to sodium
hydroxide and hydrogen. This causes the hydrogen gas to remain separated from the chlorine
gas, which is formed on the positive pole.
Within the electrolysis barrel the following reactions take place:
+ pole : 2 Cl- -> Cl2 + 2e- pole : Na+ + e- -> Na
second reaction barrel: 2Na + 2H2O -> 2 Na+ + 2OH- + H2
3. The membrane-method resembles the diaphragm method. The only difference is that the
membrane only allows positive ions to pass, causing a relatively pure form of sodium hydroxide
to form.
During the mercury electrolysis process a solution containing 50 mass-% of sodium hydroxide is
formed. However, during the membrane and diaphragm processes the solution must be
evaporated using steam.
Sixty percent of the European chlorine production takes place by means of mercury
electrolysis,whereass 20% takes place in the diaphragm process and 20% takes place in the
membrane process.
Chlorine can also be produced by means of hydrogen chloride oxidation with oxygen from
air. Copper(II)chloride (CuCl2) is used as a cathalyser during this so-called Deaconprocess:
4HCl + O2 -> 2H2O + 2Cl2
Finally, chlorine can be produced by means of molten salts electrolysis and, mainly in
laboratories, by means of hydrochloric acid and manganese dioxide oxidation:
MnO2 + 4HCl -> MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
When gaseous chlorine is added to water the following hydrolysis reaction takes place:
Cl2 + H2O = H+ + Cl- + HOCl
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Chlorine applications
Chlorine is applied on a massive scale. Chlorine is a very reactive element, causing it to quickly
form compounds with other substances. Chlorine also has the ability to develop a bond between
two substances that do not normally react with one another. When chlorine bonds to a substance
that contains carbon atoms, organic substances are formed. Examples are plastic, solvents and
oils, but also several human body fluids. When chlorine chemically binds to other elements, it
often replaces a hydrogen atom during a so-called substitution reaction. Multiple hydrogen atoms
in the same molecule can be replaced by chlorine atoms, causing new substances to form one
after another.
Chlorine plays an important role in medical science. It is not only used as a disinfectant, but it is
also a constituent of various medicines. The majority of our medicines contain chlorine or are
developed using chlorine-containing byproducts. Medical herbs also contain chlorine. The first
anaesthetic used during surgery was chloroform (CHCl3).
The chemical industry creates ten thousands of chlorine products using a small number of
chlorine containing chemicals. Emaples of products which contain chlorine are glue, paints,
solvents, foam rubbers, car bumpers, food additives, pesticides and antifreeze. One of the most
commonly used chlorine-containing substances is PVC (poly vinyl chloride). PVC is widely
used, for example in drainpipes, insulation wires, floors, windows, bottles and waterproof
clothes.
Figure 3: products containing chlorine

Chlorine-based bleach is applied as a disinfectant on a large scale. The substances are also used
to bleach paper. Bleaching occurs as a result of chlorine or hypochlorite oxidation.
About 65% of industrialized chlorine is used to produce organic chemicals, such as plastics.
About 20% is used to produce bleach and disinfectants. The remaining chlorine is used to
produce inorganic compounds from chlorine and several different elements, such
as zinc (Zn), iron (Fe) and titanium (Ti).
Chlorine as a disinfectant
Chlorine is one of the most widely used disinfectants. It is very applicable and very effective for
the deactivation of pathogenic microorganisms. Chlorine can be easily applied, measures and
controlled. Is is fairly persistent and relatively cheap.
Chlorine has been used for applications, such as the deactivation of pathogens in drinking
water, swimming pool water and wastewater, for the disinfection of household areas and for
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textile bleaching, for more than two hundred years. When chlorine was discovered we did not
now that disease was caused by microorganisms. In the nineteenth century doctors and scientists
discovered that many diseases are contagious and that the spread of disease can be prevented by
the disinfection of hospital areas. Very soon afterward, we started experimenting with chlorine as
a disinfectant. In 1835 doctor and writer Oliver Wendel Holmes advised midwifes to wash their
hands in calcium hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2-4H2O) to prevent a spread of midwifes fever.
However, we only started using disinfectants on a wider scale in the nineteenth century, after
Louis Pasteur discovered that microorganisms spread certain diseases.
Chlorine has played an important role in lengthening the life-expectancy of humans.
For more information about pathogens in aquatic systems, please take a look at pathogens in
freshwater ecosystems
Chlorine as a bleach
Surfaces can be disinfected by bleaching. Bleach consists of chlorine gas dissolved in an alkalisolution, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH). When chlorine is dissolved in an alkalic solution,
hypochlorite ions (OCl-) are formed during an autoredox reaction. Chlorine reacts with sodium
hydroxide to sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). This is a very good disinfectant with a stable effect.
Bleach cannot be combined with acids. When bleach comes in contact with acids the
hypochlorite becomes instable, causing poisonous chlorine gas to escape. The accompanying
underchloric acid is not very stable.
Figure 4: chlorine is often used as a bleach

Bleaching powder (CaOCl2) can also be used. This is produced by directing chlorine
through calcium hydroxide (CaOH). The benefit of bleaching powder is that it is a solid. This
makes it easier to apply as a disinfectant in medical areas, next to its use as a bleach. When
bleaching powder dissolves, it reacts with water to underchloric acid (HOCl) and hypochlorite
ions (OCl-).
Chlorine disinfection Chlorine kills pathogens such as bacteria and viruses by breaking the
chemical bonds in their molecules. Disinfectants that are used for this purpose consist of chlorine
compounds which can exchange atoms with other compounds, such as enzymes in bacteria and
other cells. When enzymes come in contact with chlorine, one or more of the hydrogen atoms in
the molecule are replaced by chlorine. This causes the entire molecule to change shape or fall
apart. When enzymes do not function properly, a cell or bacterium will die.
When chlorine is added to water, underchloric acids form:
Cl2 + H2O ->HOCl + H+ + ClDepartment of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology
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Depending on the pH value, underchloric acid partly expires to hypochlorite ions:

Cl2 + 2H2O ->HOCl + H3O + ClHOCl + H2O -> H3O+ + OClThis falls apart to chlorine and oxygen atoms:
OCl- ->Cl- + O
Underchloric acid (HOCl, which is electrically neutral) and hypochlorite ions (OCl-, electrically
negative) will form free chlorine when bound together. This results in disinfection. Both
substances have very distinctive behaviour. Underchloric acid is more reactive and is a stronger
disinfectant than hypochlorite. Underchloric acid is split into hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
atomair oxygen (O). The oxygen atom is a powerful disinfectant.
The disinfecting properties of chlorine in water are based on the oxidising power of the free
oxygen atoms and on chlorine substitution reactions.
Figure 5: the neutral underchloric acid can better penetrate cell walls of pathogenic
microorganisms that the negatively charged hypochlorite ion
The cell wall of pathogenic microorganisms is negatively charged by nature. As such, it can be
penetrated by the neutral underchloric acid, rather than by the negatively charged hypochlorite
ion. Underchloric acid can penetrate slime layers, cell walls and protective layers of
microorganisms and effectively kills pathogens as a result. The microorganisms will either die or
suffer from reproductive failure.
The effectivity of disinfection is determined by the pH of the water. disinfection with chlorine
will take place optimally when the pH is between 5,5 and 7,5. underchloric acid (HOCl) reacts
faster than hypochlorite ions (OCl-); it is 80-100% more effective. The level of underchloric acid
will decrease when the pH value is higher. With a pH value of 6 the level of underchloric acid is
80%, whereass the concentration of hypochlorite ions is 20%. When the pH value is 8, this is the
other way around.
When the pH value is 7,5, concentrations of underchloric acid and hypochlorite ions are equally
high.
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Underchloric acid (left) : hypochlorite ions (right)

When chlorine is added to water for disinfection purposes, it usually starts reacting with
dissolved organic and inorganic compounds in the water. Chlorine can no longer be used for
disinfection after that, because is has formed other products. The amount of chlorine that is used
during this process is referred to as the 'chlorine enquiry' of the water.
Chlorine can react with ammonia (NH3) to chloramines, chemical compounds which contain
chlorine, nitrogen (N) and hydrogen (H). These compounds are referred to as 'active chlorine
compounds' (contrary to underchloric acid and hypochlorite, which are referred to as 'free active
chlorine') and are responsible for water disinfection. However, these compounds react much
more slowly than free active chlorine.
When dosing chlorine one has to take into account that chlorine reacts with compounds in the
water. The dose has to be high enough for a significant amount of chlorine to remain in the water
for disinfection. Chlorine enquiry is determined by the amount of organic matter in the water, the
pH of the water, contact time and temperature. Chlorine reacts with organic matter to
disinfection byproducts, such as trihalomethanes (THM) and halogenated acetic acids (HAA).
Chlorine can be added for disinfection in several different ways. When ordinary chlorination is
applied, the chlorine is simply added to the water and no prior treatment is necessary. Pre- and
postchlorination means adding chlorine to water prior to and after other treatment steps.
Rechlorination means the addition of chlorine to treated water in one or more points of the
distribution system in order to preserve disinfection.
Breakpoint chlorination consists of a continual addition of chlorine to the water upto the point
where the chlorine enquiry is met and all present ammonia is oxidized, so that only free chlorine
remains. This is usually applied for disinfection, but it also has other benefits, such as smell and
taste control. In order to reach the breakpoint, a superchlorination is applied. To achieve this, one
uses chlorine concentrations which largely exceed the 1 mg/L concentration required for
disinfection.
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Chlorine gas can be obtained as fluid gas in 10 bar pressure vessels. It is highly water soluble (3
L chlorine/ 1 L water). To kill bacteria little chlorine is required; about 0,2-0,4 mg/L. the
concentrations of chlorine added to the water are usually higher, because of the chlorine enquiry
of the water.
Nowadays chlorine gas is only used for large municipal and industrial water purification
installations. For smaller applications one usually ads calcium or sodium hypochlorite.
Factors which determine chlorine disinfection effectively:
Chlorine concentrations, contact time, temperature, pH, number and types of microorganisms,
concentrations of organic matter in the water.
Table 1: disinfection time for several different types of pathogenic microorganisms with
chlorinated water, containing a chlorine concentration of 1 mg/L (1 ppm) when pH = 7,5 and T
= 25 C
The reaction of the human body to chlorine depends on the concentration of chlorine present in
air, and on the duration and frequency of exposure. Effects also depend on the health of an
individual and the environmental conditions during exposure.
When small amounts of chlorine are breathed in during short time periods, this can affect the
respirational system. Effects vary from coughing and chest pains, to fluid accumulation in the
lungs. Chlorine can also cause skin and eye irritations. These effects do not take place under
natural conditions. When chlorine enters the body it is not very persistent, because of its
reactivity.
Pure chlorine is very toxic, even small amounts can be deadly. During World War I chlorine gas
was used on a large scale to hurt or kill enemy soldiers. The Germans were the first to use
chlorine gas against their enemies.
Chlorine is much denser than air, causing it to form a toxic fume above the soil. Chlorine gas
affects the mucous membrane (nose, throat, eyes). Chlorine is toxic to mucous membranes
because it dissolves them, causing the chlorine gas to end up in the blood vessels. When chlorine
gas is breathed in the lungs fill up with fluid, causing a person to sort of drown.
Forms of application of chlorine
1.
2.
3.
4.
Bleaching powder or hypochlorite

Chloramines
Free chlorine gas
Chlorine dioxide
Bleaching powder or calcium hypochloric is a chlorinated lime . It is not stable and loses
its strength during storage or exposure of air. It is therefore used only on small
installations or under emergency conditions. The process of chlorination with
hypochlorites is known as hypochlorination.
Hypochlorites are applied to water as a solution by means of hypochlorites feeding
apparatus.
The dose of the solution is adjusted by means of an adjustable punch clamp.
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Ultraviolet Radiation (UV) treatment of swimming pool water

The disinfectant ability of radiation from the ultraviolet section of the electromagnetic
spectrum is well established. UV treatment has been used in drinking water, industrial and
effluent applications.
The primary action of UV is to kill bacteria, viruses, moulds and spores, thus reducing the risk of
transmission of stomach, skin and respiratory tract infections to pool users. UV has an important
secondary action: it initiates photochemical and photo-oxidation reactions which destroy
chloramines. This is particularly important in leisure pools where features such as water slides
and waves give a greater surface area for the release of chloramines into the air. UV reduces the
burden, making the atmosphere safer and more pleasant.
The limiting factor tends to be the water clarity, as dissolved and suspended material inhibits UV
penetration. Filtration will remove some of these solids from swimming pool water; but to
optimise the effectiveness of the UV it is important that the full flow of water returning to the
pool is exposed to the ultraviolet radiation. This will ensure the pool water is treated on a regular
and continuous basis. An automatic wiper removes solids that settle onto the quartz thimble
around the UV arc tube.
A chlorine or bromine based disinfectant must be used in conjunction with UV systems to
maintain a disinfectant residual in the pool. UV radiation inactivates bacteria and helps break
down chloramines and other pollutants.
Water Softening
Soda lime is a process used in water treatment to remove Hardness from water. This process is
now obsolete but was very useful for the treatment of large volumes of hard water. Addition of
lime (CaO) and soda (Na2CO3) to the hard water precipitates calcium as the carbonate, and
magnesium as its hydroxide. The amounts of the two chemicals required are easily calculated
from the analysis of the water and stoichiometry of the reactions. The limesoda uses lime, Ca
(OH)2 and soda ash, Na2CO3, to precipitate hardness from solution.
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Soda lime water softening process
Carbon dioxide and carbonate hardness (calcium and Magnesium bicarbonate) are complexed by
lime. In this process Calcium and Magnesium ions are precipitated by the addition of lime
(Ca(OH)2) and soda ash (Na2CO3).
Following
are
the
reactions
that
takes
place
in
this
process:
As slacked lime is added to a water, it will react with any carbon dioxide present as follows:
Ca(OH)2+CO2CaCO3 +H2O....(1)
The lime will react with carbonate hardness as follows:
Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 2CaCO3 +2H2O.....(2)
Ca(OH)2 + Mg(HCO3 )2 MgCO3 + CaCO3 +2H2O.....(3)
The product magnesium carbonate in equation 3 is soluble. To remove it, more lime is added:
Ca(OH)2 + MgCO3 CaCO3 +Mg(OH)2 .....(4)
Also, magnesium non-carbonate hardness, such as magnesium sulfate, is removed:
Ca(OH)2 + MgSO4 CaSO4 + Mg(OH)2 .....(5)
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Lime addition removes only magnesium hardness and calcium carbonate hardness. In equation 5
magnesium is precipitated, however, an equivalent amount of calcium is added. The water now contains
the original calcium non-carbonate hardness and the calcium non-carbonate hardness produced in
equation 5. Soda ash is added to remove calcium non-carbonate hardness:
Na2CO3 + CaSO4 Na2SO4 + CaCO3 .....(6)
To precipitate CaCO3 requires a pH of about 9.5; and to precipitate Mg(OH)2 requires a pH of about
10.8, therefore, an excess lime of about 1.25 meq/l is required to raise the pH.
The amount of lime required: lime (meq/l) = carbon dioxide (meq/l) + carbonate hardness (meq/l) +
magnesium ion (meq/l) + 1.25 (meq/l)
The amount of soda ash required: soda ash (meq/l) = non-carbonate hardness (meq/l)
After softening, the water will have high pH and contain the excess lime and the magnesium hydroxide
and the calcium carbonate that did not precipitate. Recarbonation (adding carbon dioxide) is used to
stabilize the water. The excess lime and magnesium hydroxide are stabilized by adding carbon dioxide,
which also reduces pH from 10.8 to 9.5 as the following:
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 +H2O
CO2 + Mg(OH)2 MgCO3 + H2O
Further recarbonation, will bring the pH to about 8.5 and stabilize the calcium carbonate as the following:
CO2 + CaCO3 + H2OCa(HCO3)2
It is not possible to remove all of the hardness from water. In actual practice, about 50 to 80 mg/l will
remain as a residual hardness.
Limitation of Soda Lime Process:

Lime soda softening cannot produce a water at completely free of hardness because of the solubility
(little) of CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2. Thus the minimum calcium hardness can be achieved is about 30 mg/L
as CaCO3, and the magnesium hardness is about 10 mg/L as CaCO3. We normally tolerate a final total
hardness on the order of 75 to 120 mg/L as CaCO3, but the magnesium content should not exceed 40
mg/L as CaCO3 (because a greater hardness of magnesium forms scales on heat exchange elements).
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Zeolite process
Some materials that are insoluble in water, called 'Zeolites', have the property of combining with certain
harmful ions in a solution and, at the same time producing other harmless ions. Zeolites are referred to as
'Ion Exchange Resins' and are complex compounds of sodium, aluminium, silicon and oxygen.
When water containing Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ ions, is passed through Zeolite beds, these ions are picked up by
the Zeolite which then replaces them with harmless sodium ions Na+ . If we represent the Zeolite as a
letter 'Z', the equation can be shown as follows: Ca (2+) + Na2Z ===>CaZ + 2(Na+)
This indicates that the calcium ions have come out of solution and are replaced by sodium ions in the
solution.
This process is called 'Water Softening by Ion Exchange' as follows: Hard water Containing 'Ca' and 'Mg' ions ===> Water treatment plant Containing Sodium Zeolite beds
which attract the Ca& Mg ions ===> Treated (softened) water Containing harmless 'Na' ions
When the Zeolite is 'saturated', (all Na ions used up), it is regenerated by passing a concentrated salt
(NaCl) solution through the Zeolite bed. This forces the Ca and Mg ions out of the Zeolite back into the
water and replaces them with sodium. The solution containing the Ca and Mg is disposed of.
The sodium salts remaining in the treated water are harmless and will not form deposits of scale.
Reverse Osmosis
A technique used in processes requiring high-quality, purified water, such in semiconductor
processing or biochemical applications, is reverse osmosis. It can be used to treat boiler feedwater,
industrial wastewater, or process water. Reverse Osmosis is a water purification technique that reduces
the quantity of dissolved solids in solution (Kucera, 54). It was first developed in the 1950's by the US
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government to provide fresh drinking water for the Navy, and since then, advances have made it much
more feasible for obtaining purified water from wastewaters produced in many industrial applications. RO
uses waterline pressure to push raw wastewater against a special semipermeable membrane. It is
essentially a molecular squeezing process which causes H2O molecules to separate from the
contaminants. The separated water molecules then pass thru to the inside of the membrane on to a holding
reservoir. The contaminants are washed from the membrane and disposed of. Recently, RO has been used
in treating boiler feedwater, in addition to industrial and process wastewaters. Boilers are found
throughout the chemical processing industry and the primary method to treat boiler wastewater is an ionexchange based demineralization. However, RO has been demonstrated to be more cost effective than this
demineralization process
Problems With Reverse Osmosis:
It is necessary to establish feedwater quality guidelines to optimize system performance and prevent
the three main problems associated with RO: scaling, fouling, and degradation of ROmembranes These
problems tend to decrease system productivity because they reduce wastewater purity. Scaling occurs on
RO membranes when the concentration of scale-forming species exceeds saturation, producing additional
solids within the RO feedwater. Scalants include such chemical species as calcium carbonate, calcium
sulfate, barium sulfate, strontium sulfate, and reactive silic). Since these species have very low
solubilities, they are difficult to remove from RO membranes. Scaling decreases the effectiveness of the
membranes in reducing the solids and causes more frequent cleanings. A scale on a membrane provides
nucleation sites that increase the rate of formation of additional scale
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UNIT7 MISCELLANEOUS TREATMENTS

Removal of colour, odour and taste
The water to be supplied in the public water supply scheme should be free from odour, colour&
taste. The objectionable taste and odours may be due to the following
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Organic and vegetable matter.

Industrial waste and domestic sewage.
Dissolved gases
Dissolved mineral matter
Micro organisms such as moulds, iron and sulphur bacteria.
The different methods that can be adopted for the removal of colour, odour and taste are
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Coagulation followed by filtration

Prechlorination
Superchlorination
Chloramines treatment
Use of chlorine dioxide
Ozonation
Removal of iron and manganese
Other special methods are

1. Treatment by activated carbon.
2. Use of copper sulphate.
Use of copper sulphate

Copper sulphate is generally available in powder form or in crystals form. It may be applied
either directly in the distribution pipes or in open reservoirs. The dose may vary from 0.3 to 0.6
p.p.m. For its application to the reservoirs, it is ground in fine powder and sprinkled on the water
surface .The amount of copper sulphate necessary to kill various algae may be troublesome
because of taste and odours will be temporarily increased. Hence smaller amounts are often
successful as prophhylatic doses to prevent trouble.
Chemical and physical adsorption
Adsorption is a fundamental process in the physicochemical treatment of municipal wastewaters,
a treatment which can economically meet today's higher effluent standards and water reuse
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requirements. Activated carbon isthe most effective adsorbent for this application. Expanded-bed
contact systems permit most efficient use of granular carbon for waste treatment. The adsorption
process is enhanced by in-situ partial regeneration effectedby biological growth on the surfaces
of the carbon. Physicochemical systems using adsorption with activated carbon consistently
produce high levels of treatment and have a high degree of stability and reliability. Advantages
overbiological treatment systems include: lower land area requirements: lower sensitivity to
diurnal flow and concentration variations and to toxic substances: potential for significant heavy
metal removal; greater flexibility in designand operation; and, superior removal of organic
wastes.
Chemical adsorption (chemisorption)analysis techniques provide much of the information
necessary to evaluate catalystmaterials in the design and production phases,as well as after a
period of use.Although a catalyst and the reactants andproducts can be of many forms, this
article onlywill address solid catalysts and gas or vaporreactants and products.
A distinctive characteristic of a solid material is a distribution of weak surface energysites. Gas
or vapor molecules can become bound to these sites. This generally describesthe adsorption
phenomenon.The quantity of molecules taken up by thesurface depends on several conditions
andsurface features including temperature,pressure, surface energy distribution, and thesurface
area of the solid. A plot of the quantityof molecules adsorbed versus pressure at
constant temperature is called the adsorptionisotherm.
Physical adsorption is the result of relativelyweak Van der Waal's interaction forces betweenthe
solid surface and the adsorbate- a physicalattraction. Physical adsorption is easilyreversed.
Flouridation
It has been found that a fluoride concentration of 0.7 to 1.2 p.p.m in water is beneficial for the
Prevention of dental caries in children. The allowable level of the fluoride is determined by the
annual average of the maximum daily air temperature.
Higher levels of fluoride have responsible for mottling of teeth. However in areas where water is
of low fluoride content, dental caries is high.
The fluoride compounds that are adopted in fluoridation as sodium
fluoride,sodiumsilicofluride and hypoflusilic acid.
The application of fluorides in water may be either in water may be either in powder form or in
solution form. However in solution form is preferred. In powder form sodium fluoride or sodium
fluosilicate is toxic and must be contained in dust tight hoppers and containers.
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Defluoridation
Excess concentrations of fluoride causes dental flurosis,when the concentrations is morethan 1
to1.5ppm. it should be removed from water. The process of removing fluoride concentration of
water is known as defluoridation.
The principal methods of defluoridation are
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Calcium sulphates
Bone charcoal
Synthetic tri- calcium phosphate
Flourex
Ion-Exchanger
Lime
Aluminium compounds
Activated carbon
Distribution systems
Thedistribution system consists of network of pipes with appurtenances, for transporting water
from purification plant to the consumers tap.
A good distribution systems should satisfy the following requirements.
1. The systems should be capable of supplying water at consumers tap at reasonable pressure
head.
2.It should meet the fire demand simultaneously
3.It should be easy to operate and maintain
Methods of distribution system
1. Gravity system.
2. Combined gravity and pumping systems
3. Pumping system.
Systems of water supply.
1. Continuous systems
In the continuous water is available to the consumers for all the 24 hours of a day.In this
system water is not stagnant any point of time and fresh water is available.
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2. Intermittent systems
In this system water is supplied to the consumers only during some fixed hours of the
day. This method is adopted when there is less pressure and insufficient quantity of
water.
Service reservoir
Clear water storage reservoirs are required for storage of filtered water until it is pumped in to
the service reservoir or distribution reservoirs. They are to meet the widely fluctuating demands
often imposed on a distribution system,to provide storage for fire fighting and emergencies and
to equalize They serve the following purposes
1.They absorb the hourly variation in demand.
2. If pumps are used, the provision of reservoirs makes it possible to run the pumps at uniform
rate.
3.Their provision results in an overall reduction in the sizes of pumps, pipes and treatment units.
4.They serve as storage for emergencies such as outbreak of fire, failure of pumps or bursting of
mains.
Capacity of distribution reservoir
The storage capacity of the distribution reservoir is based on the following three requirements
i.
ii.
iii.
Balancing or equalizing reserve.

Breakdown reserve
Fire reserve
Layout of distribution systems

There are four principal methods of laying our distribution systems
1.
2.
3.
4.
Dead end or tree systems

Grid iron system or reticulation systems
Circular systems or ring system
Radial systems.
Dead end or tree systems: In this system, one main pipe line runs through the centre of the
populated area and sub mains taken off from this to both sides. There are no cross connections
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between the branches and sub mines. Due to several dead ends there is accumulation of sediment
there and stagnation of water. However the flow rate in each pipe is easily known due to which
the pipe diameters can be found.
Grid iron or reticulation systems: If the dead ends of the previous systems are interconnected,
water can be made to circulate continuously through the whole of the distribution systems. This
systems is there also known as the interlaced systems. The branch lines interconnect all the
submains. The systems is ideal for cities laid out on rectangular plan resembling a grid-iron.
Circular systems or ring system: In this systems, the supply main forms a ring around the
distribution district. The branches are connected cross wise to the mains and also to each
other.The systems is most suitable for the town or area having well planned streets and roads.The
systems possesses the same advantage and disadvantage as those of grid iron systems.
Radial system: This systems is just the reverse of the circular system. In this systems the whole
area is divided in to a number of distribution districts, Each district has a centrally located
distribution reservoir from where distribution pipes run radially towards the periphery of the
distribution district. This system gives quick service without much loss of head.
Design of distribution system
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Surveys and maps

Tentative layout
Discharge in pipe line
Calculation of pipe diameter
Computation of pressures
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UNIT 8 - MISCELLANEOUS
Pipe appurtenances
Pipe is a circular closed conduit through which the water may flow either under gravity or under
pressure. Pipes are made of
1. Cast iron
2. Wrought iron
3. Steel
4. Galvanized iron
5. Cement concrete
6. Asbestos cement
7. Plastic
8. Lead
9. Copper
10. Wood.
Cast iron pipes: they are used in great majority of water distribution mains. Cast iron pipes are
manufactured by two methods (1) Ordinary sand moulding (2) Centrifugal process.
Wrought iron: they are manufactured by rolling flat plates of the wrought iron to the proper
diameter and welding the edges.Such pipes are much lighter than the CI pipes& can be more
easily cut, thread and worked.
Steel pipes: It can be made from solid but large sizes are made by riveting or welding together
the edges suitably curved plates, sockets being formed later in pres. The joints may be either
transverse and longitudinal or transverse and spiral.
Cement pipes: Cement concrete pipes may be either in plain or reinforced, and are best made by
spinning process. They are either precast or may be prepared at the sites. Water tightness of high
pressure concrete pipe may be obtained by insertion of a thin steel cylinder in the pipe walls
either with or without prestressed reinforcement.
Asbestos cement pipes: They are manufactured fiber and Portland cement combined under
pressure to form a dense homogeneous structure having strong bond between cement and the
fibre. Such a pipe is considered to be impervious.
Copper and lead pipes: Copper pipes are very costly and their use is restricted for conveyance of
hot water in the interior of buildings and for making gooseneck in the service connections.
Wood pipes: They are prepared of staves or planks of wood held together by steel bands. They
have been used for many years for water supply pipes, though they were replaced due to lack of
capacity.
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Pipe appurtenances
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sluice valve
Air valve
Reflux valve
Altitude valves
Scour valve
Sluice valve: They are extensively used in the distribution systems to shut off the supplies
whenever desired. They are helpful in dividing water mains into suitable sections. They are
also placed at street corners or where two pipe lines meet or intersect. The possess the
advantage over most other types of valves of combing relatively low cost and offering almost
no resist
Air relief : The water flowing through the pipe lines always contain some air. This air tries to
accumulate at high points and may interfere with the flow. Air relief valves are therefore
provided at the summits along the water pipe to provide an exit for such accumulated.
Reflux valves: Reflux valves are also known as check valves or non return valves. It is an
automatic device which allows water to flow in one direction only. They are placed in water
pipes which obtain water directly from the pumps. When the pump is stopped the water in
the pipe line does not rush back and damage the pump
Altitude valves: They are mainly used on those lines which supply water to elevated
tanks or stand pipes. They are close automatically when the tank is full and open when the
pressure in the pump side is less than that on the tank side of the valve.
Scour valve They are also called as blow of valve or washout valves are ordinary sluice
valve hat are located either at the dead ends or at lowest points in the mains. They are provided
to blow off or remove the sand and silt deposited in the pipe line, They are operated manually.
Fire Hydrants are an integral part of private fireline construction and public water pipeline main
systems. Fire hydrants are basically outlets that release large quantities of pressurized water to
extinguish fires. Public fire hydrants are typically supplied by municipal potable water pipeline
mains; whereas private fire hydrants are typically located behind a detector check and
specifically only used for fire suppression and is not typically drinking water.
Public fire hydrants are usually designed and spaced to be installed in a new construction setting
approximately every 500 ft. They are usually located along a street, in the sidewalk at a certain
distance away from the curb. Each public fire hydrant typically includes a gate valve on the
branch off the municipal water pipeline supply.
Fire hydrant outlet sizes and number of outlets are determined by local zoning requirements and
local fire department codes. Fire hydrants are designed with an operating valve for each outlet.
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Outlets can range in size from 2 to 4 inches in diameter. Outlets range from two to three
outlets, in most cases.
As mentioned, private fire hydrants are located behind a check valve. These fire hydrants are
used specifically for fire suppression and are typically connected to a system that feeds a
building's fire sprinkler system. Their location and quantity vary depending on what type of
structure or property they are servicing.
There are generally two types of fire hydrants used in most instances. Whether serving public or
private systems, they are either wet barrel or dry barrel fire hydrants. Wet barrel fire hydrants are
pressurized up to their outlets and each outlet can be operated individually. Dry barrel fire
hydrants are not pressurized up to their outlets. Instead, there is only one internal valve, generally
located at the base of the fire hydrant bury, that when opened, will pressurize all outlets at the
same time.
Another difference between the two fire hydrant types is that the dry barrel, if struck or hit and
separated from the base, will allow the valve in most cases to close, thereby not allowing water
to be discharged. In contrast, wet barrel fire hydrants, if struck, do not have this feature. To
combat this, several municipalities have introduced the use of a break-off check valves located
just below the head of wet barrel fire hydrants.
Pipe fitting is the occupation of installing or repairing piping or tubing systems that convey
liquid, gas, and occasionally solid materials. This work involves selecting and preparing pipe or
tubing, joining it together by various means, and the location and repair of leaks.
.Fitters work with a variety of pipe and tubing materials including several types of steel, copper,
iron, aluminium, and plastic. Pipe fitting is not plumbing; the two are related but separate trades.
Pipe fitters who specialize in fire prevention are called Sprinklerfitters, another related, but
separate trade.
Materials, techniques, and usages vary from country to country as different nations have
different standards to install pipe.
Steel pipe
Steel pipe (or black iron pipe) was once the most popular choice for supply of water and
flammable gases. Steel pipe is still used in many homes and businesses to convey naturalgas or
propane fuel, and is a popular choice in fire sprinkler systems due to its high heat resistance. In
commercial buildings, steel pipe is used to convey heating or cooling water to heatexchangers,
air handlers, variableairvolume (VAV) devices, or other HVAC equipment.
Steel pipe is sometimes joined using threaded connections, where tapered threads (see
NationalPipeThread) are cut into the end of the tubing segment, sealant is applied in the form of
thread sealing compound or thread seal tape (also known as PTFE or Teflon tape), and it is then
threaded into a corresponding threaded fitting using a pipe wrench. Beyond domestic or light
commercial settings, steel pipe is often joined by welding, or by use of mechanical couplings
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made by companies such as Victaulic or Grinnell that hold the pipe joint together via a groove
pressed or cut (a rarely used older practice), into the ends of the pipes.
Other variations of steel pipe include various stainless steel and chrome alloys. In high-pressure
situations these are usually joined by TIG welding.
In Canada, with respect to natural gas (NG) and propane (LP gas), black iron pipe (BIP) is
commonly used to connect an appliance to the supply. It must however be marked (either painted
yellow or yellow banding attached at certain intervals) and certain restrictions apply to which
nominal pipe size (NPS) can be put through walls and buildings. With propane in particular, BIP
can be run from an exterior tank (or cylinder) provided it is well protected from the weather, and
an anode-type of protection from corrosion is in place when the pipe is to be installed
underground.
Copper pipe
Copper tubing is most often used for supply of hot and cold water, and as refrigerant line in
HVAC systems. There are two basic types of copper tubing, soft copper and rigid copper.
Copper tubing is joined using flare connection, compression connection, or solder. Copper offers
a high level of resistance to corrosion, but is becoming very costly.
Soft copper
Soft (or ductile) copper tubing can be bent easily to travel around obstacles in the path of the
tubing. While the work hardening of the drawing process used to size the tubing makes the
copper hard/rigid, it is carefully annealed to make it soft again; it is therefore more expensive to
produce than non-annealed, rigid copper tubing. It can be joined by any of the three methods
used for rigid copper, and it is the only type of copper tubing suitable for flare connections. Soft
copper is the most popular choice for refrigerant lines in split-system air conditioners and heat
pumps.
Flare connections
Flare connections require that the end of a tubing section be spread outward in a bell shape using
a flare tool. A flare nut then compresses this bell-shaped end onto a male fitting. Flare
connections are a labor intensive method of making connections, but are quite reliable over the
course of many years.
Rigid copper
Rigid copper is a popular choice for water lines. It is joined using a sweat, compression or
crimped/pressed connection. Rigid copper, rigid due to the work hardening of the drawing
process, cannot be bent and must use elbow fittings to go around corners or around obstacles. If
heated and allowed to slowly cool, called annealing, then rigid copper will become soft and can
be bent/formed without cracking.
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Soldered connections
Solder fittings are smooth, and easily slip onto the end of a tubing section. The joint is then
heated using a torch, and solder is melted into the connection. When the solder cools, it forms a
very strong bond which can last for decades. Solder-connected rigid copper is the most popular
choice for water supply lines in modern buildings. In situations where many connections must be
made at once (such as plumbing of a new building), solder offers much quicker and much less
expensive joinery than compression or flare fittings. The term sweating is sometimes used to
describe the process of soldering pipes.
Compression connections
Compression fittings use a soft metal or thermoplastic ring (the compression ring or "olive")
which is squeezed onto the pipe and into the fitting by a compression nut. The soft metal
conforms to the surface of the tubing and the fitting, and creates a seal. Compression connections
do not typically have the long life that sweat connections offer, but are advantageous in many
cases because they are easy to make using basic tools. A disadvantage in compression
connections is that they take longer to make than sweat, and sometimes require retightening over
time to stop leaks.
Crimped or pressed connections
Crimped or pressed connections use special copper fittings which are permanently attached to
rigid copper tubing with a powered crimper. The special fittings, manufactured with sealant
already inside, slide over the tubing to be connected. Thousands of pounds-force per square inch
of pressure are used to deform the fitting and compress the sealant against the inner copper
tubing, creating a water tight seal. The advantages of this method are that it should last as long as
the tubing, it takes less time to complete than other methods, it is cleaner in both appearance and
the materials used to make the connection, and no open flame is used during the connection
process. The disadvantages are that the fittings used are harder to find and cost significantly
more than sweat type fittings.
Aluminium pipe
Aluminium is sometimes used due to its low cost, resistance to corrosion and solvents, and its
ductility. Aluminium tube is more desirable than steel for the conveyance of flammable solvents,
since it cannot create sparks when manipulated. Aluminium tubing can be connected by flare or
compression fittings, or it can be welded by the TIG or heliarc processes.
Glass pipe
Tempered glass pipes are used for specialized applications, such as corrosive liquids, medical or
laboratory wastes, or pharmaceutical manufacturing. Connections are generally made using
specialized gasket or O-ring fittings.
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Environmental Engineering I

1. Human activities and environmental pollution.

1. Surface and subsurface sources

COLLECTION AND CONVEYANCE OF WATER:

Intake structures different types of intakes;

1. Objectives of water quality management.

Mechanism theory of filtration

1. Removal of color, odor, taste

Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology

Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology

HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR A PROTECTED WATER SUPPLY

QUANTITY OF WATER: It can be estimated by considering need for present

CHECK CALCULATION: After the above calculations are completed, designer

DISTANCE AND DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION: The designer should see

IMPOUNDING RESERVOIR: May only be provided if its provision at higher

Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology

METHODS OF PURIFICATION: The methods of purification of water for

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM: the water from the service reservoir is served to

ARRANGEMENT OF WATER SUPPLY (FLOW CHART OF WATER SUPPLY

Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology

DEMAND FOR WATER

Total annual volume (V) in liters or million liters.

Domestic water demand

Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology

AVERAGE DOMESTIC WATER CONSUMPTION IN A INDIAN CITY

INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL WATER DEMAND

Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology

DEMAND FOR PUBLIC USES (MUNICIPAL CONSUMPTION)

Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology

C) NATIONAL BOARD OF FIRE UNDERWRITERS FORMULA

= Per capita Demand in litres/day/head =

Civic or public use

Waste, theft. Etc

Size and type of city

PROBLEM ON RATE OF DEMAND

Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology

Avg. Demand on a maxm. Day

Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology

ASSESSMENT OF NORMAL VARIATIONS

When t= 1 day (For daily variations)

When t = 7 days (For weekly variations)

T = 30 days (For monthly variations)

ADD = design population Avg. per capita demand

MDD = 1`.8 Average daily demand

Maximum hourly demand of maximum day

Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology

Maximum daily draft

Maximum hourly demand of maximum day

= MDD + Fire draft

Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology

INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

By ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD

Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology

By GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD

The census record of a town is as follows

Workout the populationafter three decades by AIM, GIM, and IIM

By ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD

By GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD

Department of Civil Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology

By INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

By ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD

By GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD