569

9.11 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Next, we eliminate vn by substituting v1 into the inverting input KCL equation, as follows:
1
v n v1 v o
2
1
vo  2Vs vo
2
vo  Vs
Finally, we substitute the solutions for v1 and vn into the node 1 KCL equation, giving
R1 vn 2R1 R2 v1  R1 vo 0
R1 vo  Vs 2R1 R2 vo  2Vs  R1 vo 0
After simplification, we have
vo

3R1 2R2
Vs
R2

Example Problems 9.23 and 9.24 illustrate an op amp circuit that differentiates and integrates by using a capacitor.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 9.23

Find v0 for the following circuit.
iR

iC

+ vC

+
C
+
VS

vn

vp

v0

Solution
With the noninverting input connected to ground, we have vp 0 vn . From KVL
vC Vs
Continued

570

9. BIOINSTRUMENTATION

and it follows that

iC C

dvC
dVs
C
dt
dt

Since no current flows into the op amp, iC iR . With

iR

vn  vo
vo

R
R

and
iC C

dVs
vo
iR 
dt
R

we have
vo RC
If R

dVs
dt

1
dVs
.
, the circuit in this example differentiates the input, vo 
dt
C

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 9.24

Find v0 for the following circuit.
+ vC

iC

iR

+
VS

vn

Solution
It follows that
vn vp 0
and
iC iR

Vs
R

vp

v0

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9.11 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Therefore,
vC

1
C

Zt
iC dl

1

1
C

Zt
1

Vs
dl
R

From KVL, we have

vC vo 0
and
vo 
With R

1
RC

Zt
Vs dl
1

1
, the circuit operates as an integrator
C
Zt
Vs dl
vo 
1

9.11.1 Voltage Characteristics of the Op Amp

In the preceding examples involving the op amp, we did not consider the supply voltage
(shown in Figure 9.29) and that the output voltage of an ideal op amp is constrained to
operate between the supply voltages V and V. If analysis determines v0 is greater than
V, v0 saturates at V. If analysis determines v0 is less than V, v0 saturates at V. The output voltage characteristics are shown in Figure 9.32.
v0
V+

V+

FIGURE 9.32

Voltage characteristics of an op amp.

A (vp-vn)

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9. BIOINSTRUMENTATION

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 9.25

For the circuit shown in Example Problem 9.22, let V 10 V and V  10 V. Graph the
output voltage characteristics of the circuit.

Solution
The solution for Example Problem 9.22 is


3R1 2R2
Vs
vo
R2
which saturates whenever v0 is less than V and greater than V, as shown in the following
graph.
v0
V+
3R + 2R2
slope is 1
R2

VS

9.12 TIME-VARYING SIGNALS

An alternating current (a-c) or sinusoidal source of 50 or 60 Hz is common throughout
the world as a power source supplying energy for most equipment and other devices.
While most of this chapter has focused on the transient response, when dealing with sinusoidal sources, attention is now focused on the steady-state or forced response. In bioinstrumentation, analysis in the steady-state simplifies the design by focusing only on the steadystate response, which is where the device actually operates. A sinusoidal voltage source is a
time-varying signal given by
vs Vm cosot f

9:30

where the voltage is defined by angular frequency (o in radians/s), phase angle (f in

radians or degrees), and peak magnitude (Vm). The period of the sinusoid T is related to
frequency f (Hz or cycles/s) and angular frequency by
o 2Pf

2P
T

9:31